Module 1
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School of Aeronautical Engineering
Module 1 Mathematics
These notes are intended for training guidance only and are not to be used as an
authoritative document for use in the civil aviation industry. In all cases, reference
must always be made to the current documents for the most up to date information.
School of Aeronautical Engineering
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Section 1.1 Arithmetic 1.1.3 Decimals 34
The Decimal System 34
1.1.1 Arithmetic Terms and Signs 6 Multiplication and Division of Decimals 36
Some Definitions 6 Multiplication 36
Sequence of Arithmetical Operations 6 Division 37
Factors and Multiples 7 Long Multiplication 38
Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M) 7 Long Division 38
Highest Common Factor 9 Decimal Places 41
Power Numbers 10 Significant Figures 41
Sequences 12 Rough Checks for Calculations 43
Fraction to Decimal Conversion 44
1.1.2 Fractions 14 Conversion of Decimals to Fractions 47
Vulgar Fractions 14
Reducing a Fraction to its Lowest Terms 16 1.1.4 Formulae 50
Types of Fractions 18 Evaluating Formulae 50
Lowest Common Denominator 20 Transposing Simple Formulae 51
Addition of Fractions 21 Transposing Formulae (General) 54
Subtraction of Fractions 24
Combined Addition and Subtractions 25
Multiplication 26
Cancelling 28
Division of Fractions 29
Operations with Fractions 30
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1.1.5 Weights, Measures & Conversions 58 1.1.9 Areas 84
The International System of Units 58 Areas 84
SI Base Units 58
Factors of Multiples & Sub-Multiples 58 1.1.10 Volumes 92
Space & Time 58 Volumes 92
Mechanics 59 Units of Volume 92
Heat 59 Unit of Capacity 93
Expressing SI Units 59 Volume and Surface Areas 95
Conversion Factors
1.1.11 Squares & Square Roots 100
1.1.6 Ratio & Proportion 63 Squares of Numbers 100
Ratio 63 Numbers Outside Range 1 to 10 103
Proportional Parts 65 Square Roots 106
Direct Proportion 67 Cubed 111
Inverse Proportion 69 Cubed Roots 111
1.1.7 Averages 72
Averages 72
Average Speed 75
1.1.8 Percentages 78
Percentages 78
Percentage of a Quantity 80
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Section 1.2 Algebra Fractional Indices 144
Zero Index 144
1.2.1 Algebra 113
1.2.5 Logarithms 147
Introduction 113
Why use logarithms 147
Use of Symbol 113
Numbers in standard form 148
Substitution 114
Introduction to Logarithms 148
Powers 115
Numbers Outside range 1-10 150
Addition of Algebraic Terms 116
Parts of a Logarithm 150
Multiplication & Division… 117
Negative Characteristics 151
Brackets 121
Anti-logarithms 151
Addition & Subtraction of Fractions 123
Rules… Multiplication 153
1.2.2 Simultaneous Equations 128 Rules… Division 153
Introduction 128 Combining Multiplication and Division 154
Elimination Method in Solving… 128
1.2.6 Binary Systems 158
1.2.3 Graphs of Equation 134 Introduction 158
Introduction 134 Convert from Base 10 to Binary 159
Meaning of m & c … 136 Alternative Method… 160
Other Number Scales 162
1.2.4 Indices & Powers 143 Convert to any Base from Base 10 162
Laws of Indices 143 Alternative method 164
Multiplication 143 Octal 165
Powers 143 Hexadecimal 165
Negative Indices 143
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Section 1.3 Geometry 1.3.3 Trigonometrical Ratios
between 0o and 360o 202
1.3.1 Geometry 167 Introduction 202
Radian Measures 167 First Quadrant 203
Arc Length 167 Second Quadrant 204
Relation between Radians and Degrees 168 Third Quadrant 205
Types of Angles 170 Fourth Quadrant 206
Properties of Angles and Straight Lines 170 Summary 207
Graphical Representations 176
Use of Graphs 177 1.3.4 Polar Co-ordinates 211
Graphs of Sine and Cosine Waves 178 Converting from Cartesian Co-ordinates
Nomograms 179 to Polar Co-ordinates 211
Converting from Polar Co-ordinates
1.3.2 Trigonometry 181 to Cartesian Co-ordinates 213
The Notation for a Right-Angled Triangle 181
The Trigonometrical Ratios 181
The Sine of an Angle 182
Reading the Table of Sine Angles 183
The Cosine of an Angle 188
The Tangent of an Angle 192
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Section 1.1: Arithmetic 1. Brackets are used if there is any danger of
ambiguity. The contents of the bracket must be
Chapter 1.1.1: Arithmetic Terms & Signs evaluated before performing any other operation.
Some Definitions Thus:
The result obtained by adding numbers is called the 2 (7 + 4) = 2 11 = 22
sum. The sum of 4, 6 and 8 is 4 + 6 + 8 = 18. The 15 - (8 - 3) = 15 - 5 = 10
order in which numbers are added is not important:
4 + 6 + 8 = 6 + 4 + 8 = 8 + 4 + 6 = 18. 2. Multiplication and division must be done
before addition and subtraction.
The difference of two numbers is the larger number
minus the smaller number. The difference of 15 and Thus:
10 is 15 - 10 = 5. The order in which we subtract is 5 8 + 7 = 40 + 7 = 47 (not 5 15)
very important. 7 - 3 is not the same as 3 - 7. 8 ÷ 4 + 9 = 2 + 9 = 11 (not 8 ÷ 13)
The result obtained by multiplying numbers is called 5 4 - 12 ÷ 3 + 7 = 20 - 4 + 7 = 27 - 4 = 23
the product. The product of 8 and 7 is 8 7 = 56.
So far we have used the standard operations of add,
The order in which we multiply is not important.
subtract, multiply and divide.
8 7 = 7 8, and
These can be remembered using the acronym:
1 4 6 = 4 3 6 = 6 3 4 = 72.
BODMAS
Sequence of Arithmetical Operations Brackets Over Division/Multiplication
Numbers are often combined in a series of Addition/Subtraction
arithmetical operations. When this happens a definite
sequence must be observed.
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Exercise 1 - Questions 1-4 Level 1; 5–10 Level 2 Factors and Multiples
Find values for the following:
If one number divides exactly into a second number
1. 3 + 5 2 the first number is said to be a factor of the second.
Thus:
2. 3 6 - 8
35 = 5 7 … 5 is a factor of 35 and so is 7
3. 7 5 - 2 + 4 6 240 = 3 8 10 … 3, 8 and 10 are all factors of 240.
4. 8 ÷ 2 + 3 63 = 3 21 = 7 9 …63 is said to be a multiple of
any of the numbers 3, 7, 9
and 21 because each of them
5. 7 5 - 12 ÷ 4 + 3 divides exactly into 63.
6. 11 - 9 ÷ 3+7 Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M.)
The L.C.M. of a set of numbers is the smallest
7. 3 (8 + 6) number into which each of the given numbers will
divide. Thus the L.C.M. of 3, 4 and 8 is 24 because
8. 2 + 8 (3 + 6) 24 is the smallest number into which the numbers 3,
4 and 8 will divide exactly.
9. 17 - 2 (5 - 3)
The L.C.M. of a set of numbers can usually be found
by inspection.
10. 11 - 12 ÷ 4 + 3 (6 - 2)
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If the L.C.M. cannot be found by inspection then the 2, 3, 7 are prime factors of 42
following method is used.
2, 2, 2, 2, 3 are prime factors of 48. Note we can
Suppose we want to find the L.C.M. of 42 and 48. have repeated prime factors.
First of all we need to find the prime factors of each
number. A prime factor is a prime number that is a To find the L.C.M. of 42 and 48, we need to consider
factor of the number you are trying to factorise. the prime factors from each of the numbers.
Consider the number 42 start with the smallest prime From the number 42 we have the prime factors 2, 3,
number that will divide into 42. This is 2, 2 divides 7. Now consider the number 48, the factors are 2, 2,
into 42, 21 times. The next smallest prime number 2, 2, 3. We already have one 2 and one 3 from the
that will divide into 21 is 3, 3 divides into 21, 7 times. factors of 42. The factors that we do NOT have from
7 is a prime number. Similarly find the prime factors the factors of 42 are 2, 2, 2. The L.C.M. of the
of 48. The process for the numbers 42 and 48 is numbers 42 and 48 are 2, 3, 7 from 42 and 2, 2, 2
shown below: from 48. Thus the L.C.M. of 42 and 48 is:
2 x 2 x 3 x 7 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 336.
It doesn’t matter which number the prime factors
come from, for instance we could have taken 2, 2, 2,
2, 3 from 48 and 7 from 42, thus:
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 7 = 336.
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Example 1 The method of factorisation can be used to find the
H.C.F. Consider the numbers 24, 36 and 60. These
Find the Lowest Common Multiple of 30, 27 and 42. can be factorised as shown below:
To find the L.C.M. of 30, 27 and 42 take
2, 3, 5 from 30, 3, 3 from 27 and 7 from 42.Thus the You can see that the factors 2, 2, 3 are present in ALL
L.C.M. is: three numbers. Thus the H.C.F. of 24, 36 and 60 is:
2 x 3 x 5 x 3 x 3 x 7 = 1890 2 x 2 x 3 = 12.
Highest Common Factor (H.C.F)
The H.C.F. of a set of numbers is the greatest
number which is a factor of each of the numbers.
Thus 12 is the H.C.F. of 24, 36 and 60. Also 20 is the
H.C.F. of 40, 60 and 80.
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Example 2
Find the Highest Common Factor of 108, 36 and 78.
The factors 2 and 3 are common to all three numbers. INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Thus the H.C.F. of 108, 36 and 78 is 2 x 3 = 6.
Power Numbers
The quantity 2 2 2 2 is written 24 and is called
the fourth power of 2. The figure 4, which gives the
number of 2's to be multiplied together, is called the
index (plural: indices).
55 = 5 5 5 5 5 = 15625
73 = 7 7 7 = 343
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Exercise 2 - Level 2 e) 2, 8 and 10 f) 20 and 25
1. What numbers are factors of: g) 20 and 32 h) 10, 15 and 40
a) 24 b) 56 c) 42 i) 12, 42, 60 and 70 j) 18, 30, 42 and 48
2. Which of the following numbers are factors of 12: 6. Find the values of:
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 18 and 24? a) 25 b) 34 c) 53
Which of them are multiples of 6? d) 62 e) 83
3. Write down all the multiples of 3 between 10 and 7. Find the H.C.F. of each of the following sets of
40. numbers:
4. Write down the two prime numbers next larger
than 19. a) 8 and 12 b) 24 and 36
5. Find the L.C.M. of the following set of numbers: c) 10, 15 and 30 d) 26, 39 and 52
a) 8 and 12 b) 3, 4 and 5 e) 18, 30, 12 and 42 f) 28, 42, 84, 98 and 112
c) 2, 6 and 12 d) 3, 6 and 8
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Sequences Exercise 3 - Level 1
A set of numbers, which are connected by some Write down the next two terms of each of the
definite law, is called a series or a sequence of following series of numbers:
numbers. Each of the numbers in the series is called 1. 3, 12, 48, …
a term of the series. Here are some examples:
1, 3, 5, 7 … (each term is obtained by adding 2 to 2. 1, 4, 7, 10, …
the previous term)
2, 6, 18, 54 … (each term is obtained by multiplying 3. 5, 11, 17, 23, …
the previous term by 3)
4. 162, 54, 18, …
Example 3
Write down the next two terms of the following series: 5. 6, 12, 24
112, 56, 28, …
The second term is found by dividing the first term by
2 and the third term is found by dividing the second
term by 2. Hence:
28
Fourth term = = 14
2 2,3l
14
Fifth term = =7
2
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Answers 6. a) 32 b) 81 c) 125 d) 36 e) 512
Exercise 1 7. a) 4 b) 12 c) 5 d) 13 e) 6
1. 13 2. 10 3. 57 4. 7 5. 35 f) 14
6. 15 7. 42 8. 74 9. 13 10. 20 Exercise 3
Exercise 2 1. 192, 768
1a) 24, 12, 8, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1 2. 13, 16
1b) 56, 28, 14, 8, 7, 4, 2, 1 3. 29, 35
1c) 42, 21, 14, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1 4. 6, 2
2. Factors of 12 are 12, 6, 4, 3, 2 5. 48, 96
Multiples of 6 are 6, 12, 18, 24
3. 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39
4. 23, 29
5. a) 24 b) 60 c) 12 d) 24 e) 40
f) 100 g) 160 h) 120 i) 420 j) 5040
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Chapter 1.1.2: Fractions If five of the eight equal parts are taken then we have
5
Vulgar Fractions taken of the circle.
8
A vulgar fraction (or common fraction) is a rational
number written as one integer divided by a non-zero
integer:
integer
Vulgar fraction = .
non zero integer
The circle in the diagram below has been divided into
eight equal parts. Each part is called one-eighth of
1
the circle and written as . The number 8 below the
8
line shows how many equal parts there are and it is
From what has been said above we see that a fraction
called the denominator. The number above the line
is always a part of something. The number below the
shows how many of the equal parts are taken and it is
line (the denominator) gives the fraction its name
called the numerator:
and tells us the number of equal parts into which the
numerator whole has been divided. The top number (the
Vulgar fraction = .
denominator numerator) tells us the number of these equal parts
3
that are to be taken. For example the fraction
4
means that the whole has been divided into four equal
parts and that three of these parts are to be taken.
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The value of a fraction is unchanged if we Example 4
multiply or divide both its numerator and 2
denominator by the same amount. Write down the fraction with a denominator
7
(bottom number) of 28.
3 12
= (by multiplying the numerator (top
5 20 In order to make the denominator (bottom number)
number) and denominator (bottom 28, we must multiply the original denominator of 7 by
number) by 4). 4 because 7 4 = 28. Remembering that to leave the
value of the fraction unchanged we must multiply
2 10 both numerator (top number) and denominator
= (by multiplying the numerator and
7 35 (bottom number) by the same amount, then:
denominator by 5).
2 24 8
12 3 = =
7 74 28
= (by dividing the numerator and
32 8
denominator by 4).
16 1
= (by dividing the numerator and
64 4
denominator by 16).
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Exercise 4 - Level 1 Reducing a Fraction to its Lowest Terms
Write down the following fractions with the 3 7 3
Fractions like , and are said to be in their
denominator (bottom number) stated. 8 16 52
lowest terms because it is impossible to find a
3 number which will divide exactly into both top and
1. with denominator 28
4 9 8
bottom numbers. However, fractions like , and
18 12
3
2. with denominator 20 21
5 are not in their lowest terms because they can be
24
5 reduced further by dividing both the top and bottom
3. with denominator 30
6 numbers by some number which divides exactly into
1 both of them. Thus,
4. with denominator 63
9
9 1
2 = (by dividing both top and bottom by 9)
18 2
5. with denominator 12
3
8 2
1 = (by dividing both top and bottom by 4)
6. with denominator 24 12 3
6
3 21 7
7. with denominator 64 = (by dividing both top and bottom by 3)
8 24 8
5 Sometimes we can divide the top and bottom by the
8. with denominator 35 same number several times.
7
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Example 5
210
Reduce to its lowest terms.
336
210 105
= (by dividing top and bottom by 2)
336 168
35
= (by dividing top and bottom by 3) 210 2x3x5x7 5
56 Hence: = =
336 2x2x2x2x3x7 8
5
= (by dividing top and bottom by 7) Exercise 5
8
Questions 1 - 5 level 1, Questions 6 - 9 level 2.
210 5
Hence; reduced to its lowest terms is . Reduce the following fractions to their lowest terms:
336 8
8 9 8 15
Rather than trying to divide the top and bottom 1. 2. 3. 4.
16 15 64 25
number by the same number, we can factorise the
number using the same method as described before,
thus: 42 180 210 126
5. 6. 7. 8.
48 240 294 245
132 210
9. 10.
198 315
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Types of Fractions In order to convert a top heavy fraction into a mixed
number it must be remembered that:
If the top number of a fraction is less than its bottom
number the fraction is called a proper fraction. top number
= top number ÷ bottom number
2 5 3 bottom number
Thus: , and are all proper fractions.
3 8 4
Example 6
Note that a proper fraction has a value which is
less than 1. 15
Express as a mixed number.
If the top number of a fraction is greater than its 8
bottom number then the fraction is called an 15 7
improper fraction or a top heavy fraction. = 1 (Because 15 ÷ 8 = 1 and remainder 7).
8 8
5 3 9
Thus: , and are all top heavy, or improper
4 2 7 From Example 3 we see that we convert a top heavy
fractions. fraction into a mixed number by dividing the
bottom number into the top number. Notice that the
Note that all top heavy fractions have a value remainder becomes the top number in the fractional
which is greater than 1. part of the mixed number.
Every top heavy fraction can be expressed as a
whole number and a proper fraction. These are
sometimes called mixed numbers.
1 1 3
Thus: 1 , 5 and 9 are all mixed numbers.
2 3 4
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To change a mixed number into an improper Express each of the following as top heavy fractions:
fraction we multiply the whole number by the bottom
number of the fractional part. To this we add the 3 1 2
6. 2 7. 5 8. 8
numerator of the fractional part and this sum then 8 10 3
becomes the top number of the improper fraction. Its
bottom number is the same as the bottom number of 7 3
the fractional part of the mixed number. 9. 6 10. 4
20 7
Example 7 Remember (L.C.M.)
5 The L.C.M. of a set of numbers is the smallest
Express 3 as a top heavy fraction.
8 number into which each of the given numbers will
5 (8 3) + 5 24 + 5 29 divide. Thus, the L.C.M. of 4, 5 and 10 is 20 because
3 = = = 20 is the smallest number into which the number 4, 5
8 8 8 8
and 10 will divide exactly.
Exercise 6
The L.C.M. of a set of numbers can usually be found
Express each of the following as a mixed number: by inspection. If not, the alternative method shown in
Example 1.
7 8 22
1. 2. 3.
2 4 10
12 21
4. 5.
11 8
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Exercise 7 (Revision) Example 8
Question 1-7 Level 1, Questions 8 – 10 Level 2 3 5 7 11
Arrange the fractions , , and in order of
4 8 10 20
Find the L.C.M. of the following set of numbers: size starting with the smallest.
1. 4 and 6 2. 2, 6 and 10
The lowest common denominator of 4, 8, 10 and 20 is
3. 2, 4 and 12 4. 3, 4 and 8 40. Expressing each of the given fractions with a
bottom number of 40 gives:
5. 4, 8 and 10 6. 20 and 25
3 3 10 30
7. 10 and 32 8. 5, 15 and 40 = =
4 4 10 40
9. 6, 42, 60 and 70 10. 18, 15, 42 and 48
5 55 25
= =
Lowest Common Denominator 8 85 40
When we wish to compare the values of two or more 7 74 28
= =
fractions the easiest way is to express the fractions 10 10 4 40
with the same bottom number. This common
denominator should be the L.C.M. of the 11 11 2 22
denominators of the fractions to be compared and it is = =
20 20 2 40
called the lowest common denominator.
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Therefore the order is: Addition of Fractions
22 25 28 30 11 5 7 3 The steps when adding fractions are as follows:
, , , or , , and
40 40 40 40 20 8 10 4 1. Find the lowest common denominator of the
fractions to be added.
Exercise 8 - All level 1
2. Express each of the fractions with this common
denominator.
Arrange the following sets of fractions in order of size,
beginning with the smallest: 3. Add the numerators of the new fractions to give
the numerator of the answer. The denominator of
1 5 2 7 9 3 6 7 the answer is the lowest common denominator
1. 2. found in (1).
2 6 3 12 10 4 7 8
13 11 7 3 3 5 3 13
3. 4.
16 20 10 5 4 8 5 20
11 7 9 3 3 4 5 2
5. 6.
16 10 14 4 8 7 9 5
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Example 9 Example 10
3 2 7
2 3 Simplify + + .
Find the sum of and . 4 3 10
7 4
First find the lowest common denominator (this is the The L.C.M. of the bottom numbers 4, 3 and 10 is 60.
L.C.M. of 7 and 4). Thus:
2 3 3 2 7 3 15 + 2 20 + 7 6
It is 28. Now express and with a bottom + + =
7 4 4 3 10 60
number of 28:
45 + 40 + 42 127 7
2 24 8 3 37 21 = = =2 .
= = = = 60 60 60
7 74 28 4 47 28
Adding the top numbers of the new fractions:
2 3 8 21 29 1
+ = + = =1
7 4 28 28 28 28
A better way of setting out the work is as follows:
3 2 7 3 15 + 2 20 + 7 6
+ + =
4 3 10 60
45 + 40 + 42 127 7
= = =2
60 60 60
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Example 11 Exercise 9 – All Level 1
1 2 2
Add together 5 , 2 and 3 . Add together:
2 3 5
First add the whole numbers together, 5 + 2 + 3 =10. 1 1 2 9 3 3
1. + 2. + 3. +
2 3 5 10 4 8
Then add the fractional parts in the usual way. The
L.C.M. of 2, 3 and 5 is 30. Hence: 3 1 1 3 7 1 2 3
4. + 5. + + 6. + +
10 4 2 4 8 8 3 5
1 2 2 15 1 + 10 2 + 6 2
5 + 2 + 3 = 10 +
2 3 5 30
3 9 2 3
7. 1 +3 8. 7 + 6
8 16 3 5
15 + 20 + 12
= 10 +
30
3 2 3 1 5 1
9. 3 +5 +4 10. 4 + 3 + 2
8 7 4 2 6 3
47 17
= 10 + = 10 + 1
30 30
3 3 7 5 2 2 3 1
11. 7 + 2 + + 12. 7 + + +2
8 4 8 16 3 5 10 2
17
= 11
30
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Subtraction of Fractions heavy fraction, this is because we may need “part” of
the whole number in the subtraction process.
The method is similar to that in addition. Find the
common denominator of the fractions and after Example 13
expressing each fraction with this common
denominator, subtract. 7 3
Simplify 3 - 2
10 4
Example 12
7 3 37 11 37 2 - 11 5
5 2 3 -2 = - =
10 4 10 4 20
Simplify -
8 5
74 - 55 19
The L.C.M. of the bottom numbers is 40. = =
20 20
5 2 55-82 25 - 16 9 Example 14
- = = =
8 5 40 40 40
2 7
When mixed numbers have to be subtracted the best Simplify 5 - 3
5 8
way is to turn the mixed numbers into top heavy
fractions and then proceed in the way shown in 2 7 27 31 27 8 - 31 5
Example 12. 5 -3 = - =
5 8 5 8 40
Note: When adding mixed numbers we added the 216 - 155 61 21
whole numbers and then the fractional part. When = = = 1
40 40 40
subtracting we turn each mixed number into a top
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Exercise 10 – All Level 1 Combined Addition and Subtraction
Simplify the following:
Example 15
1 1 1 1 2 1
1. - 2. - 3. - 3 1 1 7
2 3 3 5 3 2 Simplify 5 - 1 + 2 -
8 4 2 16
7 3 7 5 1 3
4. - 5. - 6. 3 - 2 3 1 1 7 43 5 5 7
8 8 8 6 4 8 5 -1 +2 - = - + -
8 4 2 16 8 4 2 16
5 4 3 9
7. 3- 8. 5-3 9. 5 - 2 43 2 - 5 4 + 5 8 - 7 1
7 5 8 10 =
16
7 9 5 4
10. 4 -3 11. 1 - 86 - 20 + 40 - 7
32 10 16 5 =
16
(86 + 40) - (20 + 7)
=
16
126 - 27 99 3
= = = 6
16 16 16
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Exercise 11 - All level 2 Multiplication
Simplify the following:
When multiplying together two or more fractions we
1 1 3 1 1 1 first multiply all the top numbers together and then
1. 2 +3 -4 2. 5 -3 -1
2 4 8 10 2 4 we multiply all the bottom numbers together. Mixed
numbers must always be converted into top heavy
3 1 1 1 1 3 fractions.
3. 4 -2 +5 4. 6 -3 +2 -4
8 2 2 6 12 4
Example 16
3 2 3 5
5. 1 -2 +3 +5
16 5 4 8 5 3
Simplify
8 7
7 1 3 1
6. 12 -5 +3 +1
10 8 20 2 5 3 53 15
= =
8 7 87 56
3 3 5 3
7. 2 -2 + +1
16 10 8 4
Example 17
3 7 21 13
8. 12 - 6 + 5 -2 2 2
4 8 32 16 Simplify 3
5 3
9 3 7 3
9. 3 +1 -2 +1 2 2 2 11 2 11 22 7
20 8 10 4 3 1
5 3 5 3 53 15 15
9 4 7 3
10. 2 +3 -2 -
25 5 10 20
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Example 18 Exercise 12 – All Level 1
3 1 Simplify the following:
Simplify 1 1
8 4
2 4 3 5 2 2
3 1 11 5 11 5 55 23 1. 2. 3. 1
1 1 = = = = 1 3 5 4 7 9 3
8 4 8 4 84 32 32
5 11 2 1 1 2
4. 5. 1 3 6. 2 2
Note the difference between multiplying and 9 4 5 2 2 3
adding fractions.
2 2 7 4
7. 1 1 8. 1 1
3 1 9 5 8 7
Simplify 1 + 1
8 4
If the fractions have to be added or subtracted, the
lowest Common Denominator (L.C.D.) must be found,
which is 8, in the example shown above. Then the
numerator of each fraction must be adjusted
accordingly. Thus:
3 1 11 5 11 x 1 5x2 21 5
1 +1 = + = + = = 2
8 4 8 4 8x1 82 8 8
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Cancelling see that we have divided the top numbers and the
bottom numbers by the same amount.
Example 19
Notice carefully that we can only cancel between
a top number and a bottom number.
2 7
Simplify 1
3 8 Example 20
2 7 2 15 2 15 30 5 1 16 7 35
1 = = = = = 1 Simplify
3 8 3 8 38 24 4 4 20 8 4
30
1 6 21 7 3 5 7 1 7 7 49 9
The step to reduce to its lowest terms has been 4
24
2 5 5 8 1 2
4 5 1 2 10 10
done by dividing 6 into both the top and bottom
numbers.
Sometimes in calculations with fractions the word 'of'
appears. It should always be taken as meaning
The work can be made easier by cancelling before
multiply. Thus:
multiplication as shown below.
1 5 4 4 20 / 4 44 16
2
/ 15
/ 1 5 5 1 of 20 = = = = 16
= = = 1 5 5
/1 1 11 1
3
/1 8/4 1 4 4 4
We have divided 2 into 2 (a top number) and 8
(a bottom number) and also we have divided 3 into
15 (a top number) and 3 (a bottom number). You will
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Exercise 13 – All level 1 Example 21
Solve the following: 4 1
Divide 1 by 2
5 3
3 7 1 10 5 7
1. 1 2. 5 3. 1
4 9 5 13 8 26
4 1 9 7 9 3 27
1 ÷ 2 = ÷ = =
5 3 5 3 5 7 35
1 2 1 5 7 2
4. 1 2 5.
2 5 2 8 10 21
Exercise 14 – All level 1
1 1 3 3 1 Solve the following:
6. 2 1 1 7. 3 1 1
2 3 4 5 8 4 1 1 5 15
1. ÷1 2. 2÷ 3. ÷
5 3 4 8 32
15 8 1 3
8. 24 9. of 16
32 11 5 4 3 1 1 3 1
4. 3 ÷2 5. 2 ÷3 6. 5÷5
4 2 2 4 5
5 2 1 4 1
10. of 140 11. of 4 12. of 2
7 3 2 5 2 1 5 3 3
7. 3 ÷2 8. 2 ÷
15 9 10 5
Division of Fractions
To divide by a fraction, all we have to do is to invert
it (i.e. turn it upside down) and multiply. Thus:
3 2 3 7 37 21 1
÷ = = = = 2
5 7 5 2 52 10 10
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Operations with Fractions Example 23
The sequence of operations when dealing with 4 1
2 + 1
fractions is the same as those used with whole 5 4 5
Simplify - .
numbers. They are, in order: 3 16
3
5
1st. Work out brackets.
2nd Multiply and divide. With problems of this kind it is best to work in stages
3rd Add and subtract. as shown below.
Example 22 4 1 16 + 5 21 1
2 +1 = 3 = 3 = 4
5 4 20 20 20
1 1 1
Simplify: ÷ ÷
5 3 2 1
4
20 81 18 81 5 9
1 1 1 1 1 2 = ÷ = =
3 20 5 20 18 8
÷ ÷ = ÷ 3
5 3 2 5 3 1 5
1 2 1 3 3 9 5 18 - 5 13
= ÷ = = - = =
5 3 5 2 10 8 16 16 16
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Exercise 15 - All level 2
Solve the following:
3 1 7 1 1 9
1. 3 ÷ 1 2. ÷
14 49 10 4 8 10
2 3 9 7 2 2
3. 1 ÷ ÷ 4. 1 2 - 3
3 5 10 8 5 3
2 1
2 +1
3 5 2 2 4
5. 6. 3 ÷ +
4 3 3 5
5
5
3 1 2
5 -3
5 2 3 2 2 1 1
7. 8. - +
1 5 3 4 2
2
3
9 4 5 7
3 -
16 9 9 15
9. 10.
1 1 5 7
2+6 1 1-
4 5 9 15
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Answers Exercise 7 (Revision)
1. 12 2. 30 3. 12 4. 24
Exercise 4
5. 40 6. 100 7. 160 8. 120
21 12 25 7 9. 420 10. 5040
1. 2. 3. 4.
28 20 30 63
8 4 24 25 Exercise 8
5. 6. 7. 8.
12 24 64 35 1 7 2 5 3 6 7 9
1. 2.
Exercise 5 2 12 3 6 4 7 8 10
1 3 1 3 11 3 7 13 3 5 13 3
1. 2. 3. 4. 3. 4.
2 5 8 5 20 5 10 16 5 8 20 4
7 3 5 18 9 11 7 3 3 2 5 4
5. 6. 7. 8. 5. 6.
8 4 7 35 14 16 10 4 8 5 9 7
2 2
9. 10. Exercise 9
3 3
Exercise 6
5 3 1 11
1 1 1 1. 2. 1 3. 1 4.
1. 3 2. 2 3. 2 4. 1 6 10 8 20
2 5 11
5 19 51 26 1 47 15 4
5. 2 6. 7. 8. 5. 2 6. 1 7. 4 8. 14
8 8 10 3 8 120 16 15
127 31 23 2 5 13
9. 10. 9. 13 10. 10 11. 11 12. 10
20 7 56 3 16 15
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Exercise 10 Exercise 13
1 7 1 1
1. 1 2. 4 3. 4. 1 5. 24 6. 4
1 2 1 1 3 16 2
1. 2. 3. 4.
6 15 6 2
3 1
7. 6 8. 8 9. 12 10. 100 11. 3 12. 2
1 7 2 1 4 4
5. 6. 7. 2 8. 1
24 8 7 5
19 51 41 Exercise 14
9. 2 10. 11.
40 160 80
3 1 1 2
1. 2. 8 3. 1 4. 1 5.
Exercise 11 5 3 2 3
3 7 7 2 25 1 5
1. 1 2. 3. 6 4. 6. 7. 1 8. 36
8 20 8 3 26 5
13 9 21 23 Exercise 15
5. 8 6. 12 7. 2 8. 832
80 40 80
1 2 1 5 2 1
7 31 1. 42 2. 2 3. 22 4. 5. 6. 22
9. 38 10. 3 6 3
100 9
Exercise 12 2 2 1 3
7. 1 8. 9. 10.
5 3 6 25
8 15 10 19
1. 2. 3. 4. 1
15 28 27 36
9 2 32 53
5. 4 6. 6 7. 1 8. 2
10 3 45 56
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Chapter 1.1.3: Decimals Decimals then are fractions, which have
denominators of 10, 100, 1000 and so on, according
The Decimal System to the position of the figure after the decimal point.
If we have to write six hundred and five we write 605;
The decimal system is an extension of our ordinary the zero keeps the place for the missing tens.
number system. When we write the number 666 we 3 5
mean 600 + 60 + 6. Reading from left to right each Similarly if we want to write + we write .305;
10 1000
figure 6 is ten times the value of the next one. the zero keeps the place for the missing hundredths.
We now have to decide how to deal with fractional 3 0 5
quantities, that is, quantities whose values are less Hence .305 = + +
10 100 1000
than one. If we regard 666.666 as meaning,
6 7
6 6 6 Also + would be written .067; the zero in
600 + 60 + 6 + + + 100 1000
10 100 1000
this case keeps the place for the missing tenths.
then the dot, called the decimal point, separates the
whole numbers from the fractional parts. Notice that When there are no whole numbers it is usual to insert
with the fractional, or decimal parts, e.g. .666, each a zero in front of the decimal point so that, for
figure 6 is ten times the value of the following one, instance, .35 would be written 0.35.
6
reading from left to right. Thus is ten times as
10
6 6 6
great as , and is ten times as great as
100 100 1000
, and so on.
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Exercise 16 - All level 1 Exercise 17 - All level 1
Read off as decimals: Write down the values of:
7 3 7 5 8 9 1. 2.375 + 0.625
1. 2. + 3. + +
10 10 100 10 100 1000
2. 4.25 + 7.25
9 3 1 7
4. 5. 6. + 3. 3.196 + 2.475 + 18.369
1000 100 100 1000
6 2 9 4. 38.267 + 0.049 + 20.3
7. 8+ 8. 24 + +
100 100 10 000
5. 27.418 + 0.967 + 25 + 1.467
8
9. 50 + 6. 12.48 - 8.36
1000
7. 19.215 - 3.599
8. 2.237 - 1.898
9. 0.876 - 0.064
10. 5.48 - 0.0691
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Multiplication & Division of Decimals
Multiplication In both of the above examples you will notice that the
figures have not been changed by the
One of the advantages of decimals is the ease with
multiplication; only the positions of the figures have
which they may be multiplied or divided by 10, 100,
been changed.
100, etc.
Thus in Example 24, 1.4 10 = 14, that is the
Example 24
decimal point has been moved one place to the
Find the value of 1.4 10. right.
1.4 10 = 1 10 + 0.4 10
4 In example 25, 27.532 10 = 275.32; again the
= 10 + 10 = 10 + 4 = 14
10 decimal point has been moved one place to the
right.
Example 25
Find the value of 27.532 10. To multiply by 10, then, is the same as shifting
the decimal point one place to the right. In the
27.532 10
same way to multiply by 100 means shifting the
= 27 10 + 0.5 10 + 0.03 10 + 0.002 10 decimal point two places to the right and so on.
5 3 2
= 270 + 10 + 10 + 10 Example 26
10 100 1000
17.369 100 = 1736.9
3 2
= 270 + 5 + + The decimal point has been moved two places to the
10 100
right.
= 275.32
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Example 27 9.432 ÷ 100 = 0.09432
0.07895 1000 = 78.95
The decimal point has been moved two places to the
left.
The decimal point has been moved three places to the
35. ÷ 1000 = 0.035
right.
The decimal point has been moved three places to the
Exercise 18 - All level 1
left.
Multiply each of the numbers in questions 1 to 6 by
10, 100 and 1000. In the above examples note carefully that use has
1. 4.1 2. 2.42 3. 0.046 been made of zeros following the decimal point to
keep the places for the missing tenths.
4. 0.35 5. 0.1486 6. 0.001753
7. 0.4853 100 8. 0.009 1000 Exercise 19
9. 170.06 10 10. 0.56396 10000 Divide each of the numbers in questions 1 to 5 by 10,
100 and 1000.
Division 1. 3.6 2. 64.198
When dividing by 10 the decimal point is moved one 3. 0.07 4. 510.4
place to the left, by 100, two places to the left and so
on. Thus: 5. 0.352 6. 5.4 ÷ 100
154.26 ÷ 10 = 15.426 7. 2.05 ÷ 1000 8. 0.04 ÷ 10
9. 0.0086 ÷ 1000 10. 627.428 ÷ 10000
The decimal point has been moved one place to the
left.
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Long Multiplication Exercise 20 - All level 1
Example 28 Find the values of the following:
Find the value of 36.5 3.504.
1. 25.42 29.23 2. 0.3618 2.63
First disregard the decimal points and multiply 365 by
3504. 3. 0.76 0.38 4. 3.025 2.45
365
5. 0.043 0.032
3504
1095000 Long Division
182500
1460 Example 29
1278960 Find the value of 19.24 ÷ 2.6.
Now count up the total number of figures following First convert the divisor (2.6) into a whole number
the decimal points in both numbers (i.e. 1 + 3 = 4). by multiplying it by 10. To compensate, also multiply
In the answer to the multiplication (the product), the dividend (19.24) by 10 so that we now have
count this total number of figures from the right and 192.4 ÷ 26.
insert the decimal point. The product is then
127.8960 or 127.896 since the zero does not mean
anything.
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Now proceed as in ordinary division. Note the dividend is 192.4 and the divisor is 26.
26)192.4(7.4
182 - 26 7 = 182; 192 – 182 = 10 Since 4 lies to the right of the decimal point, insert a
10 4 - 4 is brought down from above. decimal point in the answer “7.”
10 4 - 26 4 = 104; 104 – 104 = 0 26 goes into 104 exactly 4 times thus the answer is
7.4.
0
Notice carefully how the decimal point was obtained.
The 4 brought down from the dividend lies to the
right of the decimal point. Before bringing this down
put a decimal point immediately following the 7. Now let us see what happens when there is a
remainder.
The division in this case is exact (i.e. there is no
remainder) and the answer is 7.4. Example 30
Find the value of 15.187 ÷ 3.57.
As before make the divisor into a whole number by
multiplying it by 100 so that it becomes 357. To
compensate multiply the dividend also by 100 so
that it becomes 1518.7.
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Now divide 1518.7 ÷ 357 Note the dividend is 1518.7 and the divisor is 357.
357)1518.7(4.25406
1428 357 4 = 1428 How many times does 357 go into 1518? 4
90 1518 – 1428 = 90 Since the 7 lies to the right of the decimal
907 Bring down the 7 from the dividend point in the dividend we must insert the
decimal point in the answer 4.
714 2 x 357 = 714 357 goes into 907, 2 times. 4.2
193 907 – 714 = 193 All the figures from the dividend have been
1930 Bring down a zero. used up, hence bring down a zero.
1785 5 x 357 =1785 357 goes into 1930, 5 times. 4.25
145 1930 – 1785 = 145
1450 Bring down another 0. 357 goes into 1450, 4 times. 4.254
1428 357 x 4 = 1428
22 1450 – 1428 = 22
2200 The divisor will not go into 220 so 357 goes into 220, 0 times. 4.2540
bring down another zero.
2142 357 x 6 = 2142 357 goes into 2200, 6 times. 4.25406
58 2200 – 2142 = 58. The next decimal place is 1.
The answer to 5 decimal places is 4.25406. This is not the correct answer because there is a remainder. The division
can be continued in the way shown to give as many decimal places as desired, or until there is no remainder.
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Decimal Places If an answer is required correct to 3 decimal places
the division should be continued to 4 decimal places
It is important to realise what is meant by an answer
and the answer correct to 3 decimal places.
given to so many decimal places. It is the number of
figures which follow the decimal point which give the
Exercise 21- All level 2
number of decimal places. If the first figure to be
discarded is 5 or more then the previous figure is Find the values of the following:
increased by 1.
1. 18.89 14.2 correct to 2 decimal places
Thus: 2. 0.036 2.51 correct to 3 decimal places
85.7684 = 85.8 correct to 1 decimal place 3. 7.21 0.038 correct to 2 decimal places
= 85.77 correct to 2 decimal places 4. 13.059 3.18 correct to 4 decimal places
5. 0.1383 0.0032 correct to 1 decimal places
= 85.768 correct to 3 decimal places
Notice carefully that zero must be kept:
Significant Figures
0.007362 = 0.007 correct to 3 decimal places Instead of using the number of decimal places to
express the accuracy of an answer, significant figures
= 0.01 correct to 2 decimal places can be used. The number 39.38 is correct to 2
decimal places but it is also correct to 4 significant
7.601 = 7.60 correct to 2 decimal places figures since the number contains four figures.
= 7.6 correct to 1 decimal place.
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If the first figure to be discarded is 5 or more the Exercise 22 - All level 2
previous figure is increased by 1. Write down the following numbers correct to the
number of significant figures stated:
8.1925 = 8.193 correct to 4 significant figures.
1. 24.86582 (i) to 6 (ii) to 4 (iii) to 2
= 8.19 correct to 3 significant figures.
2. 0.0083571 (i) to 4 (ii) to 3 (iii) to 2
= 8.2 correct to 2 significant figures.
3. 4.97848 (i) to 5 (ii) to 3 (iii) to 1
Zeros must be kept to show the position of the
decimal point, or to indicate that the zero is a 4. 21.987 to 2
significant figure.
5. 35.603 to 4
24392 = 24390 correct to 4 significant figures.
6. 28387617 (i) to 5 (ii) to 2
= 24400 correct to 3 significant figures.
7. 4.14976 (i) to 5 (ii) to 4 (iii) to 3
0.0858 = 0.086 correct to 2 significant figures.
8. 9.2048 to 3
425.804 = 425.80 correct to 5 significant figures.
= 426 correct to 3 significant figures.
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Rough Checks for Calculation 2. 173.3 ÷ 27.8.
The worst mistake that can be made in a calculation is
For a rough check we will take 180 ÷ 30.
that of misplacing the decimal point. To place it
wrongly, even by one place, makes the answer ten
Answer roughly = 6
times too large or ten times too small. To prevent
this occurring it is always worth while doing a rough
Correct answer = 6.23.
check by using approximate numbers. When doing
these rough checks always try to select numbers
which are easy to multiply or which will cancel. 8.198 19.56 30.82 0.198
3. .
6.52 3.58 0.823
Example 31
1. 0.23 0.56 8 20 30 0.2
Answer roughly = = 40.
6 4 1
For a rough check we will take 0.2 0.6.
Correct answer = 50.94
Product roughly = 0.2 0.6 = 0.12.
Although there is a big difference between the rough
Correct product = 0.1288. answer and the correct answer, the rough check
shows that the answer 50.94 and not 509.4.
The rough check of 0.12, shows that the answer is
0.1288 not 1.288 or 0.01288.
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Exercise 23 – All level 1 Example 32
Estimate the values of the following: 27
Convert to decimals.
1. 223.6 0.004 8 2. 32.7 0.259 32
27
3. 0.682 0.097 2.38 4. 78.41 ÷ 23.78 = 27 ÷ 32
32
5. 0.059 ÷ 0.002 68 6. 33.2 29.6 0.031
32)27.0(0.84375
0.728 0.006 25 27.5 30.52 25 6
7. 8.
0.028 1 11.3 2.73 1 40
1 28
Fraction to Decimal Conversion
120
We found, when doing fractions, that the line 96
separating the numerator and the denominator of a
240
fraction takes the place of a division sign. Thus:
224
17
is the same as 17 ÷ 80. 160
80 160
Therefore to convert a fraction into a decimal we 0
divide the denominator into the numerator. 27
Therefore = 0.84375.
32
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Example 33 Example 34
9 1
Convert 2 into decimals. Convert to decimals.
16 3
When we have a mixed number to convert into
1
decimals we need only deal with the fractional part. =1÷3
3
9
Thus to convert 2 into decimals we only have to 3)1.0(0.333
16
9 9
deal with .
16 10
9 9
= 9 ÷ 16
16
10
16)9.0(0.5625 9
80
1
1 00 9
The division shows that = 0.5625
96 16
9 It is clear that all we shall get from the division is a
40 and hence 2 = 2.5625. succession of threes.
16
32
Sometimes a fraction will not divide out
80 exactly as shown in Example 34. This is an example of a recurring decimal and in order
80 to prevent endless repetition the result is written 0.3 .
1
0 Therefore = 0.3 .
3
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Further examples of recurring decimals are: Exercise 24
2 Questions 1- 6 level 1. Questions 7 - 10 level 2.
= 0.6 (meaning 0.6666 … etc.)
3 Convert the following to decimals correcting the
1 answers, where necessary, to 4 decimal places:
= 0.16 (meaning 0.1666 … etc.)
6
5 1 3 3 11
= 0.4 5 (meaning 0.454545 … etc.) 1. 2. 3. 4.
11 4 4 9 16
3 28571 1 2 21 29
= 0.4 (meaning 0.428571428571 … etc.) 5. 6. 7. 8.
7 2 3 32 64
For all practical purposes we never need recurring 5 7
9. 1 10. 2
decimals; what we need is an answer given to so 6 16
many significant figures or decimal places. Thus:
Questions 11-16 level 1.
2 Questions 17-20 level 2.
= 0.67 (correct to 2 decimal places).
3
Convert the following to three decimal places:
5
= 0.455 (correct to 3 significant figures).
11 11. 0.3 12. 0.7 13. 0.13 14. 0.18
15. 0.35 16. 0.2 3 17. 0.5 2 18. 0.3 6
19. 0.3 28 20. 0.5 671
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Conversion of Decimals to Fractions Exercise 25
Questions 1 - 2 level 1. Questions 3 - 8 level 2.
We know that decimals are fractions with
denominators 10, 100, 1000, etc. Using this fact we Convert the following to fractions in their lowest
can always convert a decimal to a fraction. terms:
1. 0.2 2. 0.45 3. 0.3125
Example 35
Convert 0.32 to a fraction. 4. 2.55 5. 0.0075 6. 2.125
32 8 9
0.32 = = 7. What is the difference between 0.281 35 and ?
100 25 32
When comparing decimals and fractions it is best to 19
8. What is the difference between and 0.295?
convert the fraction into a decimal. 64
Example 36
3
Find the difference between 1 and 1.1632.
16
3
1 = 1.1875
16
3
1 - 1.1632 = 1.1875 - 1.1632
16
= 0.0243
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Answers Exercise 19
Exercise 16 1. 0.36 0.036 0.0036
2. 6.4198 0.64198 0.064198
4. 0.7 2. 0.37 3. 0.589 4. 0.009 3. 0.007 0.0007 0.00007
5. 0.03 6. 0.017 7. 8.06 8. 24.0209 4. 51.04 5.104 0.5104
9. 50.008 5. 0.0352 0.00352 0.000352
Exercise 17 6. 0.054 7. 0.00205 8. 0.004
1. 3 2. 11.5 3. 24.04 9. 0.0000086 10. 0.0627428
4. 58.616 5. 54.852 6. 4.12
7. 15.616 8. 0.339 9. 0.812 Exercise 20 - All level 1
10. 5.4109 1. 743.0266 2. 0.951354
Exercise 18 3. 0.2888 4. 7.41125
1. 41 410 4100 5. 0.001376 or 1.376 x 10-3
2. 24.2 242 2420
3. 0.46 4.6 46 Exercise 21- All level 2
4. 3.5 35 350 1. 1.33 2. 0.014 3. 189.74
5. 1.486 14.86 148.6 4. 4.1066 5. 43.2
6. 0.01753 0.1753 1.753
7. 48.53 8. 9 9. 1700.6
10. 5639.6
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Exercise 22 Exercise 25
1. (i) 24.8658 (ii) 24.87 (iii) 25 Convert the following to fractions in their lowest
2. (i) 0.008357 (ii) 0.00836 (iii) 0.0084 terms:
3. (i) 4.9785 (ii) 4.98 (iii) 5
1 9 5
4. 22 5. 35.60 1. 2. 3.
5 20 16
6. (i) 28388000 (ii) 28000000 11 3 1
7. (i) 4.1498 (ii) 4.150 (iii) 4.15 4. 2 5. 6. 2
20 400 8
8. 9.20 7. 0.00010 8. 0.001875
Exercise 23
1. 1 2. 8 3. 0.16 4. 4
5. 20 6. 27 7. 0.014 8. 30
Exercise 24
1. 0.25 2. 0.75 3. 0.3333
4. 0.6875 5. 0.5 6. 0.6667
7. 0.6563 8. 0.4531 9. 1.8333
10. 2.4375
11. 0.333 12. 0.778 13. 0.133
14. 0.189 15. 0.356 16. 0.232
17. 0.525 18. 0.363 19. 0.328
20. 0.567
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Chapter 1.1.4: Formulae Exercise 26
Questions 1 - 3 level 1, Questions 4 - 5 level 2.
Evaluating Formula
1. If V Ah , find the value of V when A =6 and
A formula is an equation, which describes the h =3.
relationship between two or more quantities. The RT
2. The formula P is used in connection with
statement that I PRT is a formula for I in terms of V
P, R and T . The value of I may be found by the expansion of gases. Find the value of P when
substituting the values of P, R and T . The value of I R =25, T =230 and V =5
may be found by substituting the values of P, R and 3. If a b cx, , find the value of a when b =32,
T. c =3 and x =7
Example 37 4. The formula V 2gh is used in physics.
(a) If I = PRT find the value of I when P =20, R =2 Calculate the value of V when g = 0.8 and h = 7.
and T =5. 2(S an)
5. Calculate d from the formula d when
n(n p)
Substituting the given values of P, R and T and
S 12, a 2, n 5 and p 3.
remembering that multiplication signs are omitted in
formulae, we have
I = 20 x 2 x 5 = 200
(b) The formula v u at is used in physics. Find the
value of v when u = 8, a =3 and t =2.
v = 8 + 3 x 2 = 8 + 6 = 14
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Transposing Simple Formulae Method 2:
NOTE: in the following discussion the multiplication y = mx + c
sign is missed out: To move the “+c” from the right hand side of the
mx = m x x and Fw = F x w. equation to left hand side of the equation add
“-c” to both* sides of the equation:
a) Consider moving Positive and Negative Terms:
y - c = mx + c - c
Method 1: The terms “+c” and “- c” cancel each other and this
results in the following equation:
When a term is moved from one side of an equation it
changes signs. y - c = mx
* The keep the equation balanced, what you do to the
Consider the equation: left hand side of the equation must equal what you do
y - d = mx + c to the right hand side of the equation.
If we move the “+c” term from the right hand side of
the equation to the left hand sign of the equation it
becomes “-c”. Thus:
y - d - c = mx
If we move the “-d” term from the left hand side of
the equation to the right hand sign of the equation it
becomes “+d”. Thus:
y - c = mx + d.
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b) Consider moving terms by Multiplication and “w” on the left hand side of the equation is part of
Division: the numerator. If it is moved to the right hand side of
the equation then it becomes part of the
Method 1: denominator, thus:
When a term in the denominator moves from one side T(a + x)
F=
of an equation to the other it becomes a term in the w
numerator and vice versa. Consider the equation:
Method 2:
Fw
T = , remember this can be written as Fw
(a + x) T = , remember this can be written as
(a + x)
T Fw
= T Fw
1 (a + x) =
1 (a + x)
Thus when the term (a + x) is moved from the right To move (a + x) to the left hand side of the equation,
hand side of the equation where it is the denominator multiply both sides by (a + x)
to the left hand side of the equation it becomes a T(a + x) Fw(a + x) (a + x)
term in the numerator, thus: = , however, =1
1 (a + x) (a + x)
T(a + x) Fw Thus we get:
= , which can be written
1 1
T(a + x) Fw
T(a + x) = Fw = , which can be written
1 1
T(a + x) = Fw
Consider Fw = T(a + x)
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Don’t forget to keep the equation balanced; what you Clearing brackets – consider the expression, (a + b)y.
do to the left hand side of the equation must equal If you simplify the expression by removing the
what you do to the right hand side of the equation. brackets the expression becomes, ay + by.
Consider the equation:
Factorising a term is the opposite of clearing brackets.
Fw
T= +c Consider the expression ay + by. “y” is common to
(a + x)
both terms “ay” and “by”.
If we multiply the left hand side by (a + x), then we
must multiply the right hand side of the equation by Thus the expression “ay + by” can be factorised to
(a + x), thus: “(a + b)y”.
Fw
T (a + x) = ( + c )(a + x)
(a + x)
Fw(a + x)
= + c (a + x)
(a + x)
T (a + x) = Fw + c (a + x)
This could be rearranged to give
(T-c)(a + x) = Fw
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Transposing Formulae (General) Step 1 Since there are no roots get rid of the fraction
by multiplying both sides of the equation by (R r )
The formula y ax b has y as is subject. By
rearranging this formula we could make x the V (R r ) 2R
subject.
Step 2 Clear the bracket
The rules for transforming a formula are: VR Vr 2R
(1) Remove square roots or other roots Step 3 Collect the terms containing R on the LHS.
(2) Get rid of fractions VR 2R Vr
(3) Clear brackets Step 4 Factorise the LHS.
R(V 2) Vr
(4) Collect together the terms containing the required
subject Step 5 Isolate R by dividing both sides of the equation
by (V 2).
(5) Factorise if necessary
Vr
(6) Isolate the required subject R
V 2
These steps should be performed in the order given.
Although we used five steps to obtain the required
subject, in very many cases far fewer steps are
Example 38
needed. Nevertheless, you should work through the
2R
(a) Transpose the formula V to make R the steps in order given.
Rr
subject.
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(b) Transpose d 2hr to make h the subject. 7
7. y= for x.
4x
Step 1 Remove the square root by squaring both
sides. 8. 3k = kx + 5 for k.
2
d = 2hr 9. E = ½ mv² for m.
Step 2 Since there are no fractions or brackets and 10. y = mx + c for x.
factorisation is not needed we can now isolate h by
dividing both sides of the equation by 2r: 11. v = u + at for t.
2
d 2 h or h d since it is usual to position the 12. V =
abh
for h.
2hr 2r 3
subject on the LHS. 13. M = 5 (x + y) for y.
Exercise 27 Nn
14. C = for n.
Questions 1 - 10 Level 1 11 - 30 Level 2 2p
Transpose each of the following formulae: 15. S = ar(r + h) for h.
1. C ad for d. 2. PV=c for P. 16. t = a + (n - 1)d for n.
b E 17. A = 3(x – y) for y.
3. x= for y. 4. I for E.
y R 2
18. d= v + k for k.
ta 200
5. S= for a. 6. a =b + 8 for b.
p 19. 6x + 2y = 8 for y.
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2 - 5x 5 4y
20. y= for x. 29. x= for y.
2 3x 3y 2
3n 2 2 2
21. k= f or n. h
n3 30. T=2 k for k
gh
R H
22. T = 2 for R.
g
b
23. a= for b.
bc
2
24. k = mv for v.
2g
A
25. r= for k.
4k
m
26. q= for p.
p
27. x = (x - a) (x + b) for a.
ax
28. y= for x.
5 bx
EASA MODULE 1 57 of 218
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Answers t-a+d
16. n = 17.
Exercise 26 d
1. 18 2. 1150 3. 11 4. 3.35 5. 0.4 v2
18. k = d– 19. y = 4 – 3x
200
Exercise 27 2(1 - y)
20. x =
C c 3y + 5
1. d = 2. P =
a V 3k - 2 2 - 3k
b 21. n = =
3. y = 4. E = IR 3-k k-3
x
Sp T2g + 42H T2g
5. a = 6. b = a - 8 22. R = = +H
t 42 42
7 - 4y 5 a2 c 2gk
7. x = 8. k = 23. b = 24. v =
y 3-x 1-a2 m
2E y-c
9. m = 10. x = A m2
v2 m 25. k = 26. p = .
4r2 q2
v-u 3v
11. t = 12. h = x2 + bx - x 5y - a
a ab 27. a = 28. x =
x+b by + 1
m - 5x m
13. y = = -x
5 5 5 - 2x
29. y = 30.
S - ar 2 3x + 4
14. n = N – 2Cp 15. h =
ar
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Chapter 1.1.5: Weights, Measures & Factors of Multiples & Sub - Multiples
Conversion Multiple Prefix Symbol
The International System of Units 106 Mega M
103 kilo k
Together with major metric countries Britain has
10-3 milli m
adapted the International System of Units known
10-6 micro µ
worldwide as the S I Units. (Système International d'
10-9 nano n
Unit). The effect of this system is to introduce
10-12 pico p
standard units for many of the quantities for which a
multitude of units exist at present. There are others extending beyond this range both
greater and smaller.
S I base units
Space & Time
Quantity Unit Symbol
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length metre m
Area square metre m2
Mass kilogram kg
Volume cubic metre m3
Time second s
Velocity metre per second m/s
Electric Current Ampere A
Acceleration metre per second m/s2
Thermodynamic Kelvin K
squared
Temperature
Angular Velocity radian per second rad/s
Plain Angles Radians Rad
Angular radian per second rad/s2
Luminous Intensity candela cd.
Acceleration squared
(i.e. brilliance)
Frequency Hertz Hz = 1/s
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Mechanics Expressing SI Units
Quantity Unit Symbol The symbol for SI units and the conventions which
govern their use should be strictly followed.
Density Kilogram per kg/m3
cubic metre 1. Use the correct symbols used in the foregoing lists.
Momentum Kilogram metre kg m/s 2. Never use a prefix without a unit either in writing
per second or speech, e.g.
Force Newton N = kgm/s2
Kilogram or kilometre not kilo.
Torque or Newton metre N m Millimetre or millilitre not mil.
Moment of Force
3. Always put a zero before a decimal quantity less
Energy, work Joule J = Nm
Power watt W = J/s than a Unit, e.g. 0.705 m.
Pressure & Stress Newton per square N/m2 = Pa 4. When two units are multiplied together use a small
metre or Pascal
space between the symbols as the multiplier, e.g.
Heat Kilogram metre squared kg m2.
Newton metre N m.
Quantity Unit Symbol 5. When dividing, use an oblique stroke to separate
Celsius Degrees Celsius °C the numerator and denominator.
temperature e.g. metre per second m/s
Joule per second J/s
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6. Use a space as a thousands marker not the Inches Millimetres 25.4
comma. The comma is used as a decimal marker in
most countries using the metric system and its use as m Inches 39.37
a thousand marker will cause confusion. Up to four Pounds Kilograms 0.4536
figures may be blocked together but five or more Kilograms Pounds 2.205
figures should be grouped in threes, e.g. Imp. Galls Litres 4.546
1000 mm = 1m
bar p.s.i. 14.5
1 000 000* J = 1 MJ (MegaJoule)
p.s.i. Pa (Pascal) 6895
0.000 000 001* s = 1 ns (nanosecond).
bar Pa 105
* When writing numbers for an equation the spaces N/m2 Pa 1
are often omitted.
7. Leave a small space between figures and symbols. 1bf N (Newton) 4.45
Conversion Factors horsepower W (Watt) 746
The units which it is thought most likely you will be
B.Th.U. KJ 1.055
required to know are set out below with appropriate
ft 1bf J (Joule) 1.356
conversion factors.
Knot = 0.5148 m/s
To go from the first quantity into the second
Knot = 1.85 Kilometres / hour
multiply by the number given.
Knot = 1.15 mph.
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Relative Density = 5. How many cubic centimetres are there in a cubic
metre?
Density of a Substance 6. A time constant T = resistance x capacitance
Density of Water (at the same temperature) seconds. If the resistance is 10 kohms and the
capacitance is 30 F. What is T?
Mass
Density = (Units: kg/m3) 7. If an aircraft is travelling at 350 knots, what is
Volume
its speed in kilometres per hour?
Density of a/c fuel is typically 800 kg/m3 8. If a boat is travelling at 14.9 m/s, what is its
speed in knots?
Density of water is 1000 kg/m3
9. A motorist fills his car with 36.6 litres of petrol.
R.D. or S.G. (specific gravity) of a/c fuel = 0.8
How many imperial gallons is this equivalent to?
R.D. = S.G. 10. If there are 1000 cc (cubic centimetres) in 1
litre. How much does 1 litre of water weigh?
Exercise 28 – All Levels
1. How many grams are there in a milligram?
11. If the specific gravity of a material is 2.7. What
2. A number is 1 x 105, how many zeroes are after is the volume of material weighing 540 kg?
the number 1? What is the number?
3. A number is 1 x 10-4, how many zeroes are after
the decimal point? What is the number?
4. How many micrometres are there in 1 cm
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Answers
Exercise 28
1. 10-3 or 0.001 gm.
2. 5, 10000
3. 3, 0.0001
4. 10000
5. 100 x 100 x 100 = 1000000 or 106
6. 0.3 seconds INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
7. 648.5 kilometres / hour
8. 28.9 knots
9. 8 gallons
10. 1 kg
11. 0.2 cubic metres
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Chapter 1.1.6: Ratio & Proportion Example 39
Express the ratio 20p to £4 in its simplest form.
Ratio
£4 = 4 100p = 400p
A ratio is a comparison between two similar
quantities. If the length of a certain aircraft is 20 20 1
metres and a model of it is 1 metre long then the 20 : 400 = =
400 20
1
length of the model is th of the length of the
20 Example 40
aircraft. In making the model the dimensions of the 1
aircraft are all reduced in the ratio of 1 to 20. The Express the ratio 4 :in its lowest terms.
4
ratio 1 to 20 is usually written 1 : 20. 1 1 4 16
As indicated above a ratio may be expressed as a 4: = 4 ÷ = 4 =
4 4 1 1
fraction and all ratios may be looked upon as
2 1
fractions. Thus the ratio 2 : 5 = . 4: = 16:1
5 4
The two terms of a ratio may be multiplied or
divided without altering the value of the ratio. Example 41
1
Hence 6:36 = 1:6 = . Again, 1:5 = 0.20. Two lengths are in the ratio 8:5. If the first length is
6
120 metres, what is the second length?
Before a ratio can be stated the units must be the
5
same. We can state the ratio between 7 pence and The second length = of the first length
8
£2 provided both sums of money are brought to the
same units. Thus if we convert £2 to 200p the ratio
between the two amounts of money is 7 : 200. 5
= 120 = 75 metres.
8
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Example 42 Exercise 29
Two amounts of money are in the ratio of 12 : 7. If Question 1 – 7 level 1. Question 8 - 10, level 2.
the second amount is £21 what is the first amount? Express the following ratios as fractions in their lowest
12 terms:
First amount = £21 = £36.
7
1. 8:3 2. 4:6 3. 12 : 4
4. 9 : 15 5. 8 : 12
6. Express the ratio of 30p to £2 as a fraction in its
lowest terms.
7. Express the ratio £5 : 80p as a fraction in its
lowest terms.
8. Two lengths are in the ratio 7 : 5. If the first
length is 210 metres, what is the second length?
9. Two amounts of money are in the ratio 8 : 5.
If the second is £120, what is the first amount?
1
10. Express 3 : in its lowest terms.
2
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Proportional Parts We could tackle the problem in this way:
Total number of parts = 3 + 5 = 8 parts.
The following diagram shows a line AB whose length is
16 centimetres divided into two parts in the ratio
16
3 : 5. As can be seen in the diagram the line has Length of each parts = = 2 centimetres.
been divided into a total of 8 parts. 8
Length of AC = 3 2 = 6 centimetres.
Length of BC = 5 2 = 10 centimetres.
Example 43
Divide £1100 into two parts in the ratio 7:3.
Total number of parts = 7 + 3 = 10
1100
Amount of each part = = £110
10
The length AC contains 3 parts and the length BC Amount of first part = 7 110 = £770
contains 5 parts. Each part is:
16 Amount of second part = 3 110 = £330
= 2 centimetres long; hence AC is
8
3 2 = 6 centimetres long, and BC is
5 2 = 10 centimetres long.
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Example 44 3. Divide £120 in the ratio 5 : 4 : 3.
An aircraft carries 2880 litres of fuel distributed in
4. A sum of money is divided into two parts in the
three tanks in the ratio 3 : 5 : 4. Find the quantity in
ratio 5 : 7. If the smaller amount is £200, find
each tank.
the larger amount.
Total number of parts = 3 + 5 + 4 = 12.
5. A alloy consists of copper, zinc and tin in the
2880 ratios 2 : 3 : 5. Find the amount of each metal in
Amount of each part = = 240 litres.
12 75 kilograms of the alloy.
Amount of 3 parts = 3 240 = 720 litres. 6. A line is to be divided into three parts in the
ratios 2 : 7 : 11. If the line is 840 millimetres
Amount of 4 parts = 4 240 = 960 litres. long, calculate the length of each part.
7. Two plane maintenance hangers have a work
Amount of 5 parts = 5 240 = 1200 litres.
force of 336 and 240 respectively. The two
hangers are to share a bonus of £10 728 in
The three tanks contain 720, 1200 and 960 litres.
proportion to their work force. Calculate how
much each hanger will receive.
Exercise 30
Questions 1 - 3, level 1. Questions 4 - 8, level 2. 8. Four friends contribute sums of money to a
1. Divide £800 in the ratio 5 : 3. charitable organisation in the ratio of 2 : 4 : 5 :
7. If the largest amount contributed is £1.40,
2. Divide £80 in the ratio 4 : 1. calculate the total amount contributed by the four
people.
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Direct Proportion Example 45
Two quantities are said to vary directly, or be in If 25 kilograms of dry powder fire extinguishant cost
direct proportion, if they increase or decrease at the £17, how much does 8 kilograms cost?
same rate.
1. Using the unitary method:
Thus the quantity of fuel used and the distance 25 kilograms cost £17 or 1700 pence.
travelled by an aircraft are in direct proportion. Again
1700
if a company buys sorbsil at 20 pence for 2 kilograms 1 kilograms cost = 68 pence.
25
then we expect to pay 40 p for 4 kilograms and 10 p
for 1 kilogram. That is if we double the amount 8 kilograms cost 8 68
bought then we double the cost; if we halve the
= 544 pence or £5.44.
amount bought we halve the cost.
In solving problems on direct proportion we can use
2. Using the fractional method:
either the unitary method or the fractional
Cost of 8 kilograms.
method.
8 8 1700
Unitary Method: Certain problems in variation can = 1700 =
25 25
be solved by reducing one of the variables to 1, and
then increasing it back again to the required value. = 544 pence or £5.44
Fractional Method: Turn the proportion required into
a fraction of the total amount.
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Example 46 3
Amount of rump steak = 450 = 675 grams.
A recipe for Beef Stroganoff quotes the following 2
amounts to serve four people:
3 1
Amount of flour = 3 = 4 tablespoons.
450 grams of rump steak, 2 2
3 tablespoons flour,
4 tablespoons butter, 3
Amount of butter = 4 = 6 tablespoons.
50 grams of onion, 2
75 grams of mushrooms,
140 grams of sour cream. 3
Amount of onion = 50 = 75 grams.
2
What amounts should be used for six people?
3 1
Amount of mushrooms = 75 = 112 grams.
The quantities required and the number of people are 2 2
in direct proportion. Hence the amounts must be
increased in the ratio of 6 : 4 or 3 : 2. 3
Amount of sour cream = 140 = 210 grams.
2
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Exercise 31 - All level 1. Inverse Proportion
Suppose that 8 fitters working on an aircraft 'C' check
1. If 7 kilograms of silica gel cost £2.80, how much
takes 10 days to complete it. If we double the
do 12 kilograms cost? number of men then we should halve the time taken.
If we halve the number of men then the job will
2. If 74 tech logs cost £5.92, how much do 53
probably take twice as long. This is an example of
cost?
inverse proportion.
3. If 40 cost rivets cost £35, how much does 1
Example 47
cost? What is the cost of 55 rivets?
20 men working at BA, Filton produce 3000
4. Split pins cost 70 p per 10. How much will 25 components in 12 working days. How long will it take
split pins cost? 15 men to produce the 3000 components?
15 3
5. A towing tractor travels 20 kilometres on 20 The number of men is reduced in the ratio = .
20 4
litres of petrol. How much petrol is need for a
journey of 35 kilometres?
Since this is an example of inverse proportion the
6. If 9 metres of asbestos tape cost £21, how number of days required must be increased in the
much will 96 metres cost? 4
ratio .
3
7. An aircraft flies 2000 kilometres in 4 hours.
How long will it take to complete a journey of 4
Number of days required = 12.
3500 kilometres? 3
= 16 days.
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Exercise 32 - All level 1
1. Bristol Flying Centre employs 12 builders to
extend the hanger. They take 9 days to do the
job. If they had employed 8 men how long would
it have taken them?
2. 10 men produce 500 composite panels in 5
working days. How long would it take 15 men to
produce the same amount?
3. Two gear wheels mesh together. One has 40
teeth and the other has 25 teeth. If the larger INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
wheel makes 100 revolutions per minute how
many revolutions per minute does the smaller
wheel make?
4. 4 men can do a piece of work in 30 hours. How
many men would be required to do the work in 6
hours?
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Answers
Exercise 31 - All level 1.
Exercise 29
1. £4.80
8 2 3
1. 2. 3. 3 4. 2. £4.24
3 3 5
2 3 25 3. 87.5p, £48.13
5. 6. 7.
3 20 4 4. £1.75
8. 150 metres 5. 35 litres
9. £192 10. 6:1 6. £224
7. 7 hours
Exercise 30
1. £500 and £300 Exercise 32 - All level 1
2. £64 and £16 1. 13.5 days
3. £50, £40, £30 2. 3.33 days
4. £280 3. 160
5. 15 kg, 22.5 kg and 37.5 kg 4. 20 men
6. 84 mm, 294 mm, 462 mm
7. £6258, £4470
8. £3.60
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Chapter 1.1.7: Averages Total mass = mass of one fastener
number of fasteners in the box.
Averages 4680
Number of fasteners in the box = = 48
To find the average of a set of quantities, add the 97.5
quantities together and divide by the number of
quantities in the set. Thus, 3. Find the average age of a team of boys given
that four of them are each 15 years 4 months old
sum of the quantities and the other three boys are each 14 years 9
Average =
number of quantities months old.
Example 48 Total age of 4 boys at 15 years 4 months
1. A student falls asleep in every lesson, the = 61 years 4 months.
following number of times: 8, 20, 3, 0, 5, 9, 15
and 12. What is his average per lesson? Total age of 3 boys at 14 years 9 months
Average: = 44 years 3 months.
8 + 20 + 3 + 0 + 5 + 9 + 15 + 12 Total age of all 7 boys
=
8
= 105 years 7 months.
72
= =9 105 years 7 months
8 Average age =
7
1
2. “ ‘Taper Lock Fasteners’ in a box have a mass = 15 years 1 month.
2
of 4680 gm. If the mass of one fastener is
97.5 gm, find the number of fasteners in the box.
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Note in the previous example we have two separate years have a total age 6580 years. Find the
units “years” and “months”. This example works average age of all the people in the faculty.
because both the total of years and months can be The first step is to find the number of teachers:
divided by 7. Usually we use only one set of units. Number of teachers =
Thus, 15 years 4 months = 184 months, and
total age of the teachers
14 years 9 months = 177 months.
average age of the teachers
Total age of 4 boys at 184
1170
= 736 months. = = 30
39
Total age of 3 boys at 177 months We now find the number of pupils:
= 531 months. 6580
= = 470
Total age of all 7 boys 14
= 1267 months. We can now find the average age of people in the
faculty. Total age of all the people in the faculty:
1267 months
Average age = = 1170 + 6580 = 7750 years
7
= 181 months Total number of people in the faculty:
= 15 years 1 month. = 30 + 470 = 500
Average age of all the people in the faculty:
4. The average age of the lecturers in the faculty is
39 years and their total age is 1170 years, 7750
= = 15.5 years.
whereas the pupils whose average age is 14 500
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Exercise 33 6. Find the average age of a team of men if 5 of
Question 1 - 4, level 1. 5 - 8 level 2. them are each 25 years old and 6 of them are 24
years 1 month old.
1. Find the average of the following readings:
22.3 mm, 22.5 mm, 22.6 mm, 21.8 mm and
22.0 mm. 7. The average mark of 24 candidates taking an
examination is 42. Find what the average mark
2. Find the average mass of 22 boxes if 9 boxes would have been if one candidate, who scored 88,
each have a mass of 12 kg, 8 boxes each have a had been absent.
1 3
mass of 12 kg and 5 have a mass of 11 kg.
2 4 8. The average of three numbers is 58. The
average of two them is 49. Find the third
3. 4 kg of engine blanks costing 20 p per kg are number.
mixed with 8 kg costing 14 p per kg. What is the
average price per kg?
4. 30 litres of Mogas costing 8 p per litre is mixed
with 40 litres costing 9 p per litre. Find the
average price of the mixture.
5. The average of nine numbers is 72 and the
average of four of them is 40. What is the
average of the other five?
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Average Speed Time taken to travel 30 km at 40 km/h.
The average speed is defined as total distance 30
travelled divided by the total time taken. The = = 0.75 hour
40
unit of speed depends on the unit of distance and the
unit of time. For instance, if the distance travelled is Total distance travelled = 30 + 30 = 60 km.
in kilometres (km) and the time taken is in hours (h) Total time taken = 1 + 0.75 = 1.75 hour.
then the speed will be stated in kilometres per hour
(km/h). If the distance is given in metre (m) and the 60
Average speed = = 34.3 km/h
time in seconds (s) then the speed is in metres per 1.75
second (m/s). 3. A train travels for 4 hours at an average speed
of 64 km/h. For the first 2 hours its average
Example 49 speed is 50 km/h. What is its average speed for
1. A car travels a total distance of 200 km in 4 the last 2 hours
hours. What is its average speed? Total distance travelled in 4 hours
distance travelled 200 = average speed time taken = 64 4
Average speed = =
time taken 4
= 256 km
= 50 km/h
Distance travelled in first two hours
2. A car travels 30 km at 30 km/h and 30 km at 40
km/h. Find its average speed. = 50 2 = 100 km
Time taken to travel 30 km at 30 km/h.
30
= = 1 hour
30
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Distance travelled in last two hours 5. A motorist travelling at a steady speed of 90
km/h covers a section of motorway in 25
= 256 - 100 = 156 km
minutes. After a speed limit is imposed he finds
Average speed for the last two hours that, when travelling at the maximum speed
allowed he takes 5 minutes longer than before to
distance travelled 156
= = = 78 km/h cover the same section. Calculate the speed
time taken 2
limit.
Exercise 34
Questions 1 - 3, Level 1 Questions 4 - 8 Level 2 6. In winter a train travels between two towns 264
km apart at an average speed of 72 km/h. In
1. A train travels 300 km in 4 hours. What is its summer the journey takes 22 minutes less than
average speed? in the winter. Find the average speed in
summer.
2. A car travels 200 km at an average speed of 50
km/h. How long does it take? 7. A train travels between two towns 135 km apart
in 4½ hours. If on the return journey the
3. If a car travels for 5 hours at an average speed of
average speed is reduced by 3 km/h, calculate
70 km/h how far has it gone?
the time taken for the return journey.
4. For the first 1½ hours of a 91 km journey the
8. A car travels 272 km at an average speed of 32
average speed was 30 km/h. If the average
km/h. On the return journey the average speed
speed for the remainder of the journey was 23
is increased to 48 km/h. Calculate the average
km/h, calculate the average speed for the entire
speed over the whole journey.
journey.
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Answers
Exercise 33
1
1. 22.24 mm 2. 12 kg
8
3. 16 p 4. 8.57 p per litre
5. 97.6 6. 24 years 6 months
7. 40 8. 76
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Exercise 34
1. 75 km/h 2. 4 hours
3. 350 km 4. 26 km/h
5. 75 km/h 6. 80 km/h
7. 5 hours 8. 38.4 km/h
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Chapter 1.1.8: Percentages Example 50
3 3
Percentages = 100 = 75
4 4
When comparing fractions it is often convenient to
17 17
express them with a denominator of a hundred. = 100 = 85
20 20
Thus:
1 50
= Exercise 35 - All type A
2 100
2 40 Convert the following fractions to percentages:
=
5 100
7 11 9
Fractions with a denominator of 100 are called 1. 2. 3.
10 20 25
percentages. Thus:
4 31 1
1 25 4. 5. 6.
= = 25 per cent 5 50 4
4 100
4 19
3 30 7. 8.
= = 30 per cent 10 20
10 100
Decimal numbers may be converted into percentages
The sign % is usually used instead of the words per
by using the same rule. Thus:
cent.
3 3
0.3 = = 100 = 30%
To convert a fraction into a percentage we 10 10
multiply it by 100.
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The same rule result is produced if we omit the Note that all we have done is to move the decimal
intermediate step of turning 0.3 into vulgar fraction point 2 places to the left.
and just multiply 0.3 by 100. Thus:
Exercise 37 - Level 1
0.3 = 0.3 100 = 30
Convert the following percentages into decimal
Exercise 36 - level 1 fractions:
1. 32% 2. 78% 3. 6%
Convert the following decimal numbers into
percentages: 4. 24% 5. 31.5% 6. 48.2%
7. 2.5% 8. 1.25% 9. 3.95%
1. 0.7 2. 0.73 3. 0.68
10. 20.1%
4. 0.813 5. 0.927 6. 0.333
7. 1.819
To convert a percentage into a fraction we divide by
100.
Example 51
45
45% = = 0.45
100
3.9
3.9% = = 0.039
100
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Percentage of a Quantity 3. 22% of a certain length is 55 cm. What is the
complete length?
It is easy to find the percentage of a quantity if we
55
first express the percentage as a fraction. 1% of the length = cm = 2.5 cm.
22
Example 52
The complete length will be 100%, hence:
1. What is 10% of 40?
10 Complete length = 100 2.5 cm = 250 cm
Expressing 10% as a fraction it is and the
100 Alternatively,
problem then becomes:
10 22% of the length = 55 cm
what is of 40?
100 100
Complete length = 55
10 22
10% of 40 = 40 = 4
100 100 55
= = 250 cm
2. What is 25% of £50? 22
4. What percentage is 37 of 264? Give the answer
25 correct to 5 significant figures.
25% of £50 = £50 = £12.50
100 37
Percentage = 100
264
37 100
=
264
= 14.015%
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Exercise 38 4. If 20% of a length is 23 cm, what is the
Question 1 - 6, level 1. Question 7 - 10, level 2. complete length?
1. What is: 5. Given that 13.3 cm is 15% of a certain length,
a. 20% of 50 b. 30% of 80 what is the complete length?
c. 5% of 120 d. 12% of 20 6. What is:
e. 20.3% of 105 f. 3.7% of 68 a. 9% of £80 b. 12% of £110
2. What percentage is: c. 75% of £250
a. 25 of 200 b. 30 of 150 7. Express the following statements in the form of
c. 25 of 150 d. 29 of 178 a percentage:
e. 15 of 33 a. 3 light bulbs are broken in a box
containing 144 light bulbs.
Where necessary give the answer correct to 3
significant figures. b. In a school of 650 students, 20 are
3. A student scores 36 marks out of 100 in an absent.
examination. What is her percentage mark? If
c. In a school of 980 students, 860 eat
the percentage needed to pass the examination is
school lunches.
75% how many marks are needed to pass?
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8. In a certain county the average number of
children eating lunches at school was 29336
which represents 74% of the total number of
children attending school. Calculate the total
number of children attending school in that
country.
9. 23% of a consignment of bananas is bad. There
are 34.5 kg of bad bananas. How many
kilograms were there in the consignment?
10. A retailer accepts a consignment of 5000 ball INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
point pens. He finds that 12% are faulty. How
many faulty pens are there?
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Answers Exercise 38
1. a. 10 b. 24
Exercise 35
c. 6 d. 2.4
1. 70% 2. 55% 3. 36%
e. 21.32 f. 2.516
4. 80% 5. 62% 6. 25%
7. 40% 8. 95% 2. a. 12.5% b. 20%
Exercise 36 c. 16.67% d. 16.29%
1. 70% 2. 73% 3. 68% e. 45.45%
4. 81.3% 5. 92.7% 6. 33.3%
3. 36%, 75 marks
7. 181.9% 4. 115 cm
Exercise 37 5. 88.7 cm
1. 0.32 2. 0.78 3. 0.06 6. a. 7.2 b. 13.2 c. 188
4. 0.24 5. 0.315 6. 0.482 7. a. 2.08% b. 3.08% c. 87.8%
7. 0.025 8. 0.0125 9. 0.0395
8. 39643
10. 0.201
9. 150 kg 10. 600
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Chapter 1.1.9: Areas Consider a room 4m by 3m as shown above. Clearly
it can be divided up into 12 equal squares, each
Areas measuring 1m by 1m. Each square has an area of 1
We are already familiar with the concept of length, square meter. Hence, the total area is 12 square
e.g. the distance between 2 points, we express length meters (usually written as 12m2 for convenience).
in some chosen unit, e.g. in meters, and if I want to
fit a picture - rail along a wall, all I need to known is So, to calculate the area of a rectangle, multiply
the length of the wall, so that I can order sufficient length of 1 side by the length of the other side.
rail.
Note. 4 m x 3 m = 12 m2 (Don't forget the m2).
But if I wish to fit a carpet to the room floor, the
length of the room is insufficient. I obviously need to Example 53
know the width. This 2-dimensional concept of size is An office 8.5 m by 6.3 m is to be fitted with a carpet,
termed Area. so as to leave surround 600mm wide around the
carpet. What is the area of the surround?
With a problem like this, it is often helpful to sketch a
diagram.
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Formulae for the Area of Common Shapes
Rectangle
The area of the surround = office area - carpet area.
= (8.5 x 6.3) - (8.5 - 2 x 0.6)(6.3 -2 x 0.6)
= 53.55 - (7.3) (5.1)
= 53.55 - 37.23 = 16.32 m2
Note that 600 mm had to be converted to 0.6 m.
Don't forget to include units in the answer, e.g. m2. Parallelogram
The following section shows the formulae for the more
common shapes. Students will require a knowledge of
these formulae and attain a JAR 66 Level 2 in this
topic.
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Triangle Circle
Trapezium Sector of Circle
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Example 54 2) A hollow shaft has an outside diameter of 2.5 cm.
Calculate the cross-sectional area of the shaft.
1) The cross section of a block of metal is shown.
Find its area.
Area of cross-section
Area of trapezium = area of outside circle – area of inside circle
= ½ x 40 x (30 + 50) = x 1.625² - x 1.25²
= ½ x 40 x 80 = (1.625² - 1.25²)
= 1600 mm² = 3.142 x (2.640 – 1.563)
= 3.142 x 1.077
= 3.388 cm²
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(3) Calculate: 3. Find the areas of the sections shown:
(a) The length of arc of a circle whose radius is (a)
8 m and which subtends an angle of 56° at
the centre, and
(b) The area of the sector so formed.
Length of arc = 2r x 0
360
56
=2xx8x
360
= 31.28 m²
Exercise 39
Question 1 - 3, level 1. Questions 4 - 11, level 2.
1. The area of a rectangle is 220 mm². If its width
is 25 mm find its length.
2. A sheet metal plate has a length of 147.5 mm
and a width of 86.5 mm find its area to four
significant places.
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3(b) 3(c)
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4. Find the area of a triangle whose base is 7.5 cm 8. Find the circumference of a circle whose radii
and whose altitude is 5.9 cm. are:
(a) 3.5 mm (b) 13.8 mm
5. Find the area of a trapezium whose parallel
sides are 75 mm and 82 mm long respectively (c) 4.2 cm.
and whose vertical height is 39 mm.
9. Find the diameter of a circle whose
6. The parallel sides of a trapezium are 12 cm and circumference is 34.4 mm.
16 cm long. If its area is 220 cm², what is its
altitude? 10. How many revolutions will a wheel make in
travelling 2 km if its diameter is 700 mm?
7. Find the area of the shaded portions in the
following diagram. 11. If r is the radius and 0 is the angle subtended at
the centre by an arc find the length of arc
when:
r = 2 cm, 0 =30°.
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Answers
Exercise 39
1. 8.8 mm
2. 12760 mm
3. (a) 1200 mm2
(b) 275 mm2
(c) 259.5 mm
4. 0.83 m3 INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
2
5. 3061.5 mm
6. 15.71 cm
7. 11207.13 mm2
8. (a) 22 mm (b) 86.72 mm
(c) 26.39 cm
9. 10.9 mm
10. 909
11. 1.047 cm
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Chapter 1.1.10: Volumes Each layer contains 4 x 3 = 12 cubes.
Volumes There are 2 layers.
The concept and calculation of volume is the logical Hence the volume is 12 x 2 = 24m3.
extension of length and area.
Basically, therefore, when calculating volume, it is
Instead of squares, we now consider cubes. This is a necessary to look for 3 dimensions, at 90º to each
3-dimensional concept and the typical units of volume other, and then multiply them together.
are cubic metres (m3).
For a box - type shape, multiplying:
If we have a box, length 4m, width 3m and height Length x width x height = volume.
2m, we see that the total volume=24 cubic metres
(24m3). Units of Volume
The volume of a solid figure is measured by seeing
how many cubic units it contains. A cubic metre is the
volume inside a cube which has a side of 1 metre.
Similarly a cubic centimetre is the volume inside a
cube which has a side of 1 centimetre.
The standard abbreviations for units of volume are:
cubic metre m³
cubic centimetre cm³
cubic millimetre mm³
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Example 55 3 107 cm3 = 3 107 106 m2
How many cubic centimetres are contained in 1 cubic = 3 x 10 = 30m²
metre?
1m = 10² cm Exercise 40 – All Level 1
1m³ = (10² cm)³ = 106 m³ Convert the following volumes into the units stated:
1. 5 m3 into cm³
= 1000000 cm³
2. 0.08 m³ into mm³
Unit of Capacity
3. 18 m³ into mm³
The capacity of a container is usually measured in
4. 830000 cm³ into m³
litres ( ), such that:
5. 850000 mm³ into m³
1 litre = 1000cm³ = 1000 cc
6. 78500 cm³ into m³
Example 56 7. A tank contains 5000 litres of petrol. How many
A tank contains 30 000 litres of liquid. How many cubic metres of petrol does it contain?
cubic metres does it contain? 8. A small vessel contains 2500mm³ of oil. How
30 000 litres = 30 000 x 1 000 cm³ many litres does it contain?
= 3 x 107 cm³ 9. A tank holds, when full, 827m³ of water. How
many litres does it hold?
1cm = 10-2 m
1cm³ = (10-2m)3 = 10-6 m3 10. A container holds 8275cm² when full. How
many litres does it hold?
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Example 57 23836 mm2
= = 0.023836 m² = 0.024 m
A steel section has the cross-section shown. If the (1000)2
section is 9m long, calculate its volume and total
surface area. Volume of solid
= cross sectional area x length
= 0.023836 x 9
= 0.2145m³
To find the surface area:
Perimeter of cross-section =
length of 3 sides of the rectangle + ½ circumference
To find the volume we use the formulae given in = 2 x 100 + 150 + x 75
Chapter 1.1.9 Areas.
= 585.5 mm
Area of cross- section
585.5
= area rectangle + area semicircle = = 0.5855m
1000
= Length x width + ½ x radius²
Lateral surface area
= 100 x 150 + ½ x 75²
= Perimeter of cross section x length
= 23836 mm²
= 0.5855 x 9 = 5.270 m²
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Surface area of ends Triangular Wedge
= 2 x area of cross section
= 2 x 0.024 = 0.048 m ²
Total surface area
= 5.270 + 0.048.
= 5.318 m².
Volumes and Surface Areas
The following table gives volumes and surface areas
of some simple solids.
Any solid having a uniform cross section
Volume = cross sectional area x length of solid The surface area of the wedge =
area of the top and bottom + area of the three sides
For example consider a triangular wedge:
=2x½xbxhxl + axl+bxl+cxl
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Cylinder Cone
Volume
= Cross sectional area x
length of solid.
= x r2 x h
Surface area
= area top and bottom +
area curved surface.
2 x x r2 + 2 x x r x h
= 2 x x r x (r + h)
= 2r(r + h)
1
Volume = base x height
3
1
= r2 x h
3
Area cone = area base + area side
= r2 + r l = r(r + l)
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Sphere
Volume of a sphere
4
= r3
3
Surface area of a sphere
r2
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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Exercise 41 - Level 2 7. A water tank with vertical sides has a horizontal
base in the shape of a rectangle with semi-
1. A steel ingot whose volume is 2 m³ is rolled into
circular ends as illustrated below. The total
a plate 15 mm thick and 1.75 m wide. Calculate
inside length of the tank is 7 m, its width 4 m
the length of the plate in m.
and its height 2 m.
2. A block of lead 2.0 m x 1 m x 0.72 m is
hammered out to make a square sheet 10 mm
thick. What are the dimensions of the square?
3. The volume of a small cylinder is 180 cm³. If
the radius of the cross-section is 25 mm, find its
height.
4. A cone has a diameter of 28 mm and a height of
66 mm. What is its volume?
5. Calculate the diameter of a cylinder whose
height is the same as its diameter and whose
volume is 220 cm³.
6. An ingot whose volume is 12320 mm3 is to be Calculate:
made into ball bearings whose diameters are
12 mm. How many ball bearings will be (a) The surface area of the vertical walls of the tank
produced from the ingot? in m².
(b) The area of the base in m².
(c) The number of litres of water in the tank when
the depth of water is 1.56 m.
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Answers Exercise 41
Exercise 40 1. 76.2 m
2. 12 m
1. 5 x 106 cm³
3. 9.167 mm
2. 8 x 106 mm³
4. 13546.5 mm3
3. 1.8 x 1010 mm³
5. 6.55 cm
4. 8.3 x 106 m³
6. 13
5. 8.5 x 10-4 m³
7. (a) 37.13 m²
6. 7.85 x 10-2 m³
(b) 24.57 m²
7. 5
(c) 38320 litres
8. 0.0025 or 2.5 x 10-3 litres
9. 827000 or 8.27 x 105 litres.
10. A container holds 8.275 litres
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Chapter 1.1.11: Squares and Square Extract from the “Squares” Table showing squares of
Roots numbers from 1.0 to 2.499.
Squares of Numbers
When a number is multiplied by itself the result is
called the square of the number. The square of 9 is
9 9 = 81. Instead of writing 9 9, it is usual to
write 92 which is read as the square of 9. Thus:
122 = 12 12 = 144
(1.3)2 = 1.3 1.3 = 1.69
The square of any number can be found by
multiplication but a great deal of time and effort is
saved by using printed tables. Either three or four
figure table may be used. In the three figure tables
the squares of numbers are given correct to three
significant figures, but in the four figure tables the
square are given correct to four significant figures.
Hence the four figure table are more accurate.
Finding the Square of a Number using Tables
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Example 58
We want to find the square of the number 1.732. To
do this, take the following steps:
1. First of all you want to look in the first column for a
number that consists of the first 2 significant
figures of the number you want to square.
3. Next you look at the top row of the table. This
allows you to find the next two figures in the
number you want to square.
2. In this case the number is 1.7. This will give you
the row in the table that contains the answer you
want.
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4. In our case the next two figures are 3 and 2. These
number give two columns.
6. The column for the number “2” gives a value of 7,
which is the fourth significant figure and thus is
0.007.
5. The square of the number is obtained by looking at
where these columns and row cross. In our case,
the column for the number “3”, gives the value of
2.993, which is the square of 1.730
To get the final answer for the square of 1.732, 2.993 and 0,007 must be added together, this will give 3.000 to
4 significant figures. A calculator gives (1.732)2 as 2.999824.
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Numbers Outside Range 1 to 10 Example 60
Although the tables only give the squares of numbers Find (0.2388)2.
from 1 to 10 they can be used to find the squares of
1 1
numbers outside this range. The method is shown in (0.2388)2 = 2.388 2.388
10 10
the examples that follow.
1
Example 59 = (2.388)2 = (2.388)2 ÷ 100
100
Find (168.8)2. From the tables,
(168.8)2 = 168.8 168.8 (2.388)2 = 5.702
or Hence
= 1.688 100 1.688 100 (0.2388)2 = 5.702 ÷ 100
= (1.688)2 1002 = 0.05702
Example 61
From the tables of squares,
Find the value of:
(1.688)2 = 2.848
2
Hence 0.9
0.15
(168.8)2 = 2.848 1002 = 28480
2
0.9
62 36
0.15
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Exercise 42 21. Find the value of (3.142)2 correct to 2 places of
Question 1-12, level 1. Question 13-22, level 2 decimal.
Find the square of the following numbers.
22. Find the value of:
1. 1.5 2. 2.1 3. 8.6
2 2
a. 0.75 b. 0.8
4. 3.15 5. 7.68 6. 5.23 0.15 0.2
7. 4.263 8. 7.916 9. 8.017
2 2
c. 0.25 d. 0.36
10. 8.704 11. 23 12. 1648.36
2 6
13. 3093 14. 112.3 15. 98.12
16. 0.019 17. 0.7292 18. 0.004219
19. 0.2834 20. 0.0005784
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Square Roots Example 62
The square root of a number is the number whose 2.748 1.657
1.
square equals the given number. Since 52 = 25, the
square root of 25 = 5. (Directly from the table 1 to 10).
The sign is used to denote a square root and
2. 92.65 9.626
hence we write 25 5 .
(Directly from the table 1 to 100).
Similarly, since 92 = 81, 81 9 .
The square root of a number can usually be found What happens if the number is less than 1 or
with sufficient accuracy by using the printed tables of greater than 100?
square roots. There are two of these tables. One
gives the square roots of numbers 1 to 10 and the Example 63
other gives the square roots of numbers from 10 to The number is greater than 100.
100. The reason for having two tables is as follows:
Mark off the figures in pairs to the left of the decimal
2.5 1.581 point. Each pair of figures is called a period.
25 5 Each period changes the value by 100 or two decimal
points. The square root results in a change of 10 or
Thus there are two square roots for the same figures,
one decimal point
depending upon the position of the decimal point. The
square root tables are used in the same way as the
tables of squares.
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1. To find 836.3 .
Each period is a change of 100. The square root of a
Move the decimal point one period to the left. Thus 100 is 10. Thus for every period change in the
836.3 becomes 8'36.3. The first period is 8 so we use original number, the square root changes by one
the table of square roots from 1 to 10 and look up. decimal point.
To find the square root of 836.3, we have moved the Changing the number from 173900 to 17.39 has
decimal point two places to the left or one period. So moved the decimal point 4 places or 2 periods to the
we have to find the square root of 8.363. left. Thus the decimal point of the answer 4.17 must
be moved 2 places to the right, giving:
8.363 2.892
173 900 417.0
To position the decimal point in the answer remember
that for each period moved to the left of the decimal Example 64
point in the original number, we must move the
The number is less than 1.
decimal point one place to the right in the answer.
Thus: Mark off the figures in pairs to the right of the
836.3 28.92 decimal point. Each pair of figures is called a period.
2. To find 173 900 . 1. To find 0.00009431 .
Marking off in periods 173900 becomes 17'39'00. In the case of numbers less than 1, mark off the
The first period is 17 so we use the table of square periods to the right of the decimal point.
roots from 10 to 100 and look up.
0.00009431 becomes 0.00'00'94'31.
17.39 4.159 0.011 4.17
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Apart from the zero pairs the first period is 94 so we Thus:
use the tables from 10 to 100 to look up 94.31 .
7.365 2.714
From the tables:
The decimal place of the original number was moved
94.31 9.711 0.001 9.712 one period to the right thus the decimal point must
For each zero pair in the original number there will be moved one place to the left. Hence 2.714
be one zero following the decimal point in the becomes 0.2714.
answer.
Exercise 43
Question 1-12, level 1. Question 13-23, level 2
To get from 0.00009431 to 94.31, the decimal point
was moved 6 places or 3 periods to the right. Each Find the square root of the following numbers:
period in the original number, results in a decimal 1. 3.4 2. 8.19 3. 5.264
point movement of one place in the answer. Thus to
get the final answer the decimal place must be 4. 9.239 5. 7.015 6. 3.009
moved 3 places to the left. 7. 35 8. 89.2 9. 53.17
Hence 9.712 becomes 0.009712. 10. 82.99 11. 79.23 12. 50.01
13. 900 14. 725.3 15. 7142
2. To find 0.07365 .
16. 89000 17. 3945 18. 893400000
Marking off in periods to the right of the decimal
point 0.073 65 becomes 07'36'50. Since the first 19. 0.1537 20. 0.001698 21. 0.03947
period is 07 we use the tables between 1 and 10 and
look up 7.365 . 22. 0.0007831 23. 0.001978
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Cubed
When a number is multiplied by itself,
i.e. 3 3 = 9, it is usual to write it as 32 or 3
squared.
We can take this a stage further and multiply by
another 3, i.e. 3 3 3 = 27, it is usual to write it
as 33 or 3 cubed.
Cubed Root
The cubed root of a number is the number which INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
cubed equals the number.
E.g. The cubed root of 64 = 4 (4 4 4).
The sign 3 is used to denote a cubed root and
hence we write 3 64 4 .
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Answers Exercise 43
Exercise 42 1. 1.844 2. 2.862 3. 2.294
1. 2.25 2. 4.41 3. 73.96 4. 3.039 5. 2.649 6. 1.735
4. 9.923 5. 58.98 6. 27.35 7. 5.916 8. 9.445 9. 7.292
7. 18.18 8. 62.67 9. 64.27 10. 9.11 11. 8.901 12. 7.072
10. 75.76 11. 529 12. 1606 13. 30 14. 26.94 15. 84.51
13. 9566000 14. 12610 15. 9628 16. 298.3 17. 62.81 18. 29890
16. 0.000361 17. 0.5317 18. 0.0000178 19. 0.3921 20. 0.04121 21. 0.1987
19. 0.08032 20. 0.0000003346 or 3.346x10-7 22. 0.02798 23. 0.04447
21. 9.87
22. a. 25 b. 16
c. 0.01563 d. 0.0036
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Section 1.2: Algebra 2. Three times a number.
Let the number be N.
Chapter 1.2.1: Algebra
Three times the number = 3 N.
Introduction
The methods of Algebra are an extension of those 3. One number divided by another number.
used in arithmetic. In algebra we use letters and
Let one number be a and the other number be
symbols as well as numbers to represent quantities.
b. Then, one number divided by another
When we write that a sum of money is £50 we are
a
making a particular statement but if we write that a number =
b
sum of money is £P we are making a general
statement. This general statement will cover any
4. Five times the product of two numbers.
number we care to substitute for P.
Let the two numbers be m and n.
The Use of Symbols
5 times the product of the two numbers
The following examples will show how verbal
statements can be translated into algebraic symbols. = 5 m n.
Notice that we can choose any symbol we like to
represent the quantities concerned.
1. The sum of two numbers.
Let the two numbers be x and y.
Sum of the two numbers = x + y.
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Exercise 44 – All level 1 Substitution
Translate the following into algebraic symbols: The process of finding the numerical value of an
algebraic expression for given values of the symbols
1. Seven times a number, x.
that appear in it is called substitution.
2. Four times a number x minus three.
Example 65
3. Five times a number x plus a second number, y. If x = 3, y = 4 and z = 5, find the values of:
4. The sum of two numbers x and y divided by a a. 2y + 4 b. 3y + 5z c. 8-x
third number, z.
y 3y + 2z
d. e.
5. Half of a number, x. x x + z
6. Eight times the product of three numbers, x, y Note that multiplication signs are often missed out
and z. when writing algebraic expressions so that, for
instance, 2y means 2 y. These missed multiplication
7. The product of two numbers x and y divided signs must reappear when the numbers are
by a third number, z. substituted for the symbols.
a. 2y + 4 = 2 4 + 4 = 8 + 4 = 12
8. Three times a number, x, minus four times a
second number, y. b. 3y + 5z = 3 4 + 5 5
c. 8 - x = 8 - 3 = 5
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y 4 1 Powers
d. = = 1
x 3 3 The quantity a a a or aaa is usually written as a3.
a3 is called the third power of a. The number 3 which
3y + 2z 3 4 + 2 5 indicates the number of a's to be multiplied together
e. =
x + z 3 + 5 is called the index (plural: indices).
12 + 10 22 3 24 = 2 2 2 2 = 16
= = = 2
8 8 4 y5 = y y y y y
Exercise 45 – All level 1 Example 66
If a = 2, b = 3 and c = 5, find the values of Find the value of b3 when b = 5.
the following:
b3 = 53 = 5 5 5 = 125
1. 9+7 2. c-2 3. 6-b
When dealing with expressions like 8mn4 note that it
4. 6b 5. 9c 6. ab
is only the symbol n which is raised to the fourth
7. 3bc 8. abc 9. 5c - 2 power. Thus:
10. 4c + 6b 11. 8c – 7 12. a + 2b + 5c 8mn4 = 8 m n n n n
ab
13. 8c - 4b 14. 2÷a 15. Example 67
8
Find the value of 7p2q3 when p = 5 and q = 4.
abc 2c 5a + 9b + 8c
16. 17. 18. 7p2q3 = 7 52 43 = 7 25 64
6 a a+b+c
= 11200
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Exercise 46 – All level 1 3b2 + 7b2 = (3 + 7)b2 = 10b2
If a = 2, b = 3 and c = 4 find the values of the
-3y - 5y = (- 3 - 5)y = - 8y
followings:
1. a2 2. b4 3. ab3 q - 3q = (1 - 3)q = - 2q
2 2 3 2 2
4. 2a c 5. ab c 6. 5a + 6b
Only like terms can be added or subtracted. Thus
3a4 7a + 3b - 2c is an expression containing three unlike
7. a2 + c2 8. 7b3c2 9.
c2 terms and it cannot be simplified any further.
c5 Similarly with 8a2b + 7ab3 + 6a2b2 which are all unlike
10. terms.
ab3
Addition of Algebraic Terms It is possible to have several sets of like terms in an
expression and each set can then be simplified.
Like terms are numerical multiplies of the same
algebraic quantity. Thus: 8x + 3y - 4z - 5x + 7z - 2y + 2z
7x, 5x and - 3x = (8 - 5)x + (3 - 2)y + (- 4 + 7 + 2)z
are three like terms.
= 3x + y + 5z
An expression consisting of like terms can be reduced
to a single term by adding the numerical coefficients
together. Thus:
7x - 5x + 3x = (7 - 5 + 3)x = 5x
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Multiplication & Division of Algebraic Quantities 4x 4x
= -
The rules are exactly the same as those used with - 3y 3y
directed numbers:
When multiplying expressions containing the same
symbols, indices are used:
(+ x)(+ y) = + (xy) = + xy = xy
m m = m2
5x 3y = 5 3 x y = 15xy
3m 5m = 3 m 5 m = 15m2
(x)(-y) = - (xy) = - xy
(- m) m2 = (- m) m m = - m3
(2x)(- 3y) = - (2x)(3y) = -6xy
(- 4x)(2y) = - (4x)(2y) = -8xy 5m2n 3mn3
= 5 m m n 3 m n n n
(- 3x)(- 2y) = + (3x)(2y) = 6xy
= 15m3n4
+x x x
= + =
+y y y
3mn (-2n2)
- 3x 3x = 3 m n (- 2) n n = - 6mn3
= -
2y 2y
- 5x 5x 5x
= + =
- 6y 6y 6y
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When dividing algebraic expressions, cancellation 4. - 2x - 4x
between numerator and denominator is often possible.
Cancelling is equivalent to dividing both numerator
5. - 8x + 3x
and denominator by the same quantity:
pq pxq
= =q 6. - 2x + 7x
p p
3p2q 3xpxpxq p 7. 8a - 6a - 7a
= =
6pq2 6xpxqxq 2q
8. 5m + 13m - 6m
18x2y2z 18 x x x x x y x y x z
= = 3xy
6xyz 6xxxyxz
9. 6b2 - 4b2 + 3b2
10. 6ab - 3ab - 2ab
Exercise 47 – All level 1
Simplify the following: 11. 14xy + 5xy - 7xy + 2xy
1. 7x + 11x
12. - 5x + 7x - 3x - 2x
2. 7x - 5x
13. - 4x2 - 3x2 + x2
3. 3x -6x
14. 3x - 2y + 4z - 2x2 - 3y + 5z + 6x + 2y - 3z
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15. 3a2b + 2ab3 + 4a2b3 - 5ab3 + 11b4 + 6a2b 25. 8m (- 3n)
16. 1.2x3 - 3.4x2 + 4a2b2 - 3.7x2 + 3.6x - 2.8 26. (- 4a) 3b
17. pq + 2.1qr - 2.2rq + 8pq 27. 8p (- q) (- 3r)
18. 2.6a2b2 - 3.4b3 - 2.7a3 - 3a2b2 - 2.6b3 +1.5a3 28. 3a (- 4b) (- c) 5d
19. 2x 5y 29. 12x ÷ 6
20. 3a 4b 30. 4a ÷ (- 7b)
21. 3 4m 31. (- 5a) ÷ 8b
1 32. (- 3a) ÷ (- 3b)
22. q 16p
4
33. 4a ÷ 2b
23. x (- y)
34. 4ab ÷ 2a
24. (- 3a) (- 2b)
35. 12x2yz2 ÷ 4xz2
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36. (- 12a2b) ÷ 6a 47. (- 3pq) (- 3q)
37. 8a2bc2 ÷ 4ac2 48. 8mn (- 3m2n3)
38. 7a2b2 ÷ 3ab 49. 7ab (- 3a2)
39. a a 50. 2q3r4 5qr2
40. b (- b) 51. (- 3m) 2n (- 5p)
41. (- m) m 52. 5a2 (- 3b) 5ab
42. (- p) (- p) 53. m2n (- mn) 5m2n2
43. 3a 2a
44. 5X X
45. 5q (- 3q)
46. 3m (- 3m)
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Brackets - 3(2x - 5y) = (- 3) 2x + (- 3) (- 5y)
Brackets are used for convenience in grouping terms = - 6x + 15y
together. When removing brackets each term within - (m + n) = -m-n
the bracket is multiplied by the quantity outside the - (p – q) = -p+q
bracket: - 2(p + 3q) = - 2p - 6q
3(x + y) = 3x + 3y When simplifying expressions containing brackets first
remove the brackets and then add the like terms
5(2x + 3y) = 5 2x + 5 3y = 10x + 15y together:
(3x + 7y) - (4x + 3y) = 3x + 7y - 4x - 3y
4(a - 2b) = 4 a - 4 2b = 4a - 8b
= - x + 4y
m(a + b) = ma + mb
3(2x + 3y) - (x + 5y) = 6x + 9y - x - 5y
3x(2p + 3q) = 3x 2p + 3x 3q = 6px + 9qx
= 5x + 4y
4a(2a + b) = 4a 2a + 4a b = 8a2 + 4ab
x(a + b) - x(a + 3b) = ax + bx - ax - 3bx
When a bracket has a minus sign in front of it, the
signs of all the terms inside the bracket are changed
= - 2bx
when the bracket is removed. The reason for this rule
may be seen from the following example:
2(5a + 3b) + 3(a - 2b) = 10a + 6b + 3a - 6b
= 13a
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Exercise 48 20. - 2m(- 1 + 3m - 2n)
Questions 1 - 20, Level 1, Remainder Level 2
21. 3(x + 1) + 2(x + 4)
Remove the brackets and simplify:
1. 3(x + 4) 2. 2(a + b) 22. 5(2a + 4) - 3(4a + 2)
1 23. 3(x + 4) - (2x + 5)
3. 3(3x + 2y) 4. (x - 1)
2
24. 4(1 - 2x) - 3(3x - 4)
5. 5(2p - 3q) 6. 7(a - 3m)
25. 5(2x - y) - 3(x + 2y)
7. - (a + b) 8. - (a - 2b)
1 1
26. (y - 1) + (2y - 3)
9. - (3p - 3q) 10. - (7m - 6) 2 3
11. - 4(x + 5) 12. - 2(2x - 5) 27. - (4a + 5b - 3c) - 2(2a + 3b - 4c)
13. - 5(4 - 3x) 14. 2k(k - 5) 28. 2x(x - 5) - x(x - 2) - 3x(x - 5)
15. - 3y(3x + 4) 16. a(p - q - r) 29. 3(a - b) - 2(2a - 3b) + 4(a - 3b)
17. 4xy(ab - ac + d) 30. 3x(x2 + 7x - 1) - 2x(2x2 + 3) - 3(x2 + 5)
18. 3x2(x2 - 2xy + y2)
19. - 7P(2P2 - P + 1)
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Addition and Subtraction of Fractions 2 3 4
2. Simplify + + .
x 2x 3x
The method for algebraic fractions is the same as for
arithmetical fraction, that is:
The L.C.M. of x, 2x and 3x is 6x.
Find the L.C.M. of the denominators.
Express each fraction with the common 2 3 4 12 + 9 + 8 29
+ + = =
denominators. x 2x 3x 6x 6x
Add or subtract the fractions.
The sign in front of a fraction applies to the fraction as
Example 68 a whole. The line which separates the numerator and
denominator acts as a bracket.
a b c
1. Simplify + - .
2 3 4
The L.C.M. of 2,3 and 4 is 12.
a b c 6a 4b 3c
+ - = + -
2 3 4 12 12 12
6a + 4b - 3c
=
12
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Example 69 Exercise 49 - All level 2
m 2m + n m - 2n Simplify the following:
Simplify + - .
12 4 3 x x x 5a 7a
1. + + 2. -
3 4 5 12 18
The L.C.M. of 12, 4 and 3 is 12.
2 3 3 5 4
m 2m + n m - 2n 3. - 4. - +
+ - q 2q y 3y 5y
12 4 3
3 2 3x 5y
m + 3(2m + n) - 4(m - 2n) 5. - 6. -
5p 3q 2y 6x
=
12
2x x 2m + n
7. 1 - + 8. 3m -
m + 6m + 3n - 4m + 8n 5 8 7
=
12
3a + 5b a - 3b
9. -
3m + 11n 4 2
=
12
3m - 5n 3m - 7n
10. -
6 2
x - 2 2 x - 5 x - 2
11. + 12. -
4 5 3 4
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Answers Exercise 46
Exercise 44 1. 4 2. 81 3. 54 4. 32
1. 7x 2. 4x – 3 3. 5x + y 5. 1152 6. 74 7. 20 8. 3024
x + y x 9. 3 10. 18.96
4. 5. 6. 8xyz
z 2
Exercise 47
xy
7. 8. 3x – 4y 1. 18x 2. 2x 3. – 3x 4. – 6x
z
Exercise 45 5. – 5x 6. 5x 7. - 5a 8. 12m.
1. 16 2. 3 3. 3
9. 5b2 10. ab 11. 14xy 12. - 3x
4. 18 5. 45 6. 6
7. 45 8. 30 9. 23 13. - 6x2
10. 38 11. 33 12. 33 14. - 2x2 + 9x - 3y + 6z
3
13. 28 14. 1 15. 15. 9a2b - 3ab3 + 4a2b3 + 11b4
4
7
16. 5 17. 5 18. 7 or 7.7 16. 1.2x3 - 7.1x2 + 3.6x + 4a2b2 - 2.8
10
17. 9pq - 0.1rq 18. - 0.4a2b2 - 6b3 - 1.2a3
19. 10xy 20. 12ab 21. 12m
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22. 4pq 23. – xy Exercise 48
1. 3x + 12 2. 2a + 2b
24. 6ab 25. – 24mn 26. - 12ab
x-1
27. 24pqr 28. 60abcd 29. 2x 3. 9x + 6y 4.
2
4a 5a a 5. 10p - 15q
30. - 31. - 32.
7b 8b b
6. 7a - 21m 7. -a-b
2a
33. 34. 2b 35. 3xy
b 8. 2b - a 9. 3q - 3p
7ab 10. 6 - 7m 11. - 4x - 20
36. - 2ab 37. 2ab 38.
3
12. 10 - 4x 13. 15x - 20
2 2 2
39. a 40. - b 41. -m
14. 2k2 - 10 15. - 9xy - 12y
2 2 2
42. p 43. 6a 44. 5X
16. ap - aq - ar
45. - 15q2 46. - 9m2 47. 9pq2
17. 4abxy - 4acxy + 4dxy
48. - 24m3n4 49. - 21a3b 50. 10q4r6 18. 3x4 - 6x3y + 3x2y2
51. 30mnp 52. - 75a3b2 53. - 5m5n4 19. - 14P3 + 7P2 - 7P
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20. 2m - 6m2 + 4mn Exercise 49
47x a
21. 5x + 11 1. 2.
60 36
22. 14 - 2a
1 32
3. 4.
23. x + 7 q 15y
24. 16 - 17x 9q - 10p 9x2 - 5y2
5. 6.
15pq 6xy
25. 7x - 11y
11x 19m - n
7. 1 - 8.
7y - 9 40 7
26.
6
a + 11b 8n - 3m
9. 10.
27. - 8a - 11b + 11c 4 3
28. 7x - 2x2 5x - 2 x - 14
11. 12.
20 12
29. 3a - 9b
30. - x3 + 18x2 - 9x - 15
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by substitution the value obtained for the first
Chapter 1.2.2: Simultaneous Equations quantity, y, back into one of the equations.
Introduction
Elimination Method for Solving Simultaneous
Consider the two equations:
Equations
2x + 3y = 13 [1]
The method will be shown by considering the following
3x + 2y = 12 [2]
examples.
Each equation contains the unknown quantities x and
Example 70
y. The solutions of the equations are the value of x
and y which satisfy both equations. Equations such 1. Solve the equations:
as these are called simultaneous equations. 3x + 4y = 11 [1]
You will notice that there are two equations and two x + 7y = 15 [2]
unknowns, x and y. If we multiply equation [2] by 3 we shall have the
same coefficient of x in both equations:
Solving the simultaneous equation means finding the
values of the unknowns x and y which when 3x + 21y = 45 [3]
substituted into the left hand side of the equation give We can now eliminate x by subtracting equation [1]
the values shown on the right hand side of the from equation [3].
equation.
3x + 21y = 45 [3]
To find the values of x and y first of all you must 3x + 4y = 11 [1]
eliminate one of the quantities, say x, from the
17y = 34
equations. This will allow you to find the other
quantity, y. The eliminated quantity, x, is then found y = 2
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To find x we substitute for y = 2 in either of the coefficient of x in equation [2]) and equation [2] is
original equations. Thus, substituting for y = 2 in multiplied by 5 (the coefficient of x in equation [1]).
equation [1],
Multiply equation [1] by 4,
3x + 4 2 = 11
20x + 12y = 116 [3]
3x + 8 = 11
3x = 11 - 8 Multiply equation [2] by 5,
3x = 3
20x + 35y = 185 [4]
x = 1
Subtracting equation [3] from equation [4],
Hence the solutions are:
x = 1 and y = 2 23y = 69
y = 3
Hence the solutions are correct since the Left hand
side (L.H.S.) and right hand side (R.H.S.) are equal. Substituting for y = 3 in equation [1],
2. Solve the equations: 5x + 3 3 = 29
5x + 3y = 29 [1] 5x + 9 = 29
4x + 7y = 37 [2] 5x = 20
x = 4
The same coefficient of x can be obtained in both
equations if equation [1] is multiplied by 4 (the
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Hence the solutions are: Substituting for x = 3 in equation [1],
7 3 + 4y = 41
y = 3 and x = 4
21 + 4y = 41
Check in equation [2],
4y = 20
L.H.S. = 4 4 + 7 3
y = 5
= 16 + 21 = 37 = R.H.S.
Hence the solutions are:
3. Solve the equations: x = 3 and y = 5
7x + 4y = 41 [1]
Check in equation [2],
4x - 2y = 2 [2]
L.H.S. = 4 3 - 2 5
In these equations it is easier to eliminate y because
the same coefficient of y can be obtained in both = 12 - 10 = 2 = R.H.S.
equations by multiplying equation [2] by 2.
Multiplying equation [2] by 2,
8x - 4y = 4 [3]
Adding equation [1] and [3],
15x = 45
x = 3
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4. Solve the equations: Multiplying equation [4] by 3,
2x y 7 45x - 24y = 18 [6]
- = [1]
3 4 12
Subtracting equation [6] from equation [5],
3x 2y 3
- = [2] 19x = 38
4 5 10
It is best to clear each equation of fractions before x = 2
attempting to solve. Substituting for x = 2 in equation [3],
In equation [1] the L.C.M. of the denominators is 12.
8 2 - 3y = 7
Hence by multiplying equation [1]by 12,
8x - 3y = 7 [3] 16 - 3y = 7
In equation [2] the L.C.M. of the denominators is 20. - 3y = -9
Hence by multiplying equation [2] by 20,
15x - 8y = 6 [4] y = 3
We now proceed in the usual way. Multiplying Hence the solutions are:
equation [3] by 8,
x = 2 and y = 3
64x - 24y = 56 [5]
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Exercise 50 - Questions 1 - 5, Level 1
Solve the following equations for x and y and check
the solutions:
1. 3x + 2y = 7 2. x - 3y = 1
x+y = 3 x + 3y = 19
3. x + 3y = 7 4. 7x - 4y = 37
2x - 2y = 6 6x + 3y = 51
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
5. 4x - 6y = -2.5
7x - 5y = - 0.25
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Answers
Exercise 50
1. x = 1, y=2
2. x = 10, y=3
3. x = 4, y=1
4. x = 7, y=3
5. x = 0.5, y = 0.75
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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Plot these results and obtain the equation connecting
Chapter 1.2.2: Graphs of Equations E and W which is thought to be of the type:
Introduction
E = aW + b.
The graphs discussed in this section assume that the
relationship between the independent and dependent If E and W are connected by an equation of the type
variables is a straight line.
E = aW + b
One of the most important applications of the straight- then the graph must be a straight line. Note that
line equation is the determination of an equation when plotting the graph, W is the independent
connecting two quantities when values have been variable and must be plotted on the horizontal axis.
obtained from an experiment. E is the dependent variable and must be plotted on
the vertical axis.
Example 71
In an experiment carried out with a lifting machine the On plotting the points (see diagram below) it will be
effort E and the load W were found to have the noticed that they deviate only slightly from a straight
values given in the table below: line. Since the data are experimental we must expect
errors in measurement and observation and hence
W slight deviations from a straight line must be
15 25 40 50 60
(kg) expected. Although the straight line will not pass
E through some of the points an attempt must be made
2.75 3.80 5.75 7.00 8.20
(kg) to ensure an even spread of the points above and
below the line.
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Hence,
7.5 = 55a + b [1]
The point W = 20, E = 3.3 also lies on the line,
Hence,
3.3 = 20a + b [2]
Subtracting equation [2] from equation [1],
4.2 = 35a
a = 0.12
To determine the equation we choose two points Substituting for a = 0.12 in equation [2],
which lie on the straight line.
3.3 = 20 0.12 + b
Do not use any of the experimental results from the
b = 0.9
table unless they happen to lie exactly on the line.
Choose the points as far apart as is convenient The required equation connecting E and W is
because this will help the accuracy of your result.
therefore;
The point W = 55, E = 7.5 lies on the line.
E = 0.12W + 0.9
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The Meaning of m and c in the equation of a
straight line
Every linear equation may be written in the
STANDARD FORM:
y = mx + c
Hence y = 2x - 5 is in the standard form with
m = 2 and c = -5.
The equation y = 4 - 3x is in standard form, if we
rearrange it to give:
y = -3x + 4.
BC
is called the gradient of the line,
We then see that m = -3 and c = 4. AC
The point B is any point on the straight line shown in
the diagram below, and it has the co-ordinates x and
y. Point A is where the line cuts the y-axis and it
has co-ordinates x = 0 and y = c.
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Now
BC
BC = AC = AC gradient of the line
AC
x = AC
y = BC + CD = BC + AO
= AC gradient of the line + AO
= x gradient of the line + c
But
y = mx + c
Hence it can be seen that:
m = gradient of the line
c = intercept on the y-axis
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The diagram below shows the difference between Example 72
positive and negative gradients. Find the values of m and c if a the straight line
y = mx + c passes through the point (-1,3) and
has a gradient of 6.
Since the gradient is 6 we have m = 6.
y = 6x + c
Since the line passes through the point (-1,3) we have
y = 3 when x = -1. By substitution,
3 = 6 (-1) + c
3 = -6 + c
c = 9
Hence y = 6x + 9
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Example 73 Since the origin is at the intersection of the axes, c is
the intercept on the y axis. From the diagram it will
Find the law of the straight line shown in the following
be seen that c = - 4. We now have to find m.
diagram:
Since this is the gradient of the line we draw triangle
QPN making the sides reasonably long since a small
triangle will give very inaccurate results. Using the
scales of x and y we see that:
QP = 2 units and PN = 10 units.
NP 10
m = = = 5
QP 2
The standard equation of a straight line:
y = mx + c becomes y = 5x -4.
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Exercise 51 In the following find the values of m and c if the
straight line y = mx + c passes though the given
Draw graphs of the following simple equations:
points:
1. y = x + 2 taking values of x between -3 and 2.
9. (-2, -3) and (3,7)
2. y = 2x + 5 taking values of x between -4 and 4.
10. (1,1) and (2,4)
The following equations represent straight lines. State
in each case the gradient of the line and the intercept 11. (-2,1) and (3,-9)
on the y-axis.
3. y = x + 3 4. y = -5x - 2
12. A test on a metal filament lamp gave the
following values of resistance (R ohms) at various
5. y = -3x + 4 6. y = 4x - 3 voltages (V volts).
V 62 75 89 100 120
7. Find the values of m and c if the straight line
R 100 117 135 149 175
y = mx + c passes through the point (-2,5)
and has a gradient of 4.
These results are expected to agree with an equation
8. Find the values of m and c if the straight line of the type R = mV + c where m and c are
y = mx + c passes through the point (3,4) and constants. Test this by drawing the graph and find
the intercept on the y-axis is -2. suitable values for m and c.
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Answers 2. y = 2x + 5 taking values of x between -4 and 4.
Exercise 51
1. y = x + 2 taking values of x between -3 and 2.
3. m = 1, c = 3.
4. m = - 5, c = - 2.
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5. m = - 3, c = 4. 12.
6. m = 4, c = - 3.
7. m = 4, c = 13.
8. m = 2, c = -2.
9. m = 2, c = 1.
10. m = 3, c = -2.
11. m = -2, c = -3.
R = 1.333V + 16
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Chapter 1.2.3: Indices & Powers Powers
Laws of Indices When raising the power of a quantity to a power
multiply the indices together:
The laws of indices are as shown below.
(3x)3 = 31 3 x1 3 = 33x3 = 27x3
Multiplication
(a2b3c4)2 = a2 2b3 2c4 2 = a4b6c8
When multiplying powers of the same quantity
together add the indices. 3m 3
2
32m3 2 9m6
x5 5n 2 = =
52n2 2 25n4
= x5-2 = x3
x2
a3 a4 a8 a3 + 4 + 8 Negative Indices
=
a5 a7 a5 + 7
A negative index indicates the reciprocal of the
quantity.
a15 1
= = a15 - 12 = a3 a-1
a12 =
a
3y2 2y5 5y4 30y2 + 5 + 4 5
= 5x-3 =
6y3 4y4 24y3 + 4 x3
11 11 - 7 4 2 -2 -3 a2
30y 5y 5y a b c =
= = = b2c3
24y7 4 4
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Fractional Indices Example 74
The numerator of a fractional index indicates the 4
1 1 4 34
power to which the quantity must be raised; the 1. 81
denominator indicates the root which is to be taken. 3 3 4 14
5 2 5
2
5
2 2
2 2. 42 21 2
3
x 3
x2 25 32
3
2 1 2 1
3
1
ab 4
a 4
b3 3. 9x 2
2
x 2 2
3 1
2
x 1
2
1
1 1
a 2
a 3 x 3x
(Note that for square roots the number indicating the
root is usually omitted.) Example 75
If 3p + 4 = 9p - 2 find the value of p.
64a 8
1 1
64a6 6 2
2
a6 2
2
1
6
1 3p + 4 = (32)p - 2
8 2
a 2
8a3
3p + 4 = 32p - 4
Since (p + 4) and (2p - 4) are both powers of 3,
Zero Index
they must be equal.
Any quantity raised to the power of zero is equal to 1.
a0 1 p + 4 = 2p - 4
x
0
p = 8
1
y
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Exercise 52
Simplify the following:
1. 35 32 37
2. b2 b4 b5 b8
57
3.
52
23 24 27 INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
4.
22 25
5. (72)3
6. (3x2y3)4
7. (a2b3c)5
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Answers
Exercise 52
1. 314
2. b19
3. 55
4. 27 INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
5. 76
6. 34x8y12
7. a10b15c5
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Find the value of 15.19 ÷ 3.57
Chapter 1.2.4: Logarithm The logarithm of 15.19 is 1.1815 and the logarithm
Why use logarithms of 3.57 is 0.5527.
Logarithms were developed in the days before The “division” 15.19 ÷ 3.57 becomes the
pocket calculators to make multiplication and “subtraction”:
division of numbers easier.
1.1815 – 0.5527 = 0.6288.
You will have noted that both long division and long The antilog of 0.6288 is 4.254, which is the same as
multiplication are time consuming to perform as that obtained in the “Long Division”.
shown by the example displayed. Long Division
Find the value of 15.19 ÷ 3.57
In the lesson in indices it was shown that when 357)1519(4.2549
multiplying powers of the same quantity together 1428
add the indices. 910
x6 x7 x67 x13 714
1960
When dividing powers of the same quantity subtract
1785
the index of the denominator (bottom part) from the
1750
index of the numerator (top part).
1428
x5
= x5 - 2 = x3 3220
x2
3213
Logarithms allow you to add and subtract numbers 7
rather than multiply and divide. This lesson introduces you to logarithms and how to
use the “log” and “antilog” tables.
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Numbers in Standard Form Introduction to Logarithms
n,
A number expressed in the form A 10 where A is a Any positive number can be expressed as a power of
10. For instance:
number between 1 and 10 and n is an integer is said
to be in standard form: 1000 = 103
48 = 101.6812
50000 = 5.0 x 104 1.51 = 100.1790
3 3
0.003 = = = 3 x 10-3
1000 103 These powers of 10 are called logarithms to the base
10.
Number Standard Form
That is:
2.5 = 2.5 (2.5 x 100)
378.6 = 3.786 x 102 number = 10logarithm
0.435 = 4.35 x 10-1 Notice that 48 = 4.8 x 101
0.0006789 = 6.789 x 10-4
= 100.6812 x 101 = 101.6812
Exercise 53- Level 1
Express each of the following in standard form: Thus the logarithm of any number is made up of a
number between 1 and 10 and the power of 10. The
1. 8000 2. 92500 3. 893 log table shown at the end of this section is for
4. 5600000 5. 0.0035 6. 0.7 numbers between 1 and 10.
7. 0.000365 8. 0.00712
Shown below is an extract from the logarithm table.
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2. Move along this row until it meets the column 3 this
the 3rd significant place (4.93), this gives the number
6928.
3. The 4th significant place, 8 (4.938) gives the
number 7.
4. Thus from the table the decimal part of the
logarithm of 4.938 is the number:
Example 76
To get the log of 4.938:
1. Look at the first column and go down the column to
the number 49 (4.9). (First two significant places.)
The logarithm of 4.938 = 0.6928 + 0.0007 = 0.6935
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Numbers Outside Range 1-10 Parts of a Logarithm
To find out the logarithms of numbers outside this A logarithm therefore consists of two parts:
range we make use of numbers in standard form and (1) A whole number part called the characteristic.
the multiplication law of indices. For example: (2) A decimal part called the mantissa which is
1523 = 1.523 x 103 found directly from the log tables.
log 1.523 = 0.1826 For a number, 10 or greater, the characteristic is
1523 = 10 0.1826
x 10 3 found by subtracting 1 from the number of figures to
the left of the decimal point in the given number.
= 103.1826
log 1523 = 3.1826
The logarithm of 5.057 is 0.7033 + 0.0006 = 0.7039.
Consider the logarithm (log) 74
The number 505.7 is 5.057 x 102 thus the
74 = 101.8692 = 10logarithm characteristic is 2.
The log 324.3: log 505.7 = 2.7039
The log of 1.363 is 0.1335 + 0.0010 = 0.1345. In
the number 13630 the characteristic is 4.
log 13630 = 4.1345
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Negative Characteristics In the number 0.04958 to get the number you have
to look up in the table you have to move the decimal
0.4621 = 4.621 x 10-1
point two places, thus, the characteristic is 2 .
log 4.621 = 0.6647
log 0.04958 2.6953
0.4621 = 100.6647 x 10-1
In the number 0.0006123 the characteristic is 4.
= 10-1 + 0.6647
log 0.0006123 4.7870
The characteristic is therefore –1 and the mantissa is
0.6647. However writing –1+0.6647 for the Note when using calculators a negative number is
logarithm of 0.6321 would be awkward and we obtained:
therefore write:
log 0.4621 1.6647 - 1 0.6647 - 0.3353
Log 0.4621 = 1 .6647
log 0.0006123 4.7870 - 4 0.7870 - 3.213
Note that the minus sign has been written above the
characteristic but it must be clearly understood that: Anti-Logarithms
If we have a logarithm of a number, what is the
2.7356 2 0.7356
and number? Remember:
4.0673 4 0.0673
number = 10logarithm
All numbers between 0 and 1 have negative
Thus if we use the logarithm as the power of 10 then
characteristics which are found by adding 1 for each the resulting number is the antilog of the logarithm.
time the decimal point has to be moved to get the Hence if the logarithm of the number is 0.6812, then
number used in the look up tables. the antilog of 0.6812 is 100.6812 = 4.8
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Tables have been developed that do this calculation Note, the number given for a mantissa of 0.7000 is
for us. The table works on the decimal part or 5012. This is taken as a number between 1 and 10,
mantissa of the logarithm. The resulting number is a i.e. 5.012.
number between 1 and 10. The characteristic is then
used to find the power of 10 that the resulting Example 77
number must be multiplied by to get the final result. (1) To find the number whose log is 2.7312. Using the
mantissa .7312,
An extract from the table of antilogs is shown below.
we find 5386 (5.386) as the number corresponding.
Since the characteristic is 2 the number must be
538.6.
(2) To find the number whose log is 3.7178. Using
the mantissa .7178,
we find 5222 (5.222) as the number corresponding.
Since the characteristic is 3 the number must be
0.005222.
(Note that log 0.005222 3.7178 - 2.2822)
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Exercise 54 - Level 1
Write down the following numbers:
1. 7.263 2. 8.197 3. 63.25
4. 716.4 5. 1823 6. 78640
7. 70.01 8. 176300 9. 0.1786
10. 0.006341 11. 0.06891 12. 0.0007182
The antilog of 0.0844 is 1.214
Write down the antilogs of the following:
Rules for the use of Logarithms - Division
13. 2.6183 14. 1.7358 15. 0.6288
Find the log of each number. Then subtract the log
16. 3.1058 17. 1.2345 18. 2.6008 of the denominator (bottom number) from the log of
the numerator (top number).
19. 4.631 8 20. 3.555 7 Example 79
17.63
Rules for the use of Logarithms - Multiplication = 456.5
0.03862
Find the logs of the numbers and add them together.
The antilog of the sum gives the required answer.
Example 78
19.63 x 0.06734 x 0.9187 = 1.2144
The antilog of 2.6595 is 456.5.
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Example 80
Combining Multiplication and Division
0.6178 20.31
= 0.9913
136.5 0.09273
In problems where there is multiplication and
division a table layout like the one below is helpful.
The antilog of 1 .9962 is 0.9913.
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Answers
Exercise 53- Level 1
Numbers in standard forms:
1. 8 x 103 2. 9.25 x 104 3. 8.93 x 102
4. 5.6 x 106 5. 3.5 x 10-3 6. 7 x 10-1
7. 3.65 x 10-4 8. 7.12 x 10-3
Exercise 54 - Level 1
Logarithms: INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
1. 0.8611 2. 0.9137 3. 1.8010
4. 2.8551 5. 3.2608 6. 4.8956
7. 1.8452 8. 5.2462 9. 1 .2519
10. 3.8022 11. 2.8383 12. 4.8562
Antilogarithms:
13. 415.3 14. 54.43 15. 4.254
16. 1276 17. 0.1716 18. 0.03988
19. 0.0004284 20. 0.003595
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Chapter 1.2.5: Binary System It is perfectly possible to have a number system
which works on the powers of any number. The
Introduction most popular of these systems is the binary (Bi
In the ordinary decimal system the digits 0 to 9 are means two), which operates with the powers of 2
used. Consider the number 23. It means: instead of 10 as in the decimal system.
2 10 + 3 1 = 23
It will be noticed in the decimal system that the
Now remembering that 100 = 1, 101 = 10. greatest digit used is 9 which is one less than 10.
Thus, in the binary system the greatest digit that can
We may write 23 as follows, using decimal to base be used is 1 which is one less than 2.
10.
2 101 + 3 100 A number written in binary consists only of the digits
0 and 1.
Now let us consider 5623 to the base 10.
The number 10111 means
5623
1 24 + 0 23 + 1 22 + 1 21 + 1 20
5 x 103 + 6 102 + 2 101 + 3 100
Thus:
16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 23
80321 = 8104 + 0103 + 3102 + 2101 + 1100
in decimal 10
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Convert from Base 10 to Binary Step 5. Put a 1 in the box below.
To convert from a base 10 system to binary the Step 6. Take 7 from 4. 7-4=3
following method may be used.
To convert 23 to binary: Step 7. Look for the largest number that is equal
to or just under 3. In this case 2.
26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Step 8. Put a 1 in the box below.
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Step 9. Take 3 from 2. 3-2=1
23 7 3 1
Step 10. Look for the largest number that is equal
1 0 1 1 1 Binary to or just number 3. In this case 1.
Step 11. Put 1 in the box below. This final step
Step 1. Look for the largest number that is equal finishes the conversion. All gaps between
to or just under the decimal number you the digit 1 and the extreme left are filled in
want to convert. In this case 16. with 0.
Step 2. Put a 1 in the box below. Thus 23 in binary is 10111.
Step 3. Take 16 from 23. 23 - 16 = 7 Note: The above conversion is not limited to 64,
there is no limit. The next number would be 128, the
Step 4. Look for the largest number that is equal next 256, the next 512 etc.
to or just under 7. In this case 4.
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Alternative Method to Convert Decimal to Binary
An alternative method is to find the binary number by continuously dividing the decimal number by 2. The method
is shown below:
Convert 57 to binary:
Divide Result of Remainder 2x
by Division
2 57
2 28 1 1 Divide 57 by 2 gives 28, remainder is 1 x 20
2 14 0 2 Divide 28 by 2 gives 14, remainder is 0 x 21
2 7 0 4 Divide 14 by 2 gives 7, remainder is 0 x 22
2 3 1 8 Divide 7 by 2 gives 3, remainder is 1 x 23
2 1 1 16 Divide 3 by 2 gives 1, remainder is 1 x 24
2 0 1 32 Divide 1 by 2 gives 0, remainder is 1 x 25
The binary number is found by reading the remainder from the bottom up, thus:
25 24 23 22 21 20
Binary 57 = 1 1 1 0 0 1
2x is the value of the binary digit that you are finding:
20 = 1, 21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8, 24 = 16, 25 = 32 etc..
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Example 81
The binary system is used on computers and other
The following decimal numbers have been converted
calculating machines. Since only the digits 0 and 1
to binary:
are used in thee system this is equivalent to a two-
Decimal Binary
state system. For instance if a device is off it
1) 18 10010
represents a 0 and if it is on a 1 is represented. The
2) 32 100000
figure shows how the number 10110 can be
3) 40 101000
represented by 5 electric light bulbs.
4) 43 101011
Exercise 55 - Level 1
Convert the following decimal numbers into binary.
1. 11 2. 29 3. 30
4. 111 5. 90 6. 3
7. 48 8. 61 9. 119
10. 127
As well as whole numbers being expressed in binary
we can also express decimal fractions in binary but
this will be covered in Module 5.
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Other Number Scales Example 83
In the scale of 5, powers of 5 are used. Only the 4638 is a number of BASE 8.
digits 0,1,2,3, and 4 are available because the
greatest digits used must be one less than 5. 4638 = (4 x 82) + (6 x 81) + (3 x 80)
= (4 x 64) + (6 x 8) + (3 x 1)
If you are told that the number 3412 is in the scale
of 5 it means that the number is based upon the = 256 + 48 + 3
powers of 5. To show that this is so we write 34125 . = 30710
The suffix 5 indicates that the number of 5 is being
used. The number scale is called the BASE. We say
34125 is to the BASE 5.
Example 82
3412s = (3 x 53) + (4 x 52) + (1 x 51) + (2 x 50)
= (3 x 125) + (4 x 25) + (1 x 5) + (2 x 1)
= 375 + 100 + 5 + 2
= 48210
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Convert to any Base from Base 10 Step 1 What is the largest number (power of 8)
that is equal or just under the decimal
Converting from a number in BASE 10 to a number in
number you want to convert. In this case
any other BASE use the table shown below.
this is 82 = 64. There are 6, 64s in 413.
413: 64 x 6 = 413 – 384 = 29.
Example 84
Convert 41310 into BASE 8 Step 2 What is the largest number (power of 8)
that is equal or just under 29. In this case
86 85 84 83 82 81 80 this is 81 = 8. There are 3, 8s in 29.
29: 8 x 3 = 29 – 24 = 5.
262144 32768 4096 512 64 8 1
Step 3 The largest number (power of 8) that is
384 29 5 equal or just under 5. In this case this is
80 = 1. There are 5, 1s in 5.
6 3 5 - octal 5: 1 x 5 = 5 – 5 = 0.
Thus 41310 = 63
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Alternative Method
Divide Result of Remainder 8x
by Division
8 413
8 51 5 1 Divide 413 by 8 gives 51, the remainder is 5 x 80
8 6 3 8 Divide 51 by 64 gives 6, the remainder is 3 x 81
8 0 6 64 Finally divide 6 by 8 gives 0, the remainder is 6 x 82
82 81 80
43510 to the BASE 8 = 6 3 5
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Exercise 56 - Level 1
Convert the following numbers to BASE 8
1. 390 2. 495 3. 1102
4. 80 5. 772
Octal
As well as binary (base 2), base 8 OCTAL and
HEXADECIMAL base 16 are also used in computer
technology, though octal and hexadecimal would
ultimately be converted to binary as all internal
computer operations are binary.
JAR 66 Module 5 will cover more on this topic.
Hexadecimal
As previously mentioned the hexadecimal is to base
16. It differs from other systems in using a
combination of both numbers and letters. The rules
for manipulation of the arithmetic are similar to those
for decimal. The chart that follows is only an
introduction. Conversions and arithmetic calculations
will be practised in Module 5.
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Answers
Exercise 55
Binary.
1. 1011 2. 11101 3. 11110
4. 1101111 5. 1011010 6. 11
7. 110000 8. 111101
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
9. 1110111 10. 1111111
Exercise 56
Base 8
1. 606 2. 757 3. 2116
4. 120 5. 1404
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Section 1.3: Geometry Arc Length
We have seen that an angle of 1 radian is subtended
Chapter 1.3.1: Geometry by an arc of length r as illustrated in the left-most
Radian Measures diagram. By extension an angle of 2 radians will be
subtended by an arc 2r, as shown.
We have seen that an angle
is measured in degrees.
There is however a second
way of measuring an angle.
In this second system the
unit is known as the radian.
In many scientific and
engineering calculations
radians are used in
preference to degrees.
Consider a circle of radius Note: The length of the arc is always given by:
r. The highlighted part of
The angle in radians x the radius.
the circumference of the
circle is the same length as
the radius. The angle at
the centre, so formed, is 1
radian.
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Arc Length: General Relationship Relationship between Radians and Degrees
In general, the relationship between length of the arc If we make the arc AB equal to a semi-circle then,
and the angle subtended by the arc at the centre of Length of arc = r
the circle is given by l = r
r
Angle in radians =
r
But the angle at the centre subtended by a semi-
circle is 180 and hence:
radians 180ο
ο
1 radian 180 57.3ο
It is worth remembering that
ο 0
0 180 radians
ο
60 3 radians
ο
45 4 radians
ο
90 2 radians
ο
30 6 radians
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Example 85
(1) Find the angle in radians subtended by an arc (3) Express an angle of 104 in radians
12.9 cm long whose radius is 4.6 cm.
x angle in degrees
length of arc Angle in radians =
180
Angle in radians =
radius of circle
x 104
12.9 = = 1.815 radians
180
=
4.6
= 2.804 radians Exercise 57 - Level 1
1. Find the angle in radians subtended by the
(2) Express an angle of 1.26 radians in degrees following arcs:
and minutes
(a) arc = 10.9cm, radius = 3.4cm
180 x angle in radians
Angle in degrees = (b) arc = 7.2m, radius = 2.3m
180 x 1.26 2. Express the following angles in degrees and
= = 72.18o minutes:
(a) 5 radians (b) 1.73 radians
Now:
(c) 0.159 radians
0.18o = 0.18 x 60 = 11 minutes
Angle = 72o 11’ 4. Express the following angles in radians:
(a) 83 (b) 189 (c) 295 (d) 5.21
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Types of Angle Complementary angles are
angles whose sum is 90.
There are different types of angles depending on the
magnitude of the angle and also the relationship
between the angles.
An acute angle is less than Supplementary angles are
90. angles whose sum is 180
A right angle is equal to 90.
Properties of Angles and Straight lines
(1) The total angle on a straight line is 180. The
A reflex angle is greater angles A and B are called adjacent angles. They are
than 180. also supplementary.
An obtuse angle lies
between 90 and 180
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(2) When two straight lines intersect the opposite
angles are equal. The angles A and C are called the
vertically opposite angles. Similarly the angles B and
D are also vertically opposite angles.
(3) When two parallel lines are cut by a transversal: (4) Conversely if the two straight lines are cut by a
transversal the lines are parallel if any one of the
(a) The corresponding angles are equal
following is true:
a = 1; b = m; c = p; d = q.
(a) Two corresponding angels are equal.
(b) The alternate angles are equal (b)Two alternate angles are equal.
d = m; c = l. (c) Two interior angles are supplementary .
(c) The interior angles are supplementary
d + l = 180; c + m= 180.
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Example 86 2) In the Figure below the line BF bisects ABC .
1) Find the angle A shown in Figure below: Find the value of the angle .
ο ο ο
B 180 138 42
B A corresponding angles
ο
A 42
The lines AX, BZ and EY are all parallel because they
lie at right-angles to the line XY.
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Exercise 58 - Level 1
1. Find angle x.
2. Find angle A.
c = b (alternative angles: BZ parallel to EY)
b = 38o
3. Find x.
a = d (alternative angles: XD parallel to BZ)
d = 80o
Angle ABC = b + d = 80 o + 38 o = 118o
The line BF bisects the angle ABC. Therefore the
angle FBC is ½ the angle ABC = 59o.
b + = 59o
Therefore, = 59o – b = 59o – 38o = 21o.
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4. Find angles: 6. Find angle x.
a, b, c & d.
7. A reflex angle is:
a) Less than 90
5. Find angle x. b) Greater than 90
c) Greater than 180
d) Equal to 180
8. Angles whose sum = 180o are called:
a) Complementary angles
b) Alternate angles
c) Supplementary angles
d) Corresponding angles
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9. Find angle A. 12. The lines AB, CD and EF are parallel. Find the
values x and y.
10. AB is parallel to ED.
Find the angle x.
13. Which of
the following
is correct?
a) q = r + p
b) q = r – p
11. Find x. c) q =
360 – p - r
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Graphical Representation Broken Line Graph Pie Graph
Charts and Graphs are pictorial representations of
date. They enable you to quickly visualise certain
relationships, completer complex calculations and
predict trends. Furthermore, charts allow you to see
the rate and magnitude of changes.
Information is presented graphically in many
different forms. Graphs are often found in the form
of bar charts, pictographs, broken line graphs (or
continuous curve graphs) and the circular or pie
Continuous Curved-Line Graph
chart.
Bar Graph Pictograph
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Many of the graphs that you will meet will conform to Use of Graphs
a standard layout of two variables displayed on You will find many graphs also produce a straight line,
adjacent axes, normally vertical and horizontal. This
which may, or may not pass through the origin. A
layout is described as Cartesian and usually has the graph of this type is formed when load is plotted
two axes, labelled x and y which intersect at the zero against extension for an ‘elastic’ material subjected to
point. a tensile test.
For such a graph, it is evident that the load value is
directly proportional to the extension that the load
produces.
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If you plot a graph, which represents the compression result of plotting the path of a rotating output along a
of a gas in a close d cylinder, it takes the form as straight axis.
shown.
The only difference between them is that the sine
wave always has its zero value at the start and
completion of each rotation. The cosine wave
however, begins and finishes its rotation with the
output at its maximum value.
If the temperature of the gas remains constant during
the compression, then P x volume = constant,
produces a curve known as a Hyperbola.
Graphs of Sine and Cosine Waves
Alternating voltages and currents are often
represented by sine and cosine waves. These are the
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Nomograms
The need to show how two or more variables affect a
value is common in the maintenance of aircraft.
Nomograms also known as an alignment chart, are a
special type of graph that enables you to solve
complex problems involving more than one variable.
Most nomogram charts contain a great deal of
information and require the use of scales on three
sides of the chart, as well as diagonal lines. In fact,
some charts contain so much information, that it can
be very important for you to carefully read the
instructions before using the chart and to show care
when reading information from the chart itself.
Illustrated below is a graph of three variables,
distance, speed and time, the resulting distance can
be extracted from the graph at the point where these
two dashed lines meet. A speed of 475 knots for 2.0
hours would result in a distance of 950 nautical miles.
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Answers Exercise 58 - Level 1
Exercise 57 - Level 1 1. x = 20o
1. (a) 3.21 radians (b) 3.13 radians 2. A = 100o
2. (a) 286.48o = 286o 29’ 3. x = 35o
(b) 99.12o = 99o 7’ 4. a = 70o, b = 110o, c = 110o, d = 70o
(c) 9.11o = 9o 7’ 5. x = 65o
4. (a) 1.45 radians (b) 3.30 radians 6. x = 80o
(c) 5.15 radians (d) 0.091 radians 7. (c) greater than 180 degrees
8. (c) Supplementary angles.
9. A = 54o
10. x = 130o
11. A = 65o
12. x = 230o, y = 32o
13. (b) p + q + r = 360
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Chapter 1.3.2: Trigonometry
The Notation for a Right-Angled Triangle
The sides of a right-angled triangle are given special
names. The side AB lies opposite the right-angle and
it is called the hypotenuse. The side BC lies opposite
to the angle A and it is called the side opposite to A.
The side AC is called the side adjacent to A.
Trigonometrical Ratios
side opposite angle
The sine of an angle =
hypotenuse
side adjacent to angle
The cosine of an angle =
hypotenuse
side opposite angle
The tangent of an angle =
side adjacent to angle
When we consider the angle B the side AB is still the
Note: The hypotenuse always lies opposite the
hypotenuse but AC is now the side opposite to B and
biggest angle, the right angle.
BC is the side adjacent to B.
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This can be remembered by the acronym MP
The ratio is called the sine of AOB
SOHCAHTOA. OP
Opposite OM
Sin = SOH The ratio is called the cosine of AOB
Hypotenuse
OP
Adjacent
Cos = CAH MP
Hypotenuse The ratio is called the tangent of AOB .
OM
Opposite
Tan = TOA
Adjacent The Sine of an Angle
Consider any angle 0 which is bounded by the lines The abbreviation ‘sin’ is usually used for sine. In any
OA and OB as shown. right-angled triangle:
side opposite angle
The sine of an angle =
hypotenuse
BC
sin A =
AC
AB
sin C =
AC
Take any point P on the boundary line OB. From P
draw line PM perpendicular to OA to meet it at the
point M. Then:
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Example 87 Part of this table is reproduced below and in full, with
the other trigonometrical tables, at the end of this
Find by drawing a suitable triangle the value of sine
section.
30.
Draw the lines AX and AY which intersect at A so that
the angle YAX = 30o as shown. Along AY measure
off AC equal to 1 unit (say 10cm) and from C draw
CB perpendicular to AX. Measure CB which will be
found to be 0.5 units (5cm in this case).
5
Therefore: sin 30o = = 0.5
10
Reading the Table of Sines of Angles
Although it is possible to find the sines of the angles
by drawing, this is inconvenient and not very
accurate. Tables of sines have been calculated which Note there are 60’ (minutes) in 1o. Thus 7.5o can be
allow us to find the sine of any angle. written as 7o 30’ (30 minutes).
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To find sin 12.
The sine of an angle with an exact
number of degrees is shown in the
column headed 0. Thus:
sin 12 = 0.2079.
To find sin 1236’.
The value will be found under the
column headed 36’.
Thus sin 1236’ = 0.2181.
To find sin 1240’.
If the number of minutes is not an
exact multiple of 6 we use the table of
mean differences.
Now 1236’ = 0.2181 and 40’ is 4’
more than 36’. Looking in the mean
difference headed 4, we find the value
11. This is added on to the sine of
1236’ and we have:
sin 1240’=0.2181 + 0.0011= 0.2192.
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To find the angle whose sine is
0.1711.
Look in the table of sines to find the
nearest to find the nearest number
lower than 0.1711.
This is found to be 0.1702 which
corresponds to an angle of 948’.
Now 0.1702 is 0.0009 less than
0.1711 so we look in the mean
difference table in the row marked 9
and find 9 in the column headed 3’.
The angle whose sine is 0.1711 is
then 948’ + 3’ = 951’ or
sin 951’ = 0.1711.
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Example 88
(2) Find the length of AB
(1) Find the length of AB.
AB is the side opposite ACB. AB is the hypotenuse BC is the side opposite to BAC and AB is the
since it is opposite to the right angle. hypotenuse.
Therefore: BC
= sin 23o35’ = 0.4000 = 0.3987 + 0.0013
AB AB
= sin 22o = 0.3746
BC BC 60
AB = =
AB = BC x sin 22o = 80 x 0.3746 sin 23o35’ 0.4000
= 29.97 mm = 150 mm
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(3) Find the angles CAB and ABC in ABC which is Exercise 59 - Level 1
shown below: 1. Find, by drawing, the sines of the following
angles:
(a) 30 (b) 45
2. Find, by drawing, the angles whose sines are:
1 3
(a) (b)
AC 20 3 4
sin B = = = 0.3333 = 0.3322 + 0.0011
AB 60
3. Use the tables to write down the values of:
From the sine tables
(a) sin 020 (b) sin 1812
B = 19o28’
(c) sin 7442 (d) sin 723
A = 90o – 19o28’ = 70o32’
(e) sin 8735 (f) sin 011
BC 60
AB = = = 150 mm
sin 23o35’ 0.4000
4. Use the tables to write down the angles whose
sines are:
(a) 0.1564 (b) 0.9135 (c) 0.9880
(d) 0.0802 (e) 0.9814 (f) 0.7395
(g) 0.0500 (h) 0.2700
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5. Find the lengths of the sides marked x The Cosine of an Angle
In any right-angled triangle the cosine of an angle:
side adjacent to angle
The cosine of an angle =
hypotenuse
AB
cos A =
AC
BC
cos C =
AC
6. Find the angles marked
The abbreviation ‘cos’ is usually used for cosine.
The cosine of an angle may be found by drawing, the
construction being similar to that used for the sine of
an angle.
However, tables of cosines are available and these are
used in a similar way to the table of sines except that
7. In ABC, C=90, B=2317 and the mean differences are now subtracted.
AC=11.2cm. Find AB.
8. In ABC, B=90, A=6728 and AC=0.86 m.
Find BC.
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Example 89 (2) Find the length of the side AC
(1) Find the length of the side BC
BC is the side adjacent to BCA
and AC is the hypotenuse.
BC
= cos 38o
AC
BC = AC x cos 38o
AB is the side adjacent to BAC and AC is the
= 120 x 0.7880 hypotenuse. Therefore:
= 94.56 mm AB
= cos 60o
AC
AB 28
AC = = = 56 cm
cos 60o 0.5000
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(3) Find the angle shown Exercise 60 - Level 1
Since ABC is isosceles the 1. Use the tables to write down the values of:
perpendicular AD bisects the base (a) cos 15 (b) cos 2418
BC and hence BD=15 mm.
(c) cos 7824 (d) cos 011
BD 15
cos = = = 0.3 (e) cos 7322 (f) cos 3959
AB 50
2. Use the tables to write down the angles whose
From the tables: cosine are:
(a) 0.9135 (b) 0.3420 (c) 0.9673
= 72o 32’
(d) 0.4289 (e) 0.9586 (f) 0.0084
(g) 0.2611 (h) 0.4700
3. Find the lengths of the sides marked x
Note the subtraction:
cos 72o 32’ = 0.3007 – 0.0006 = 0.3001
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4. Find the angles marked , the triangles being 8. Calculate BAC and the length BC.
right angled.
9. Calculate BD, AD, AC and BC.
5. An isosceles triangle has a base of 3.4 cm and
the equal sides are each 4.2 cm long. Find the
angles of the triangle and also its altitude.
6. In ABC, C=90, B=33 and BC = 2.4cm.
Find AB.
7. In ABC, B =90, A=6245 and
AC = 4.3cm. Find AB.
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The Tangent of an Angle tan 62o29’ = 1.9128 + 0.0068 = 1.9196
In any right-angled triangle the tangent of an angle:
side opposite to angle
The tangent of an angle =
side adjacent to the angle
BC
tan A = Example 90
AB
(1) Find the length of the side AB
AB
tan C =
BC
The abbreviation ‘tan’ is usually used for tangent.
From the table of tangents the tangents of angles
from 0 to 90 can be read directly.
For example: AB is the side opposite C and AC is the side adjacent
tan 37o = 0.7536, and to C. Hence,
AB
= tan C = tan 42o
AC
AB = AC x tan 42o = 40 x 0.9004 = 36.02 mm
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(2) Find the length of the side BC Both methods produce the same answer but method
(b) is better because it is quicker and more
convenient to multiply than divide.
Whenever possible the ratio should be arranged so
that the quantity to be found is the numerator of the
ratio.
Exercise 61 - Level 1
1. Use the tables to write down the values of:
There are two ways of doing this problem:
(a) tan 18 (b) tan 3224
AB AB
(a) = tan 38o or BC = (c) tan 5342 (d) tan 3927
BC tan 38o
32 (e) tan 1120 (f) tan 6923
Therefore BC = = 40.96 mm
0.7813
2. Use tables to write down the angles whose
(b) Since C = 38o tangents are:
A = 90o - 38o = 52o (a) 0.4452 (b) 3.2709 (c) 0.0769
Now: (d) 0.3977 (e) 0.3568 (f) 0.8263
BC
= tan A or BC = AB x tan A (g) 1.9251 (h) 0.0163
AB
BC = 32 x 1.280 = 40.96 mm
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3. Find the lengths of the sides marked y in the 5. An isosceles triangle has a base 10cm long and
triangles being right-angled. the two equal angles are each 57. Calculate
the altitude of the triangle.
6. In ABC, B=90, C=49 and AB=3.2cm.
Find BC.
7. In ABC, A=1223, B=90 and BC=7.31cm.
Find AB.
8. Calculate the
distance x
4. Find the angles marked , the triangles being
right-angled.
9. Calculate the
distance d
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Answers (b) 45
Exercise 59 (Sines)
1. (a) 30
The red line is 7.1 units long.
7.1
The red line is 5 units long. Therefore the sin 45o = = 0.71.
10
5
Therefore the sin 30o = = 0.5.
10
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3
1 (b)
2. (a) 4
3
The red line is 3 units long. The red line is 6 units long.
3 6
Therefore = sin 20o. Therefore = sin 49o.
9 8
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Exercise 60 (Cosines)
3. Sine of the angles:
1. Cosines of the angles:
(a) 0.0058 (b) 0.3123
(a) 0.9659 (b) 0.9114
(c) 0.9646 (d) 0.1285
(c) 0.2011 (d) 1.0000
(e) 0.9991 (f) 0,0032
(e) 0.2863 (f) 0.7663
4. Angles: 2. Angles:
o o o
(a) 9 0’ (b) 66 0’ (c) 81 6’ (a) 24o 0’ (b) 70o 0’
(d) 4o 36’ (e) 78o 55’ (f) 47o 41’ (c) 14o 42’ (d) 64o 36’
(g) 2o 52’ (h) 15o40’ (e) 16o 32’ (f) 89o 31’
(g) 74o 53’ (h) 61o 59’
5. x=
(a) 3.381 cm (b) 10.1255 cm 3. x=
(c) 25.93 cm (a) 9.33 cm (b) 2.64 m
(c) 5.286 cm
6.
(a) sin-10.6667 = 41o49’ 4.
(b) sin-10.6533 = 40o48’
(c) sin-10.3810 = 22o24’ (a) cos-10.4894 = 60o42’
(b) cos-10.3529 = 69o20’
(c) cos-10.5556 = 56o15’
7. AB = 28.34 cm 8. BC = 0.7943 m
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5. 66o7’, 66o7’, 47o46’, 3.84 cm 2. angles are:
(a) 24o 0’ (b) 73o 0’
6. AB = 2.86
(c) 4o 24’ (d) 21o 41’
7. AB = 1.975 (e) 19o 38’ (f) 39o 34’
4
8. Cos A1 = = 0.5714, A1 = 55o 9’ (g) 62o 33’ (h) 0o 56’
7
4 3. y=
Cos A2 = = 0.8000, A1 = 36o 52’
5
BAC = 55o 9’ + 36o 52’ = 92o 1’ (a) 4.3465 (b) 9.2887
BC = 5.7449 + 2.9995 = 8.74 (2DP) (c) 4.4344
4.
9. A1 = 180 – 90 -25 = 65o
A2 = 180 – 90 – 62 = 28o (a) tan-11.6667 = 59o2’
BD = 4.53 m, AD = 2.11 m, AC = 2.39 m, (b) tan-10.2857 = 15o57’
BC = 5.66 m (All to 2DP) (c) tan-10.4182 = 22o42’
Exercise 61 (Tangents) 5. 7.70 (2DP)
1. tangent of angles: 6. BC = 2.78 (2DP)
(a) 0.3249 (b) 0.6346 7. AB = 33.29 (2DP)
(c) 1.3613 (d) 0.8229 8. x = 2.86 (2DP)
(e) 0.2004 (f) 2.6583 9. d = 2.09 (2DP)
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Chapter 1.3.3: Trigonometrical Ratios In the Figure below, the axes X’OX and Y’OY, create
between 0o and 360o four quadrants. In each of these four quadrants we
make use of the sign convention used when drawing
Introduction graphs.
Previously the definitions for the sine, cosine and
tangent of an angle between 0 and 90 were given.
Note the values of the sine, cosine and tangent
tables only go from 0 to 90. In this section we show
how to deal with angles between 0 and 360.
Now an angle, if positive, is always measured in an
anti-clockwise direction for OX and an angle is
formed by rotating a line (such as OP) in an anti-
clockwise direction.
As mentioned previously, an angle if positive, is
always measured in an anti-clockwise direction for
OX and an angle is formed by rotating a line (such as
OP) in an anti-clockwise direction.
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First Quadrant OM1
cos 1 = = OM1 (OP1 = 1)
First quadrant angles are between 0o and 90o. OP1
= x co-ordinate of P1
It is convenient to make the length of OP
equal to “+1” unit. Referring to the figure below we The co-ordinates of the point P1 are (cos 1, sin 1)
see:
P1M1 y co-ordinate of P1
tan 1 = =
OM1 x co-ordinate of P1
Hence in the first quadrant all the trigonometrical
ratios are positive.
Note, the angle, 1, used to find the trigonometrical
ratios from the trigonometrical tables, is measured
from the positive X-axis.
P1M1
sin 1 = = P1M1 (OP1 = 1)
OP1
= y co-ordinate of P1
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Second Quadrant P2M2
sin (180o - 2) = = P2M2 (OP2 = +1)
Second quadrant angles are between 90o and 180o. OP2
= y co - ordinate of P2
The y co-ordinate of P2 is positive and hence
in the second quadrant the sine of an angle is
positive.
Thus: sin(180o - 2) = sin 2
OM2
cos (180o - 2) = = OM2 (OP2 = +1)
OP2
= x co-ordinate of P2
The x co-ordinate of P2 is negative, and hence
in the second quadrant the cosine of an angle
is negative.
The trigonometrical tables give values of the
Thus: - cos (180o - 2) = cos 2
trigonometrical ratios for angles between 0 and 90.
To use these tables for angles greater than 90 and P2M2 y co-ordinate of P2
tan (180o - 2) = =
less than 180 we make use of the triangle O P2 M2. OM2 x co-ordinate of P2
The y co-ordinate of P2 is positive but the
Note, the angle used to find the trigonometrical x co-ordinate of P2 is negative, hence the tangent of
ratios, from the trigonometrical tables, is measured an angle in the second quadrant is negative.
from the negative X-axis. In this case the angle is
180o - 2. Thus: - tan (180o - 2) = tan 2
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Third Quadrant P3M3
sin (3 - 180o) = = P3M3 (OP3 = +1)
Third quadrant angles are between 180o and 270o. OP3
OM3
cos (3 - 180o) = = OM3 (OP3 = +1)
OP3
P3M3
tan (3 - 180o) =
OM3
In the 3rd quadrant both P3M3 and OM3 are negative.
Therefore, both the sine and cosine of an angle are
negative.
Thus: - sin (3 - 180o) = sin 3
and - cos (3 - 180o) = cos 3
The tangent of angle is the ratio of two negative
numbers and is thus positive.
The trigonometrical tables give values of the
trigonometrical ratios for angles between 0 and 90. tan (3 - 180o) = tan 3
In order to use these tables for angles greater than
180 and less than 270 we make use of the triangle
O P3 M3.
Note, the angle, 3 - 180o, used to find the
trigonometrical ratios from the trigonometrical tables
is measured from the negative X-axis.
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Fourth Quadrant P4M4
sin (360o -4) = = P4M4 (OP4 = +1)
Fourth quadrant angles are between 180o and 270o. OP4
OM4
cos (360o -4) = = OM4 (OP4 = +1)
OP4
P4M4
tan (360o -4) =
OM4
In the 4th quadrant P4M4 is negative and OM4 is
positive.
Therefore, the sine of an angle is negative and
cosine of an angle is positive.
Thus: - sin (360o -4) = sin 4
The trigonometrical tables give values of the
trigonometrical ratios for angles between 0 and 90. and cos (360o -4) = cos 4
To use these tables for angles greater than 270 and The tangent of angle is the ratio of a negative
less than 360 we make use of the triangle O P4 M4. number and a positive number and is thus negative.
Note, the angle used to find the trigonometrical
- tan (3 - 180o) = tan 3
ratios from the trigonometrical tables is measured
from the positive X-axis. In this case the angle is
360o -4.
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Summary The results are summarised below:
First Quadrant
sin 1 = sin 1
cos 1 = cos 1
tan 1 = tan 1
Second Quadrant
sin 2= sin (180 - 2)
cos 2= - cos (180 - 2)
tan 2= - tan (180 - 2)
The table below may be used for angles in any
Third Quadrant quadrant.
sin 3 = - sin (3 - 180)
cos 3 = - cos (3 - 180)
tan 3 = tan (3 - 180)
Fourth Quadrant
sin 4 = - sin (360 - 4)
cos 4 = cos (360 - 4)
tan 4 = - tan (360 - 4)
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Example 91
Find the values of sin 158, cos 158 and tan 158.
Referring to the figure below:
Example 92
MP
sin 158 = = sin POM (1) Find the sine and cosine of the following angles:
OP
= sin (180 - 158 ) (a) 171 (b) 216 (c) 289º
= sin 22 = 0.3746 (a) sin 171º = sin (180º - 171º) = sin 9º
OM = 0.1564
cos 158 = = cos POM
OP
= - cos (180 - 158 ) cos 171º = -cos (180º - 171º) = - cos 9º
= - cos 22 = - 0.9272 = - 0.9877
MP (b) sin 216º = -sin (216º - 180º) = - sin 36º
tan 158 = = tan POM
OM
= - 0.5878
= - tan (180 - 158 )
cos 216º = - cos (216º-180º) = - cos 36º
= - tan 22 = - 0.4040
= - 0.8090
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(c) sin 289º = - sin (360º-289º) = - sin 71º 2. Copy and complete the following table.
is the angle used in the trigonometrical
= - 0.9455
tables.
cos 289º = cos(360º-289º) = cos 71º
Quadrant sin cos tan
= 0.3256
108º
Exercise 62 163º
207º
1. Find all the angles between 0º and 360º:
320º
(a) Whose sine is 0.4676. 134º
(b) Whose cosine is –0.3573. 168º
225º
286º
300º
95º
Use the trigonometrical tables to find the
values for sin , cos and tan .
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Answers
Exercise 62
1. (a) sines: 27o 53’, 152o 7’
(b) cosine: 110o 56’, 249o 4’
2.
Q sin cos tan
108º 2 72º 0.9511 -0.3090 -3.0777
163º 2 17º 0.2924 -0.9563 -0.3057
207º 3 27º -0.4540 -0.8910 0.5095 INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
320º 4 40º -0.6428 0.7660 -0.8391
134º 2 46º 0.7193 -0.6947 -1.0355
168º 2 12º 0.2079 -0.9781 -0.2126
225º 3 45º -0.7071 -0.7071 1.0000
286º 4 74º -0.9613 0.2756 -3.4874
300º 4 60º -0.8660 0.5000 -1.7321
95º 2 85º 0.9962 -0.0872 -11.43
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Chapter 1.3.4: Polar Co-ordinates OP = 32 42 25 = 5
Converting from Cartesian Co-ordinates to Polar (Using Pythagoras’ theorem.)
Co-ordinates
4
It was shown that a point on a graph may be and tan = = 1.3333
3
positioned by using rectangular co-ordinates
(sometimes called Cartesian co-ordinates). Hence if P = 53o 7’
is the point (3,4) its position is as shown in the figure
below: P is then said to have the polar co-ordinates:
(5, 53 7).
The angle may be expressed in degrees or in
radians. If Q is the point 7, the angle is
3
radians or 60.
3
Note:
The position of a point in the Cartesian system is
expresses as:
(x co-ordinate, y co-ordinate)
However, the position of P may also be indicated by
And in polar form as:
stating the length OP and the angle . Thus the point P
in the above figure can be represented as follows: (length, angle)
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When writing in polar co-ordinates the reader must be 7
tan = = 1.4
made aware of the units being used for the angle, in 5
degrees this is written as:
= 54o 28’
(3, 265.5) (3, 265.5 deg) (3, 365o 30’)
From the figure:
If the angle is in radians the polar number can be
written as: = 360o – = 360o - 54o 28’ = 305o 32’
5 Hence the polar co-ordinates of point P are
(3, ) (3, 2.5 radians) (3, 2.5 rads)
2 (8, 305 32).
If there is a “" in the number then the reader will
automatically know that the angle is in radians.
Therefore there is no need to show the units
Otherwise the units must be shown. A point written as
(3, 2.5) is automatically taken as being presented in
the Cartesian format: x = 3.0, y = 2.5.
Example 93
A point P has Cartesian co-ordinates (5, -7). State
the polar co-ordinates of P.
From the above figure it can be seen that:
52 72 74 = 8.602
EASA MODULE 1 213 of 218
School of Aeronautical Engineering
Converting from Polar Co-ordinates to Cartesian OB = OA cos 30o = 8 x 0.8660 = 6.928
Co-ordinates Note that OB is on the negative x-axis, thus the
5 x co-ordinate of A is -6.928.
A point P has the polar co-ordinates: 8,
6
AB = OA sin 30o = 8 x 0.5000 = 4
Determine the Cartesian co-ordinates of A.
Hence the Cartesian co-ordinates of A are:
(-6.928, 4).
OA = 8
5 5 x 180o
= radians = = 150o
6 6
= 180o - 150o = 30o
EASA MODULE 1 214 of 218
School of Aeronautical Engineering
Exercise 63 - All level 2 3. Calculate the Cartesian co-ordinates for the
following points:
1. Calculate the polar co-ordinates for the following
points:
(a) 5, (b) 4,
(a) (3, 2) (b) (5, 8) 3 2
(c) (-4, 8) (d) (-3, -5)
3 5
(e) (6, -4) (f) (-4, -6) (c) 6, (d) 10,
4 3
(g) (8, -7) (h) (-1, 3)
4. Calculate the polar co-ordinates for the following
points, stating the angle in radian measure:
2. Calculate the Cartesian co-ordinates of the
(a) (2, 1) (b) (-3, 5)
following points (polar):
(c) (-2, -4) (d) (4, -2)
(a) (5, 30) (b) (7, 65)
(c) (2, 112) (d) (4, 148)
(e) (7, 198) (f) (3, 265)
(g) (5, 297) (h) (3, 330)
EASA MODULE 1 215 of 218
School of Aeronautical Engineering
5. In the figure shown below with origin O, the
polar co-ordinates of the point X are (5, 40).
YXP is a straight line parallel to the x-axis.
Find:
(a) The polar co-ordinates of Y
(b) The polar co-ordinates of P
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
EASA MODULE 1 216 of 218
School of Aeronautical Engineering
Answers 3. Cartesian co-ordinates:
Exercise 63 (a) (2.50, 4.33) (b) (0, 4.00)
1. Polar co-ordinates: (c) (-4.24, 4.24) (d) (5.00, -8.66)
(a) (3.61, 33o 41’) (b) (9.43, 58o 0’)
4. Polar co-ordinates in radian measure:
(c) (8.94, 116o 34’) (d) (5.82, 239o 2’)
(a) (2.24, 0.46 rads) (b) (5.83, 1.03 rads)
(e) (7.21, 326o 19’) (f) (7.21, 236o 19’)
(g) (10.62, 318o 49’) (h) (3.16, 108o 26’) (c) (4.47, 4.25 rads) (d) (4.47, 5.99 rads)
5. (a) The polar co-ordinates of Y:
2. Cartesian co-ordinates:
(3.21, 90o 0’)
(a) (4.33, 2.50) (b) (2.96, 6.34)
(b) The polar co-ordinates of P:
(c) (-0.75, 1.85) (d) (-3.39, 2.12)
(4.39, 46o 56’)
(e) (-6.66, -2.16) (f) (-0.26, -2.99)
(g) (2.27, -4.46) (h) (2.60, -1.50)
EASA MODULE 1 217 of 218
School of Aeronautical Engineering
END OF MODULE 1
EASA MODULE 1 218 of 218
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