APPLIED ANIMAL NUTRITION LECTURE NOTE

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 CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Definition of some common Terminologies
Feedstuff: is any material made into or used as feed because of nutritional properties. It
embraces not only the naturally occurring plant or animal products and the by-products prepared
from them, but also chemically synthesized or otherwise manufactured pure nutrients or prepared
mixtures of them used as supplements to natural feeds.
Feed: is any edible material that is capable of providing nutrients after ingestion.
Feed additive: chemical substances which do not have nutritive value but increase efficiency of
utilization of feedstuffs, such as monensin, antibiotics and the like.
Ration: any feed supplied to an animal in a 24 hours period, but it does not tell us the feed that is
given to animal is adequate or inadequate or may contain excess amount of nutrient or not.
Diet: is a mixture of feedstuffs used to supply nutrients to the animals.
Balanced ration: feed supplied to an animal in 24 hours period and that satisfies the need of the
animal in terms of quality and quantities within specified 24 hours period.
Basal feed: the major component of the ration of an animal.
Supplement: is a feed or feed mixture used with another to improve the nutritive balance or
performance of the total and intended to be fed undiluted as a supplement to other feeds or
offered as free choice with other parts of the ration separately available or further diluted and
mixed to produce a complete feed.
Concentrate: is a feed used with another to improve the nutritive balance of the total and
intended to be further diluted and mixed to produce a supplement or a complete feed. However,
in feed practice a concentrate is usually described as a feed or a feed mixture which supplies
primary nutrients (protein, carbohydrate contains less 18% crude fibre).
Roughage: feedstuff of livestock that contains high amount of fibre, usually greater than 18%
crude fibre, and low digestibility.
Nutrient: is any chemical element or compound in the diet that support normal reproduction,
growth, lactation or maintenance of life processes.
Essential nutrient: nutrients those are required in the diet because they cannot be synthesized by
the body in sufficient amount to satisfy the metabolic need of the animal.

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Cell content: are of nutrient constituent that are soluble and digested by the enzymes secreted in
the digestive tract of all animals. These include sugars, soluble carbohydrates, starch, pectin,
non-protein nitrogen, protein, lipids and others.
Cell wall content: are of the nutrient constituent that are insoluble and are digested by only
microorganisms in the gastro-intestinal tract. These include cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin,
silica, fibre-bound protein, lignified nitrogen compounds, heat-damaged protein.
Role of Animal Nutrition
Generally, production and productivity of an animal is affected by genetic factors inherited from
their parents as well their living environments, which accounts for two-thirds of the total
components. Among their living environment, nutrition takes the largest share and also
accounted for not less 70% of livestock production costs. Feeds are purely the carriers of the
nutrients and the potential energy that provided in a satisfactory diet. No feed has been
nutritionally complete for given animal; and many feeds contain undesirable substances that may
interfere with the availability of desirable components, or may even be toxic to an animal. Feeds
differ widely in chemical composition, availability, and cost. Hence to assemble least-cost,
nutritionally adequate, and physiologically acceptable rations requires specific knowledge of
animal nutrition.

1. 2. Nomenclature of Feedstuff
Feedstuffs need to be given their nomenclature/name that describes them. Due to the
advancement in feed technology, coupled with the lack of any systematic scheme for naming
feed products had led to confusion in feed identification and has emphasized the need for a
modernized nomenclature that would provide a unique identification for each feed and define
precisely its morphological and/or physical nature. In most cases common feed names give little
information of nutritional significance, not because of any deliberate withholding of facts, but
because the potential usefulness of such information as a part of the name, both to the feed trade
and to the ultimate user of the product, has not been recognized.
An ideal feed name should precisely:
 Describe that feed, genotypically and morphologically
 Define its quality or grade if applicable

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  Indicate its place in the classification of feeds; that is, it should give information that
makes its chemical composition more intelligible to the nutritionist.
The National Research Council (NRC) names have eight potential parts, each of which
contributes specific information that is significant for understanding the probable place the
product might take in a ration. These eight parts are as follow:
1. Origin of the feed: it refers to the parent substance from which the material that is eaten
originates, and is the name of the plant, animal, mineral, or other original feed product. If
the feed name always begins with the origin term, all names can be listed alphabetically
for official definitions and in tabulations of analytical data.
2. Variety or kind: if the variety or kind of the original source of the feed is nutritionally
significant, this information is included as the second term of the name. If there is no
information for which this second term is needed, it is either omitted or replaced by the
expression “kind unspecified”. For example, milk can come from cow, goat, sheep or
camel; therefore, if they are differing nutritionally, it should be indicated specifically.
3. Part Eaten: it refers to the actual part of the parent material that is consumed. For
example plants as leaves, stems, seeds or straws or meat, milk or bone from animal
origin. Therefore, the part of the plant that has been eaten has effect on the nutritive value
of the plant.
4. Processing and treatments: some part of the parent materials have had no processing
(natural pasture) but some of the feedstuffs have had something done to them, either to
preserve them or to make them more palatable or to change their form or state to improve
them as feedstuff. In certain particular processing method involved, nutrient in some
products are damaged; other become available only after treatment, made more digestible
after treatment for some species of animals even other less digested because of the
treatment applied.
5. Stage of maturity: this applied only to plant product commonly roughage feeds. It is the
most important in determining the nutritive value of roughage feeds. Pastures at
vegetative stage have more nutritive value than at later stage of maturity. Generally,
increase in the age of the plant will result in reduced readily digestible carbohydrate and
protein because of increased lignifications and structural carbohydrate contents. Plants at

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 optimum stage of maturity have better nutritive value in terms of dry matter yield as well
as quality.
6. Cutting or crop number: this is commonly true when perennials are used as feedstuff.
Whether the roughage is 1st, 2nd of 3rd this has significant on the decomposition and
nutritive value of different feeds at different cutting stages.
7. Grade or quality designation: this most commonly applied in developed countries there
is a quality standard as a result for our country and other developing countries this criteria
may not applied. However, indication of the grade that is regulated by the government is
needs to be reported. For example: the maximum fibre content should not be greater than
the value, the protein content of the feed should not less than certain number and the like.
8. The classification: all feeds are segregated into groups/classification according to the
NRC. This has eight different classes where they have codes and classes.

S.N Codes and classes Typical precuts

1 Dry forage or roughage Hay, straws, stovers, hulls, fodder(ears, husk, head)
2 Succulent forage/pasture Pasture, range plant, fresh feeds
3 Silages Grain crop silage, grass silage
4 Energy feeds Grain and seeds (which could be high or low in cellulose
Milling by-products, fruits, nuts, roots
5 Protein supplements Animal by-products, marine origin, plant by-products
6 Mineral supplements Any mineral of the class
7 Vitamin Any vitamin of the class
8 Feed additives Antibiotics, flavors, hormones, coloring materials

According to the NRC nomenclature products with greater than 18% crude fibre is roughages,
greater than 20% protein is protein supplement while those having less than 20% protein and less
than 18% crude fibre is energy feeds.

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Let look on the following example to understand how the above naming is applied for feedstuff
nomenclature.
S.N Component name Feed-1 Feed-2 Feed-3
1 Origin Maize soybean Wheat
2 Variety Dent - -
3 Plant part Aerial Seed w/o hulls Flour by-products
4 Processing/treatment Ensiled Solvent extraction, Grinding
grinding
5 Stage of maturity Dough stage Matured -
6 Cutting/cropping Cut-1 - -
7 Grade - Maximum 3% fibre -
8 Classification 3 5 4
Name of the feed
Feed-1: maize dent ear part, ensiled, dough stage, cut-1; (3)
Feed-2: soybean, seed w/o hulls, solvent extracted, grinding, mature, max. of 3% fibre; (5)
Feed-3: wheat, flour by-product, grinding, max. 4% fibre; (4)

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 CHAPTER2.
CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDSTUFFS FOR LIVESTOCK

Feed refers to the naturally occurring plant or animal products & the by products prepared from
them.
Feeding stuff is therefore any product either of natural origin or artificially prepared. Feedstuff has
to have a nutritional value or has played a role in nutrition. Feedstuffs can be grouped into
different classes on the basis of bulkiness & chemical composition. The first broad grouping of
feedstuff is based on the bulkiness which is dependent upon the content of crude fiber percent i.e.
A. Roughage (> 18 % CF). It is grouped in to legumes and non-legumes
B. Concentrates (<18 % CF). It is grouped in to protein rich and energy rich concentrates
2.1. Characteristics of common Roughage feedstuffs
Roughage feeds are characterized by
 Low in nutritional value
 High crude fiber content (> 18% CF) as a result they are more appropriate to the feeding of
ruminants as compared to mono gastric.
 Low energy and crude protein content
 Low in total digestible nutrients
As roughages are generally bulky nutrients feeds, their intake is limited by body weight of the
animal and Quality of the roughages. Animal consume 3 % of its body weight for high quality, 2.5
% its body weight for good quality, 2% its body weight for average quality and 1.5% its body
weight for poor quality feeds.
Roughages at young stage may have nutrient content, which may be enough to supply nutrients for
ruminants if preserved at this stage. But as roughages mature, may not be even enough to satisfy
the maintenance requirement of the animals, which necessitates supplementation.
Roughage Sources available to livestock
I. Pastures (grasslands):- the most important feed sources for grazing animals. Good pasture
supplies the most economic feed for livestock. We have two specific types of grasslands.
 Natural grassland are grasslands where establishment of grazing has happened naturally, with
out the influence of man.

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 Cultivated grassland: - are grasslands established or cultivated by humans. These are two
types
 Permanent Pasture:-These are pasture planted & permanently used for grazing.
 Temporary cultivated grasslands (temporary pasture):- this kind of grass vegetation in
occurring as part of crop rotation.
The nutritional value of grasslands will be affected by:-
1. Species composition
2. Stage of maturity
3. Soil fertility & fertilizer treatment
4. Grazing Management
II. Crop residues: - It is other roughage sources for livestock feeding especially in places where
crop-livestock mixed farming is practiced. Crop residues are products like Straws are stems &
leaves of crops (wheat barley, oat) after threshing the grains. Stovers are straws but different
because these are meant to imply crop residues of maize after the ear is removed or sorghum
without head or cob (ear cobs + grain)
Crop residues characterized by having low nutritional value, low crude protein, minerals especially
Phosphorous but high in crude fiber. In countries like ours, grain production is normally not
sufficient for human consumption & it is not feasible both economically & socially to feed to
animals so one has to utilize these crop a residue which has low nutritional values and high lignin.
There is certain mechanical & chemical treatment devised to improve the nutritive value of crop
residue.
Some of the ways devised to improve the nutritive value of crop residues are:-
1. Supplementation
By supplementation it means feeding crop residues along with protein, mineral Vitamin or even
energy supplements to compensate for the deficiency of crop residues. This could be done by
feeding legumes along with crop residues or others sources like noug cake etc.
2. Chemical treatment
Crop residues are less digestible because of the lignin content. Lignin is partially soluble in alkali.
By treating crop residues with alkali the value of the product could be improved.
3. Physical treatment: - The digestibility of crop residues can be improved by grinding or
chopping crop residues to reduce the particle size and increase palatability.

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 4. Biological treatment: - Lignin can be degraded by various aerobic fungi and bacteria there by
improving the nutritional value
5. Breeding: - A more direct approach of reducing lignifications in forage crops is by using
conventional breeding & selection methods.
III. Conserved forage
 Hay: - Hay is dried or dehydrated, harvested roughage feed. Good quality hay should contain
less than 25% moisture. Hay must keep the characteristics green color of the crop they should
be free from fungus or mould & bad odor.
 Silage:-Silage is made by chopping or cutting up fresh plant stems & leaves & preserving
these, so that they can be fed in a relatively fresh, succulent condition. Silage always has a
characteristics odor but it should not be moldy. It should contain only 65-70% moisture. Silage
is often made from grasses including corn, wheat & sorghum. eg. Dairy cattle & cattle as
feedlot are often fed on silage is typically preserved in silos.
IV. Roots & tubers: - both of them grow under ground.
 Roots: -The main characteristics of roots are, their high moisture contents (750-940g/kg) and
low crude fiber content (40-130g/kg Dm). The organic matter of roots consists mainly of sugars
(500-700g/kg) has high digestibility but low in crude protein. The most important root crops used
in the feeding of farm animals are Turnips, fodder beet & sugar beet. Root by products are Beet
molasses, Sugar beet pulp (molasses).

 Tubers:-Tubers differ from the root crops in containing starch or fructose instead of sucrose or
glucose as the main storage carbohydrates. They have higher dry matter & lower crude fiber
contents & consequently are more suitable than roots for feeding to pigs & poultry. E.g.
Cassava, potatoes, sweet potatoes

2.2. Characteristics of common Concentrates feedstuffs

A concentrate is a feed that is low in crude fiber but high in total digestible nutrients (TDN)
concentrates and protein. Concentrates are further classified as energy rich and protein
concentrates
2.2.1. Energy rich concentrates; - These consist of carbohydrates of plant origin.
I. Grain and Grain byproducts
Grains as sources of energy are characterized by having

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  High in DM content on average they contain 80-90 % DM,
 Low fiber used for both ruminants & mono gastric animals
 Low protein level (8-12%).
 It is low in some vitamins such as vitamins D, vitamins A (with exception of yellow corn
which is incorporated especially in poultry ration as source of vitamins A)
 Low calcium but has higher phosphorus content but it is partly present in the form of phytic
acid (phytase) it may not be available for animals.
One of the problems of using grains as animal feed is the competition between man and animals for
the grain products. Therefore, grain by-products or grain milling by-products are mostly utilized. eg
grain milling by-produces of wheat & maize processing.
A. Wheat bran (Furshika):- Most course by-product.
 It contains the outermost layer of the seed in some flour.
 It has high level of fiber 10% (8-5-12% CF)
 It is more suitable for the feeding of ruminants. It is the richest source of phosphorous but low in
calcium.
B. Wheat Shorts (Furshikelo):-It is composed of fine bran (in terms of size particles) and portion
of the germ & certain portion of the endosperm. It contain lower fiber content mostly less than
8.5%, higher CP content (> 18% CP or 21-22%CP), have better energy content (77% TDN ). It is
more appropriate is monogastric animal (poultry) feeding.
C. Wheat middling:-This product is between wheat bran & wheat shorts. It is similar to wheat
shorts but contain a higher fiber & lower CP compared to wheat shorts and compared to wheat
bran wheat middling contains low fiber & high in TDN (high flour content). The minimum CP
content is 10-14% & maximum CF content is 9.5%.
II. Molasses
It is dark brown viscous liquid obtained as a by-product in the processing of sugar especially cane
sugar and sugar beets. It is part of sugar that will not crystallize. Comprising high %sucrose with
some glucose or fructose. It contains at least 45% sugar and 15-25% water, good source of energy
because 55% of TDN content is made up of sugars. However, the inclusion of molasses to
ruminants’ diet is limited & normally 5-30 % inclusion is recommended. Uses of molasses:-
A. Molasses is used for other purposes like sweetener or improves the test of the feed so that
the animal will consume more. Eg. By applying molasses on straws & Stover one can

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 improve the test & thereby the feed intake of animals. Another purpose of molasses is to
tie up powdery diets or it is used as a fasteners. Ruminants do not like powdery diets so
by applying molasses on such kind of feeds we can decrease the dust.
III. Brewers' grain (brewer's spent grain)
 It consists of the insoluble residue left after removal of the worty (sugary infusion) and 75-
80% water when filtered off.
 Wet spent grain spoils rather quickly and showed be used fresh or stored out of contact
with air. It can be stored up to 2 weeks quite successfully by heaping it treading it well &
covering it with wet stalks
 It is useful for silage making if 2-3 % of molasses is added to ensure fermentation and
ensiled in a silo in drainage. Fermentation takes 4-6 weeks. The wet grains can be
preserved for a week or two by adding 0.4% of a mixture of formic & propionic acids.
 A normal level of dried breweries grain in supplement concentrates for dairy cattle is 10-
25% but higher proportion can be used, depending on the relative price. Wet grain can be
given in large amount to dairy cows i.e. up to 15 kg per day half of it is seems to result in
optimum utilization.
 Spent brewer grain is a balanced feed for milk production eg. A ration of 8kg of wet grain
per day is usually adequate for maintenance and 4 liters of average quantity milk.
Brewery yeast. It is important for poultry productions. There is both brewery dried yeast and
liquid yeast. Both of them contain protein of high quality & are high in most B vitamins. The cost
is also relatively high, so not much yeast is used in most animals ’ feeds. The availability also
scares.
2.2.2. Protein rich concentrates
2.2.2.1 Protein from plant origin
These feeds made from seed of plants rich in protein & grains of legumes. It is the residues
remaining after removal of the greater part of the oil from oil seed
Two main processes are used for removing oil from oil seeds i.e.
 Expeller methods of extractions, which employ pressure and high temperature to force out
the oil
 Distiller method, which use an organic solvent, usually hexane to dissolve the oil from the
seed

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 The nutritive value of the cake also varies according to the method / process of oil making.
Oil cake extract made from expeller method may have low digestibility & denaturations of the
protein due to high temperature & pressure. But solvent extract use low temperature & pressure
the protein content of the cake is the same as that of original seed. Some seeds such groundnut;
cottonseed & sunflower have a thick coat or husk, rich in fiber & of low digestibility, which
lower the nutritional value. It may be completely or partially removed by cracking & ridding, a
process known as decortications.
1. Soya bean meal cakes
 It is one of the best sources of protein available to animal.
 It contains all the essential amino acids but the concentrations of cystine & methionine
are sub optimal and It is poor source of B-vitamins for poultry it should be supplemented
eg. Laying hen produce eggs of poor hatchability.
 It is better sources of Ca & P than the
 It contains a number of toxic, stimulatory & inhibitory substances but this inactivated by
roasting for simple stomach animals but no effect for ruminants.
2. Cotton seed meal: -
 Have good quality protein but has low content of cystine, methionine & lysine.
 The calcium content is low (Ca: P-1:6) supplement of essential amino acids & calcium,
Vitamin A & D is essential for young poultry , pig animal & laying if we provides cotton
seed meal alone
 It has laxative constituents.
 It has yellow pigment known as gossypol, which is an antioxidant & polymerization
inhibitor to simple stomached.
 Toxicity result depressed appetite and loss of weight. Pig & poultry diets should not
contain more than 100 mg free gossypol /kg.
 The inclusion level of cottonseed meal should be b/n 50 & 100Kg /t.
 Excess this feed for lactating animals may result milk fat tends to become hard & firm &
difficult to churn.
3. Linseed meal:- It is unique among the oil seed residues i.e. contain 30 to 100 kg of mucilage.
i. It is completely indigestible by non-ruminant animal but can be digested by ruminants.
ii. It has poor quality protein than Soya bean or cottonseed.-

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iii. It is rich in phosphorous, part of which is present as phytate.
iv. It is useful source of thiamin riboflavin.
v. Bulk meal may increase retention time in the rumen & give better opportunity for microbial
digestions.
vi. Fatten animals attain rapid gain & good steak appearance though the body fat may be soft.
vii. Dairy cows produce a soft milk fat. It is good for pig but not for poultry because the mucilage
collects as a gummy mass on the beak causing necrosis.
4. Rape seed meal:-
It contains about 400 g protein/kg DM and contain more fiber (140g/kg DM)than soybean Meal.
 It has less lysine but more methionine.
 The balance Ca & P is satisfactory. But it has high phosphorus than other oilseed meal.
 RSM have anti nutritional factor known as glucosinolates (have toxic effect manifested as
goiters, liver & kidney poisoning). There is selected species known as canola meals which has
less than by 1/8 the of the glucosinolate content.
 Rapeseed meals frequently contain tannins. These are polyphenolic Compounds which
complex is proteins & carbohydrates to form enzyme resistant substrates in a consequent
lowering of digestibility.
 Tannins may cause damage to the intestinal mucosa & are known to interfere is Fe (iron)
absorption
 The inclusion level in growers & finishers’ diets should not exceed 50 & 100 kg/t respectively.
5. Groundnut cake (GNC); - important source of protein for livestock feeds. The composition of
the meal will depend on extraction used.
 It is poor in calcium & Phosphorus and deficient in lysine & methionine for feeding
poultry/pig should be supplemented in other source.
 If GNc is stored under humid condition it is infected with a fungus, Aspergillus flavus, the
metabolites of which are toxic & known as "aflatoxins". It has been shown to be a potent liver
toxic.
 It should be stored in dry place to prevent mould/ fungus growth.
6. Sunflower seed meal:- The composition & nutritive value varies in methods of extraction.
 It has high content of polyunsaturated fatty acid & may cause soft body fat for pig
 It is useful sources of protein, which is low in lysine & high in methionine.

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  It is not recommended for young animals.
 Maximum rates of inclusion in diets are 200 k/tones for adult cattle, 150kg/t for adult
sheep.
7. Sesame seed meals: - The protein is rich in lysine, argnine & methionine but relatively low in
lysine should be feed in other lysine rich feed to pigs & poultry.
 It has unsaturated oil /fat may result in soft body & milk fat if consumed in excessive amounts
 Have disagreeable flavor to milk.
 The oil becomes rancid & unpalatable. It has a high content of phytic acid and has a laxative
action.
 The diet of young animals (non ruminate) not contain more than 50 kg/t whereas for adult 100-
150kg/tone

2.2.2.2 Other sources of protein

Animal protein concentrates

Eg. Meat & bone meal, Fish meal Blood meal hydrolyzed feather meal milk products, whole milk,
skim milk & whey

Single-cell protein:- Exploiting microbial fermentation for the production of protein SC (single
cell) organisms such as yeasts & bacteria grow very quickly & can double their cell mass, every in
large scale industrial fermenters in 3-4 hrs.

Non- protein Nitrogen (NPN) compounds as a protein sources;- It is recognized as useful

sources of N for ruminant animals. From considerations of price, convenience, palatability &
toxicity, which has been, the most widely used & investigated NPN compounds in food for
animals.
Urea application rate:- Optimum application between 4 & 6 kg of urea per 100 kg of straw, which
release 2.4 to 3.4 kg NH3/100kg of straw. 50 liters of water is optimum but it can vary 40 to 80
liters .It takes 21 day for fermentation. Urea does not provide energy minerals or vitamins for the
animals a when it is used to replace conventional protein sources care must be taken to ensure that
satisfactory dietary levels of these nutrients are maintained by adequate supplementations.

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2.3. Feed additives:-defined as feed ingredients or combination of it added to the basic feed mix
to fulfill a specific need usually used in micro quantities & requires careful handling & mixing. It
stimulate growth, improve the efficiency of feed utilization and they are important for animal
health & metabolism of animal
eg. –Antibiotics, mineral supplements, Vitamin supplements and Hormones
Antibiotics feed supplements:- chemical substances produced by microorganisms and categorized
as drug. Many of antibiotics result more rapid growth, improved efficiency and improved general
health. They have residual effect so that on has to with draw the drug for a period of tine before the
animal is slaughtered for human food.
Mineral supplementation; - mixtures are available in the ground form & licks for livestock
Vitamin supplementation; -The vitamin included in these supplement are synthetic & contain
those vitamins which are likely to be deficient in the practical rations of the animals.
A. Hormones: - eg. Melengestrol acetate has found rather extensive use with beef heifers; it
acts to suppress, estrus, resulting in more efficient & more rapid gain. Another hormone (not feed
additive) for use as subcutaneous implements (in the ear).
2.4. Non Conventional feed:- which are currently under utilized as feeds may be used to improve
low quality feeds. Supplementation of ruminants with conventional by products is hindered by
competition in monagastric animals and low availability of feed processing plants relative the
growing livestock populations. The cost of conventional supplements such as oilseed cakes
prohibits the wide scale use of supplementation especially by smallholder farmers in developing
countries.
Table. Available non-conventional feeds in Ethiopia
Types of feed CP %
Lentil hulls 16%*
Faba bean hulls 9.2
Field pea 8.0
Rough pea 11.0
Tella attela 21*
Katicala attela 21*
Cabbage waste 14.4

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Orange peel 5.8
Banana peel 8.3
*N.B. the feeds are promising supplements under smallholder farming system

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 Chapter 3. Evaluation of Feedstuff (Chemical Composition)

The nutritive value of feedstuff is determined by different methods. Feed quality assessment can
be achieved through its chemical composition, digestibility and palatability parameters. The
analysis provide useful information about feed harvesting and sorting methods, thus helping to
obtain the highest quality feed for animals and the most profit to produce. Feed chemical
composition assessment can establish the ground how potent feedstuffs are in supplying the
nutrient for the animals. Feed chemical composition is vary depending up on number of factors
such as stage of plants maturity (associated with decrease in readily soluble nutrient, increase of
lignified and structural carbohydrates which cause reduced digestibility), processing methods
(commonly for oil seeds where mechanical/expeller method result in more fat in the product, 6%
than chemical/solvent methods which is more efficient in extracting oil that result in 1% remain
in the by-products), the genetic make-up of the plants, the growing soil condition and damage
associated with insect.

Feed analysis provides information for:

 Farmers to optimize nutrient utilization in animal feeds;

 Feed compounders to prepare feed mixtures suitable for different animal production
systems;

 Researchers to relate animal performance to feed characteristic; and

 Plant breeders to optimize the nutritive value of new varieties.

3.1. Proximate analysis system

In 1960 Henneberg and Stohmann developed a scheme for describing the approximate chemical
analysis system at Weende Experiment Station in Germany. Under this scheme various nutrients
that had some common properties were grouped together and analysed. These nutrients are
known as proximate principles of feed and the analysis as proximate analysis. The method is
based on the separation of feed components into fraction or groups in accordance with their
feeding value. In this system of analysis, feedstuff is analysed into six fractions (water, ether
extract (EE), crude protein (CP), crude fiber (CF), ash and nitrogen-free extract NFE)). All the
proximate principles are determined by different methods/procedures except NFE which is

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determined by difference. Except for water, other results in proximate principles are expressed
on dry matter (DM) basis.

Generally, feed chemical composition assessment will start with preparation of appropriate
samples from different location/batch and mixed them, then sub-sample it and extrapolate it to
the whole. Good analytical data require that samples be representative of the whole and that their
integrity has been ensured during transport to the laboratory and during their preparation (drying
and grinding). In addition to the sampling methods involved, follow of appropriate analytical
procedure can increase the reliability of the test result.

Steps involved in obtaining and preparing samples

1.Obtain a small quantity from several locations within a lot of feed.

2. Insure that samples are randomly selected and sufficient in amount.

3. Finely grind or chop the sample and mix until each spoonful is representative of every other
spoonful within the given lots of feeds.

4. Keep the sample in a tightly closed container or refrigerate if necessary to avoid further
change in chemical composition.

1. Water/Moisture

Water, the simplest of all substances in feeds, is not the simplest to determine. Usually it is
recorded as the loss in weight of the sample as a result of oven-drying it to a constant weight at
atmospheric pressure and at a temperature just above the boiling point of water. For many
biological products such as moist feeds and the excreted feed residues, such drying results in loss
of volatile fatty acids, and of some sugars that decompose at temperatures above 70OC. Such
substances will obviously be counted as water. Drying at lower temperatures in vacuo sometimes
helps to correct this inaccuracy, but necessitates vacuum ovens. For feeds having high volatile
compounds such as molasses, silage and high fat feeds are better dried in vacuum-oven at 95-
100OC (AOAC, 1995) or at less than 70 OC in Fischer or toluene distillation is alternative
techniques. The significance of water content of feeds depends on the kind of feed and the
amount of water. The greatest difference in nutritive value between many feeds, as fed, is
traceable to differing moisture content. Moreover, the problem of feed storage is complicated by

18
high moisture content. Feeds containing more than 14% moisture cannot be stored in bulk. They
are likely to mold and spontaneous combustion may also take place.

It should not be ignored that though water is not counted as a nutrient, it is nevertheless a dietary
essential. Feeding standards do not include water requirement for animals, as omission that
perhaps should be corrected. One reason for the omission is obviously the difficulty of stating the
water requirement for specific animals and as it differs with the composition of the animal’s diet.

Procedure for determining the water content

 Weigh a small amount of the sample into an appropriate container (W1)

 Dry the sample in appropriate oven until there is no further loss in weight of the sample
(constant weight). Commonly, time of drying may related inversely with temperature of
drying (high temperature need short period of drying and vis verse). For example, 135 OC
for 3 hrs, 125OC, 105OC for 12-16 hrs or 60OC for 48-72 hrs

 After drying to a constant temperature, weight the sample residue (W2) and calculate per
cent of water content.

 % Water = W1-W2 X 100 or weight lost upon drying X 100

 W1 sample weight

Once the moisture content of the feed is determined, the dry matter content of the feed sample is
calculated as the difference of water content from 100 as broadly feed is partitioned into dry
matter and water part. In the procedure of moisture determination, some feedstuff such as silage
contains volatile compounds, so at high temperature of drying, it loss the volatile compound as a
water portion which over estimate the value of water content and underestimate their dry matter
value as the volatile compounds are not water origin. Such type of feed should be freeze dried or
vacuum oven dried. Moreover, when green feeds are dried at high temperature, lignin and
nitrogen complex is formed and exaggerate the fiber component of the sample. Therefore, such
types of feeds are needed to be determined on two stage dry matter determination at temperature
not more than 60OC. In the two stage procedure partial dry matter as well as dry matter of
partially dried samples are need to be determined while the product of the two value give us

19
absolute dry weight the samples have at it fresh base sampling. Generally, the absolute value of
the feed dry matter is less than value for partially dry weight and dry matter of partially dried
samples.

Absolute DM=( %PDM/100) X ( %DMPDM/100) X00

Some definition of terms related to Dry matter

 As fed base, as is base or wet base: it refers to the forage of feed as it is consumed by the
animals. In this case the dry matter may range from 0-100%.
 Air dry basis: refers to a sample that has been allowed to dry in air without aid of oven.
Its dry matter may goes up to 90% in this system.

 Dry, Partial Dry matter or Total Dry Matter: refers to a sample that has all of the
moisture has been removed. Forage and other feedstuffs analysis should be done on DM
basis

To convert values from a DM basis to a wet-weight basis or as is basis use a formula:

 As is basis = % DM X Nutrient on DM basis

 100

Example: Suppose a feed contains 16% CP on a DM basis and DM content of the sample was
90%. What is the CP content on as-is basis?

As is basis = % DM X CP on DM basis/ 100 → 90X16/100 = 14.4%

To convert from wet-weight to dry weight basis use formula:

 Dry weight basis= 100 X Nutrient on wet-weight basis

 % DM

Example: A feeds sample contains 11% CP on a wet-weight basis, and contains 92% DM. what
is the CP content on DM basis?

Dry weight basis= (100 X CP on as-is basis )/DM

= (100 X 11)/92

=12%

Exercises

20
1. Calculate the crude protein content of pasture on as is base if the crude protein and Dry matter
content of the feed is 15 % and 90 %, respectively.

2. Calculate the ether extract of barley on dry weight base if the ether extract and dry matter
content of the feed is 3.5 and 92%, respectively.

21
2. Ash

Ash is the inorganic residue from the firing of a sample at about 600OC. The nutritional
significance of the ash figure will depend on the feed under consideration. Ash embraces the
most part of the inorganic or mineral composition of the feed. Relatively, the ash content from
plant material is a poor index of any of the inorganic nutrients due to their high variability. On
ignition all the organic matter is oxidized and inorganic matter remains. The problem in ash
determination is that certain minerals (Se, Pb, Cd) may volatile by high temperature ashing. For
such problem wet ashing, which involves digestion of the sample organic matter with nitric acid
and perchloric acid is used. The part of ash which is soluble in an acid is known as acid soluble
ash (inorganic elements) and insoluble portion in acid is known as acid insoluble ash (silica). The
higher is the acid insoluble ash in the feed sample, the poorer is the quality of a feed. The
analysis of ash may not give us meaningful information as it tells us nothing of specific mineral
content. Ashing is generally a preparatory step for further analysis of specific minerals by
spectrophotometer or atomic absorption techniques.

Procedure

 Weight small quantity of the prepared sample into a small crucible

 Ignite the sample in muffle furnace at 600OC for 2 hrs.

 Weight the ash with its crucible

 Calculate the % mineral or %ash= Weight remain in crucible X 100

 Sample weight

NB: Once the ash value was known, ash minus 100 will give us the organic matter portion.

3. Ether extracts (EE)

This is a group that insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvent such as ether, chloroform
and benzene. This group is also called crude fat due to non-fat origins are soluble in the organic
solvent and included as fat part. Ether extract or crude fat is estimated by extracting the known
amount of feed sample through fat solvent for a time of specific hours, 8 hrs, at 55OC to 60OC in
specially made soxhelets apparatus. The weight of the residue left after evaporation of the

22
solvent is called ether extract or also determined as loss in weight of the moisture-free sample
following its extraction by anhydrous ether. Though other ingredients are there in the solution
the largest portion is mostly lipid. Ether extract is differing in composition among different feeds
and an indicative of the energy measure of feeds. Digestible EE contain 2.25 times more energy
than carbohydrates and proteins and yields 9.35 kcal of gross energy or approximately 9 kcal/gm
of metabolizable energy as consumed in the diet. Nutritionally, fat is used to increase the
energy density of a feed. The fat portion of the feed is the most unstable and makes storage of
fat feed a problem and rancid feeds loss vitamin A and form amines. In most forages and
roughages feeds, only 30-40% of the EE is in the form of true fat.

Problems with EE:

 Ether extract may contain ingredients which are not fat origin (chlorophyll, fat soluble
vitamins, resins, wax, organic alcohols, alkalies, pigments and other)
 Extraction of lipids by fat solvents can be complicated by: lipids may be linked with
proteins and carbohydrates and the complexes are usually insoluble in fat solvents, some
lipids are only soluble in limited range with fat solvents, some fat solvents are also good
solvents for certain non-lipid constituents (e.g., acetone, alcohol are effective extractants
of urea, amino acids, various nitrogen basi, sugars).

Procedure:

 Remove water from the sample to be used for extraction to facilitate the thorough
penetration of the solvent chemicals to the sample to solublize it.
 Weight out small quantity of the dried sample and place it in the extraction thimble.

 Extract the sample with ether in a soxhelet extractor for several hours (8hrs)

 Evaporate the ether from the extract and weigh the remaining weight

 %EE = Weight of EE X100

 Weight of the sample

23
4. Crude Fiber

According to proximate analysis crude fiber refers to the residue of a feed that is insoluble after
successive boiling with dilute alkali and dilute acid in accordance with the procedures originally
proposed by the Weende Experiment Station. Crude fiber is the portion of the total carbohydrate
of a feed that is resistant to the acid and alkali treatment and the original supposition was that it
is therefore represented an indigestible portion of the feed. Probably, this may be a misleading
index of the overall digestibility of a feed, for the simple reason that in an appreciable number of
cases the crude fiber itself is at least as highly digested as the soluble carbohydrate usually
referred as NFE. The reason for the relatively high digestibility of crude fiber by the ruminant
animals lie in the fact that the largest component (perhaps 95%) of the crude fiber is cellulose,
and it is known that the microorganisms of the rumen are able to break down cellulose for their
own needed energy, and that in the process they produce acetic (and some butyric and propionic)
acid, which is absorbed from the rumen and supplies energy to the host animals.

The physical role of crude fiber in a ration cannot be overlooked. The indigested residue of feeds
of plant origin is largely crude fiber. Thus, it is material of this nature that gives to a ration their
physiologically effective bulk. The normal peristaltic movement of the intestinal tract is
dependent, in part, on the internal distention, which is furnished by feed residues that have not
been attached by the digestive agents or that, though attached, have not yielded absorbable
fractions. Some such residues are hydrophilic and by their water holding capacity help to
maintain a moist, soft condition of the fecal mass, and thus facilitate its easy passage through the
large bowel. In particular, hemicellulose residues appear to be hydrophilic and probably owe
some of their laxative properties in monogastric species to this characteristic. In monogastic
animals, the presence of fiber causes irritation of nerve ending around the rectal area that
facilitates proper elimination of faeces.

The crude fiber system fails to distinguish plant cell contents and cell wall contents:

 Boiling sample in dilute alkali dissolves both hemicellulose and lignin

 Portion of cellulose can be solubilized by the procedure

 Poorly digested materials (hemicellulose and cellulose) and indigestible material (lignin)
are classes in NFE

24
  One can easily see why crude fiber is some times as digestible as NFE

Procedure:

 Weight out small quantity of prepared sample (W1)

 Boil the sample in dilute H2SO4 for 30 minutes and filter. Then boil in dilute NaOH for
another 30 minutes and filter it. These extraction removes protein, starch, sugars,
more soluble hemicellulose and minerals and possibly some lignin

 Dry the residue and weight (W2) this residue contain CF and insoluble mineral matter

 Ash the residue to oxidize off the CF and weigh the ash (W3)

 %CF = W2-W3 X 100

 W1

5. Crude protein

Protein always seems to be in short supply, so a good estimate of the protein content is vital in
diet formulation. Determined by Kjeldhal procedures after the Danish Chemist Johan Kjeldahl
developed it in 1880’s. In the procedure, protein is not directly measured but nitrogen is
determined and multiplied with conversion factor to estimate the protein value of the feed. As a
result, crude protein is the figure usually obtained by multiplying the nitrogen of the feed by a
factor of 6.25. Probably the protein content of a feed is also an indirect measure of its digestible
energy, because the protein component of feeds is usually highly digested as compared with the
coarser carbohydrates. Consequently, forages that are high in protein are almost sure to be
correspondingly lower in CF. To a limited extent this holds true for concentrated feeds. Two
assumptions are necessary to be considered in crude protein determination procedure: all
nitrogen in the feed is assumed to be exist in the form of protein and protein contain on
average about 16% nitrogen. However, both of these assumption is not hundred per cent correct,
as a result the assumption are used with their limitations.

25
Short coming in crude protein estimation:

 It is crude because not tell us whether the N is in the form of amino acids, true protein or
NPN (urea, nucleic acids, amines etc). The problem may be in lush pastures and
fermented feeds as they may contain more NPN.
 All proteins do not contain 16% N. Milk protein contains 15.7% N so a protein factor
6.38 should be used. Most oil seeds and wheat bran contain 18.3% N. So we are
overestimating the protein for wheat bran and underestimating for milk by using the
protein factor of 6.25. This is due to the fact that as N content of the feed increase than
16% then protein factor should be decline.

Protein determination procedures have three phases:

I. The digestion phase: in this phase the feed sample will be digested by concentrated
H2SO4 in the digestion tube to oxidize organic material to CO2 and H2O. The
digestion requires a temperature of about 350OC for about 1-3 hours or until the
content is clear or colorless. Different catalysts are used in the digestion phase such as
potassium/sodium sulfate (to raise the boiling point of H 2SO4 and increase rate of
digestion) and mercuric oxide, copper sulfate or selenium (to assist in the reduction of
N). In the process N in the feed sample will be changed to ammonium sulfate-
(NH4)2SO4.
II. Distillation phase: in this phase the digested product ((NH4)2SO4) will be cooled,
diluted with water and made strong with basic solution of NaOH, the addition of the
base in this phase liberates ammonia from the sulfate form. The distilled ammonia gas
will be trapped by boric acids as ammonia is volatile substance.
(NH4)2SO4 + NaOH NH4OH + Heat NH3 (gas)+ Boric acid

III. Titration phase: in this phase the quantity collected will be determined by titration or
automated colorimetric method. It is simpley neutralizing the ammonia with a
standard acid (HCl or H2SO4). The acid is formulated so that 1ml of the acid will
neutralize 1 mg of N. Once ml of the acid used for titration are known, N content can

26
 be easily calaculated. NB: with the procedure of N determination, a black sample
should be run with the system to estimate the black volume to account for N that is
not from the sample origin.

%N = 1.401 (Volume of titrant – Volume of the blanck) X Normality of the acid

Sample weight taken for analysis

%CP = %N X 6.25

6. Nitrogen Free Extract (NFE): this part is determined by difference rather than following
specific system. As a result, the deduction of the above five fraction from hundred give US the
NFE portion of a feed. NFE = 100- (water + ahs + EE + CF + CP)

3.2. The Van Soest Method of Forage Evaluation

While the Weende system of feed analysis has served for many years and continues to serve as a
useful purpose in predicting the nutritive value of feeds, this does not mean that the system is
without its short comings or is not in need of improvement. In fact, there are some definite
limitations of the Weende system, especially with respect to CF and NFE.

Crude fiber is not a chemically uniform substance but a variable mixture, the major components
of which are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose are similar in
nutritive value; they have much greater feeding value for ruminants than for non-ruminants.
Lignin is essentially indigestible by all livestock. The fact that complicate the situation of CF is
that only a part of the hemicellulose and lignin comes out in the CF fraction, with the remaining
partitions showing up as NFE, which is ordinarily though of as consisting largely of highly
digestible sugars and starches. Consequently, to the extent that hemicellulose at best low in
digestibility and lignin essentially indigestible appear in the NFE fraction, this fraction would be
larger and have a lower average digestibility than would be true if it consisted primarily of sugars
and starches. At the same time, the CF value would not reflect the entire more indigestible
portion of the feed.

As a result, numerous workers over the past several years have tested various procedures which
might provide a more definitive separation of feed carbohydrates than does Weende system of

27
proximate analysis. Van Soest consider a wider possible substitute for the conventional CF
determination, it involves the separation of feeds dry matter into two fraction: high
digestible fraction and low digestible fraction by boiling the feed in neutral detergent solution
(3% sodium laury sulfate buffered to pH 7 for one hour and filtering)

The neutral detergent soluble (NDS) consists most of the cell contents of the feed which
composed of lipids, sugars, starches and proteins. All are high in digestibility, having true
digestibility of about 98%. Their digestibility does not seem to be materially influenced by the
amount of neutral detergent insoluble present. The neutral detergent insolubles are usually
neutral detergent fiber (NDF). They embrace most part of plant cell wall or referred to as the
cell wall components or cell wall constituents. They consists cellulose, lignin, silica,
hemicellulose and some damaged proteins.

In the Van Soest procedure essentially, all of the lignin and hemicellulose are included in the
NDF fraction, where as with the Weende methods variable amount these two components are
lost from the CF to the NFE. As a result, NDF as determined by the Van Soest procedure is
considerably higher than the conventional CF values for the same feeds. The different NDF
components are at best low in digestibility and are entirely dependent on the microorganism of
the digestive tract for any digestion they do undergo. Lignin and silica are essentially indigestible
even by microorganisms. Also, lignin has a curvilinear negative influence on cellulose and
hemicellulose digestibility. NDF corresponds more closely than does conventional CF to the
total fiber fraction of a forage feeds. For the purpose of determining the lignin in the forage, Van
Soest has proposed the use of what as come to known as the acid detergent lignin procedure.

Acid detergent fiber differs from NDF in that NDF contains most of the feed hemicellulose and
limited amount of protein not present in ADF. Therefore, the difference in the amount of NDF
and ADF is an estimate of hemicellulose. To determine the lignin present, ADF should be
digested in 72% H2SO4 at 15OC for 3 hours then filter and dry in oven. The remaining resides are
lignin and silica. Then ash the residue, the ash remaining approximates the silica present, while
the lost in weight during ashing approximates the lignin and referred to as acid detergent lignin
(ADL) or more specifically as acid insoluble lignin.

28
Remark: Once the NDS, NDF, ADF and ADL have been determined for forage feeds, the true
digestibility of the forage dry matter may be estimated by using the following equation:

True digestibility = 0.98NDS + (1.473-0.789log10 lignin) NDF

29
 CHAPTER 4: Evaluation of Feedstuff (Digestibility Trials)
The potential value of a feed for supplying a particular nutrient can be determined by chemical
analysis, but the actual value of the feed to the animal can be arrived at only after making
allowances for the inevitable losses that are occurred during digestion, absorption and
metabolism. Nutrients present in the feedstuffs are not completely available to animal body.
Large portion of the nutrients are excreted in the faeces because of being not digested in the
alimentary tract. Therefore, the digestibility of a feed is most accurately defined as that portion
of the feed not exerted in the faeces and which is, therefore, assumed to be absorbed by the
animals. Digestibility is commonly expressed in terms of coefficient or a percentage basis.
Digestibility measures the availability of feed nutrients and provides a very good index of
nutritive value of the feed.

4.1. In vivo methods of digestibility test

This is the type of digestibility that takes place with in the digestive tract of live animals. This
type of digestibility test is assumed to be the most reliable method of measuring the digestibility
of a given feedstuff because every activity will take place in animal itself. However, it is more
expensive, time consuming and labor demanding activity as more or equal to three animals per
treatments are required as well as time needed for adaptation of animals to the feed and
consequent time required for intake and faece determination period and also labor needed to
manage the animals under trial. With simple theoretical assumption the digestibility determined
in this method is the difference between dry matter of feed intake and that of faece.

In this method the feed under investigation should be given to the animals in a quantified amount
and the amount of faece voided should be correctly recorded. Moreover, the nutrient composition
of the feed and faece are need to known the estimate of digestibility. Generally, the feed under
trial is expected to be thoroughly mixed before provision and adapted at least for a week before
start of actual intake and faece determination to accustom the animals to the feed and to clear the
residue of the pervious feeds from the tract. This preliminary period is followed by a period
when feed intake and faecal output are recorded. For this purpose at least three animals must be
used for a single digestion trial of the same -, age and sex and commonly of male animals.

30
Animals under this are expected to be at good health and relatively docile. In the digestion trial it
is highly desirable that feeds should be given at the same time each day and the amount of feed
eaten should not vary from day to day. When intake is irregular there is a possibility leading to
unreliable intake and faecal output. In this method the value generated is called apparent
digestibility rather than true digestibility as some endogenous components are excreted in faece
in addition to feed faecal output.
Apparent digestibility (%) = [Nutrient in feed- nutrient in faece] x100
Nutrient in feed
True digestibility (%) =Nutrient in feed- [nutrients in faece-metabolic faecal loss] x100
Nutrients in feed
Example: A cow consumed a 12 kg of hay with 90% dry matter and exerted 16 kg of faece with
30% dry matter. Calculate apparent dry matter digestibility of the feed.
Solution: Apparent digestibility (%) = [Nutrint in feed- nutrient in faece] x100
Nutrient in feed
= [(12 kg * 0.9)- (16 kg *0.3)] X100
(12*0.9)
= 10.8 kg - 4.8 kg x 100
10.8 kg
= 6 kg x 100
10.8 kg
= 55.56%
Therefore, the apparent digestibility of the hay is reported to be 55.56%.
Common factors that affect digestibility of feedstuff.
 Feed composition: The digestibility of the feed is closely associated with its chemical
composition. The fibre fraction of a feed has the greatest influence on its digestibility,
and both the amount and chemical composition of the fibre are important. The
digestibility of the feeds may be reduced by deficiencies or excess of nutrients or other
constituents. Such effects are most commonly found in ruminants, in which deficiencies
in the rumen liquor of ammonia nitrogen or sulphur will restrict microbial growth and
thus reduces fibre digestibility. A dietary excess of lipids will also inhibit rumen

31
 microorganisms. In feeds for non-ruminants constituents that bind to protein and amino
acids such as tannins will reduce their digestibility.
 Ration composition: The digestibility of a feed is influenced not only by its own
composition but also by the composition of other feeds consumed with it. Thus one might
find that if roughage (DM digestibility 0.6 and concentrate of 0.8) were given as equal
parts of mixed ration, the digestibility of the complete ration might differ from the
expected value of 0.7. This associated effect of feeds represents a serious objection to the
determination of the digestibility of concentrates by difference. Associative effects are
usually negative (i.e. the digestibility of mixed rations is less than expected) and greatest
when a low-quality roughage is supplemented with starchy concentrate. Rapidly
fermented starch result in more volatile fatty acids that lower the rumen pH to 6 or less
where this lower pH inhibits celluloytic microorganisms and fibre digestibility is
depressed.
 Preparation of feeds: The different treatment methods used in feed processing have their
respective effect on feed digestibility. For instance, to have maximum digestibility of
cereal grains it should be crushed for cattle and ground for non-ruminant, or else they
pass through the gut intact. Ground roughages pass through the rumen faster than long or
chopped materials and their fibrous components may be less completely fermented.
Therefore, grinding of roughage reduces the digestibility of their fiber by 20% units and
of the dry matter as a whole by 5-15% units. Treatment of straws can dramatically
increase their digestibility. Moreover, heat treatments can also improve the digestibility
of the feed when aimed to deactivate digestive enzyme inhibitors that are present in the
feed.
 Enzyme supplementation of the feed: In non-ruminant animals’ supplementation of
specific enzyme greatly increased digestibility and nutrient availability. The most
consistent successful enzyme addition has been that of β-glucanase to barley in the diets
for poultry. If β-glucans escape the digestive process that appear in the excreta in the
form of gels that cause undesirable sticky droppings. Moreover, addition of phytase
enzyme in the diet of poultry can greatly increase the digestibility of phytic acid and
hence of reducing the supplementation of phosphorous in the diets for non-ruminants.

32
  Animal factors: Digestibility is more a property of the feed than of the consumers, but
this in not to mean a feed given to different animals will also be digested to the same
extent. The most important animal factor is the species of the consumers. For example
feeds of low fibre contents may equally digested both on ruminants and non-ruminants,
but feeds of high fibre are better digested by ruminants. Apparent digestibility
coefficients for protein are frequently higher for pigs than cattle because of their
excretion of metabolic fecal nitrogen is smaller than that of ruminants. Difference in the
digestive ability of sheep and cattle are small and of little importance with most of the
diets; however, highly digested feeds such as cereal grains tend to be more efficiently
digested by sheep and poorly digested feeds such as low quality roughages tend to be
better digested by cattle.
 Level of feeding: An increase in the quantity of feed by the animal generally causes a
faster passage of digesta. The feed is then exposed to the action of digestive enzymes for
a shorter period, and there may be a reduction in its digestibility. This is more
pronounced for slowly digested components of feeds, namely the cell-wall components.

4.2. In vitro methods of digestibility test

Since conventional method of digestibility trial is laborious to undertake and expensive, there
have been numerous attempts made to determine the digestibility of a feed by simulating in the
laboratory the reactions which take place in the alimentary tract of the animal. This involves the
combination of chemical system with rumen liquor which is faster and often gives better
replication but give a poorer reflection of biological reality. It is commonly applicable for
ruminant than for non-ruminants as it is difficult to simulate the environment that is relatively
similar to digestive tract. As a result in ruminant animals digestive tract secretions are collected
through cannulae to use them to digest feeds in vitro. As a result it is possible to quantify
digestibility of feed for ruminants with quite better value in the laboratory by treating them first
with rumen liquor and then with pepsin.
With this method apparent or true digestibility can be estimated. For this method Tilley and
Terry (1963) developed the two stages method consisting of 48 hours incubation with the rumen
fluid followed by another 48 hours with a proteolytic enzyme (pepsin). The rumen liquor used in
the first stage of laboratory procedure may vary in its fermentative characteristics according to

33
the diet of the animal from which it is obtained. In the second stage the rumen bacteria are killed
by acidifying with hydrochloric acid to pH 2 and then digested by incubating them with pepsin
for 48 hours. Dry matter disappearance is determined by subsequent filtration, drying and
weighing of the residues.

The modified Tilley and Terry system (Van Soest et al., 1985) substitutes the second stage
(pepsin digestion) with a neutral-detergent extraction. This treatment removes all indigestible
microbial matter and leaves a residue of undigested plant cell wall. The values are estimates of
true digestibility; apparent digestibility must be estimated by subtraction of the metabolic dry
matter extraction value of 12.9. This method is as the original procedure and requires half the
time to complete. Digestibility determined in vitro is generally slightly lower than that
determined in vivo, and corrective equations are required to relate one measure to the other. In all
conditions where in vitro digestibility will take place should be in test tube under anaerobic
conditions. In vitro test can estimate the digestibility of the feed within 1-3% of conventional
determined value. However, it more predictor of digestibility than predictive equations using
chemical composition since it accounts for a factors affecting digestibility and in part as it use of
rumen fluid from donor animals. It is also provides very quick and cost effective value provided
that laboratory materials are sufficiently available. Addition of buffer solution to rumen fluid is
important to buffer the acid produced during fermentation. Commonly used sample to inoculum
buffer ration is 0.5 g:8 ml rumen fluid: 32 ml McDougall’s buffer. In the process running blank
value is needed to account for the indigestible material introduced into the vessel by the rumen
fluid, which should not be counted against the feed. The blank value is determined by incubating
rumen fluid and buffer alone.
In vitro DM digestibility = [initial dry sample weight - (residual weight- blank weight)] x100
Initial dry sample weight
Example: A 0.5 g of Alfalfa forage was taken to estimate its digestibility in vitro. After two stage
of Tilley and Terry method the laboratory technician determined 0.22 g with 0.08 g blank value.
What is the value for in vitro digestibility test?
Solution: I vDMD=[initial dry sample weight- (residual weight- blank weight)] x100
Initial dry sample weight
= [0.5 g-(0.22 g-0.08 g)] x 100

34
 0.5 g
= 0.36 x 100
0.5
= 72%
Factors that influence the accuracy of in vitro method
 Variation in the microbial population: this is brought by the diet of the donor animals,
animal to animal difference, inoculum processing
 Variation due to different storage, grinding and processing techniques in sample
preparation
 Differences attributed to the fermentation medium such as sample to innuculum ratio,
buffer solution and nutrients in the medium
 Procedural variation such as length of fermentation and laboratory error

4.3. In sacco digestibility technique

The system is also called in situ, nylon bag, cloth bag methods. The nylon-bag technique
provides a means of ranking feeds according to the rate and extent of degradation of dry matter,
organic matter, nitrogen or other nutritional parameters. It involves incubating samples of feeds
in the rumens of fistulated animals for periods of from 6 to 120 hours and subsequent
determination of the disappearance of the different feed components. The disappearance of the
feed from the bag is an estimate of degradability. It uses a bag with 6.5cmx14 cm made of nylon
mesh/pore size of 30-50µm. A sample of known weight is tightly sealed in the nylon bags and
placed in the rumen of a fistulated animal. After the required period of time, the sample is
removed, washed, dried and weighed. Degradability (or disappearance) of the substrate is
determined by the weight loss during the incubation periods. The dried residue may also be used
for chemical analyses.

The pore size of the bags must allow entry of rumen microbes and escape of accumulated gases,
and keep solid particle losses to a minimum. The efflux of feed particles from the bags without
breakdown by rumen microbes is corrected for by using zero-hour bags. These bags are filled
with the substrate but are not incubated in the rumen; they are washed and dried in the same way

35
as the incubated bags. Furthermore, the zero-hour bags are used to correct for passage of material
from pressure applied to the nylon bags during washing.
If the intention is to rank feeds with regards to their nutritive value without imposing any
treatment on the fistulated animals, then the diet of the animals must be adequate in rumen-
degradable nitrogen (N). When N disappearance of low N feed is of interest then the nylon-bag
technique is not precise enough as microbial contamination will bias the results. In such cases
there is need to allow for correction, for example by analysing for microbial N.
The nylon-bag technique is a very simple and useful biological tool for in vivoanimal nutrition
studies. If determination of the dry-matter disappearance is the only analysis of importance, then
the main analytical equipment needed would be accurate balances and drying ovens. In general,
the following materials are required to determine the degradability of feeds using the nylon-bag
method:
· Nylon bag
· Nylon string/cord
· Analytical balance
· Drying oven or drying device
· Washing machine or running tap water
· Desiccator.
The nylon-bag procedure
The following procedure can be commonly undertaken during degradability test:
– Grind the feeds through a 2 mm screen (mesh).
– Dry the ground samples in an oven at 100–105°C overnight to determine the dry matter (DM).
– Number 6.5 x 14 cm nylon bags with a pore size of 41 mm, oven dry at 60 –65°C for 30
minutes and measure their empty weights immediately, or after allowing to cool to room
temperature in a desiccator. The ratio of width to length of the bags should be between 1:1 (i.e.
square) and 1:2.5.
– Place about 2.0 g DM of sample in each nylon bag. Sample size should be related to the total
surface area of the bag; although there is no consensus 15 mg of sample material per square
centimetre of bag (bag area includes all the external surfaces) has been suggested.
– Tie the bags tightly using nylon string which is resistant to rumen micro-organisms.

36
– Anchor the bags with about 50 cm of nylon chord (about 25 cm are required for sheep/goats) to
the cannula top. Place the bags deep into the rumen of a fistulated animal.

37
Incubation
Incubate samples for 0, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 hours for forages and up to 48 –72 hours for
concentrates. Place the 120-hour samples into the rumen on the morning of day 1 of incubation
in each fistulated animal. On the next morning (day 2), insert the 96-hour samples at the same
hour as the day 1 samples. Continue the activity in the same manner until all samples are in the
rumen.
Three or four rumen-fistulated animals are needed to determine animal variation but the number
may vary according to specific experimental designs. The samples, which are mostly prepared in
triplicate for every feed and each incubation hour, are incubated in each of the experimental
animals in the same way. The number of replicates and sample size depend on the amount of
residue required for further analysis. For cattle, 40 to 60 bags can be incubated at the same time
while for sheep/goats 8 to 10 bags can be used for each animal. All the bags are taken out at the
same time. This method is referred to as sequential addition. The alternative method is to
incubate all the bags on day 1 at the same time and withdraw them at different times (sequential
withdrawal). The advantage of sequential addition over sequential withdrawal is that there is less
disturbance of the rumen environment. In addition, sequential removal is more prone to error.
Washing and drying
Immediately wash the bags (including the zero hour samples) with cold water for about 30
minutes in a washing machine or under running tap water while rubbing gently between thumb
and fingers until the water runs clear. Dry the washed bags in an oven at 60 –65°C for about 48
hours. Either allow them to cool down in a desiccator or weigh immediately. Determine the dry
matter of the residue samples using the same method as with feed samples. Finally, calculate the
disappearance using the formula:
Disappearance = (SWa - BW) x DMa - (SWb - BW) x DMb
(SWa - BW) x DMa
where: SWa = Weight of the original sample + nylon bag
BW = Weight of empty nylon bag
SWb = Weight of the sample + nylon bag after incubation
DMa = Dry matter of feed sample
DMb = Dry matter of residue sample.

38
Handling nylon-bag data
The nylon-bag technique generates considerable data because of the number of hours, replicates
and animals involved. It is therefore desirable to process such data electronically to minimise
human error.
To process:
– the data are plotted against time
– outliers are edited out
– the model of DM disappearance proposed by Ørskov and McDonald (1979) or by McDonald
(1981) is fitted to summarise the data and derive degradation parameters.
Y = a + b (1–e–ct) ......... Ørskov and McDonald (1979)
Y = a + b (1–e–c(t–tl)) ..... McDonald (1981) model with lag
where: Y = degradability at time (t)
a = intercept
b = potentially degradable fraction
c = rate of degradation of b
t = time of incubation
tl = lag time.
Results of nylon bag degradability are influenced by:
 How the bags are placed in the rumen: in general the bag is placed in the lower part of
the rumen (in the ventral sac of the digestive tract. The periodic movement of the gastric
move up and down the sacc inside the rumen.
 Particle size of the sample vis-à-vis the pore size of the bags: large particle size and
small pore size will affect the degradability.
 Loss of feed particle through the nylon bag cloth (a function of fineness of grinding,
cloth pore size and feed material)
 The methods of washing the residues (hand washing vis-à-vis machine washing)
 The length of rumen incubation period for which the feed is incubated in the rumen
 The rumen environment: availability of the necessary substrate for the microbial
activities. Types of feed and feeding rate can affect rumen environment.

39
4.4. Indicator method
Apparent digestibility of a diet can be estimated using a natural constituent of the feed as an
indicator. This is achieved through use of indigestible components that are completely
indigestible by the gut. These substances are called indicators. This type of measurement is used
in cases where it is impractical to do conventional digestibility trial such as when animals are fed
in group or for grazing animals. The assumption behind use of indicators in digestibly test is
that all the consumed indicators are expected to be excreted. Generally, markers are categorized
into two: internal indicators (lignin, acid insoluble ash, long chain hydrocarbons of C33-35 and
indigestible ADF) and external indicators (indigestible substrates added to the feed such as
chromium oxide (Cr2O2), cerium, dysprosium and ytterbium). If the concentration of the
indicator in the feed and the sample of faeces are known, digestibility can easily be calculated.
The ratio between the concentrations of indicators in the feed and the concentration of indicators
in the faeces gives an estimate of digestibility. Moreover, with the help of indicator estimation of
digestibility in specific part of gut can also be obtained by exteriorizing the tract at selected
points. This method allows digestibility to be calculate without total collection of feeds and
faeces, only a grab samples of feed and faeces can be used for the analysis.
To be used as ideal indicators the markers are expected to fulfill the following:
 Should be inert, with no toxic physiological effect on the animal and microbes
 Should not be absorbed or metabolized within the gut
 Should be intimately associated to the material it is to mark
 Should not influences gut secretions, digestion, absorption and motility
 Should have physiochemical properties which allow prices qualitative analysis and must
not interfere with other analysis
Unfortunately none of the markers currently under use satisfy all of the above criteria. For
example chromium oxide does not remain intimately associated with digesta but is fully
recoverable for digestibility measure. On the other hand, when tannin is used as a marker in
digestibility test it may suppress the digestibility of ADF and NDF.

Sampling
Collect samples of every feed used in the experiment and analyse for marker or indicators.
During the last six days of each collection period or experiment collect faecal grab samples at

40
five representative times a day. The precise timing is determined by the individual trials. Pool
samples for each animal and period and freeze them. The samples are subsequently thawed, dried
at 60°C and stored at room temperature for later analyses. This procedure stops the faeces
growing mould.
Digestibility of dietary constituents can be calculated after chemical analyses. For example, the
digestibility of nutrient is calculated as:
Digestibility of DM = 100 –{100 x (% indicator in feed x % nutrient in the faeces)}
(% indicators if faeces x % nutrient in feed)
Example: Tannin was used as internal marker to estimate the digestibility of forage diet in
ruminant animals. Its composition in the feed was found to be 10% while 50% in the faece.
Assume that all the tannin in the feed was recovered in the faeces. Estimate the digestibility of
the forage diet.
Solution: When a feed has 10% of the marker then the remaining 90% is other feed constituents
to be digested. In the faece the composition of the tannin (indicator) was found to be 50% while
the remaining 50% is other constituent. But tannin in the feed is equal to percent in the faece.
Therefore, 10% tannin is recovered in the faece as well as 10% of the other feed constituent that
was not digested. Totally, 20% of the total feed composition was not digested while the
remaining 80% of the feed was digested. As a result the digestibility of the feed estimated in this
method is reported to be 80%.

41
 Chapter 5. Energy and Protein value of feed and methods of estimation

5.1. Assessment of Energy Value of Feeds

An animal deprived of feed continues to require for those functions of the body immediately
necessary for life: for the mechanical work of essential muscular activity, for chemical work
such as the movement of dissolved substances against concentration gradients, and for the
synthesis of expanded body constituents such as enzymes and hormones. In starved animals,
such above mentioned demand of energy is obtained by the catabolism of the body’s reserves,
first of glycogen, then of fat and protein. However, in fed animal the primary demand of energy
is in meeting the requirement for body maintenance and so preventing the catabolism of the
animal’s tissues is the feed. The amount of energy that a feed will supply to an animal can be
estimated by measuring the amount of energy that is produced when the feed is completely burnt
(gross energy). This gives the Gross Energy (GE) content of the feed, measured in MJ (or
kilocalories). However, it is only of limited use since all feeds (apart from those with a very high
fat or oil content) have about the same gross energy content. Some other means of evaluating
energy values is clearly needed, since straw obviously has lower energy content than maize
grain, but the two have very similar gross energy contents.

Basic terms related with energy expression:

Calorie: is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one
degree centigrade (10C) from 14.4 to 15.5 degree centigrade.
Gross energy (GE) (Heat of combustion): is the amount of heat, measured in calories, that is
released when a substance is completely oxidized in bomb calorimeter containing 25 to 30
atmospheres of oxygen. Heat of combustion is similarly used term for the above.
Metabolic body size (Wkg ): is the weight of the animal (in kg) raised to the three-fourths
0.75

power.
Gross energy feed intake (GEi): the gross energy of the feed consumed. It is estimated as dry
weight of the feed consumed times GE of feed per unit of dry weight.
Fecal energy (FE): is the gross energy of the feces. It consists of energy content of the
undigested feed and of the metabolic (body) fraction of the feces. FE= dry weight of the feces
times GE of the feces per unit of dry weight.

42
Apparent Digestible Energy (DE): It is the difference of GEi and FE.
Gaseous Products of Digestion (GPD): is the combustible gases produced in the digestive tract
by the fermentation of the ration. The energy of these gases (methane) can be estimated from the
gross energy of the diet. Methane makes up the largest portion of the combustible gases
produced. Ruminants produce most methane; however, non ruminants also produce methane.
Urinary Energy (UE): is the gross energy of the urine. It includes the energy content of the non
oxidized portion of the absorbed nutrients and the energy contained in the endogenous (body)
fraction of the urine.
Metabolizable Energy (ME): ME= GEi-FE-GPD-UE
Nitrogen Balance (NB): is the nitrogen in the feed intake (NI), minus the nitrogen in the feces
(FN), minus nitrogen in the urine (UN); NB= NI-FN-UN. The nitrogen balance must be
calculated to account for the nitrogen retained in or lost from the body tissues and to adjust
the ME accordingly. For precise work, the nitrogen lost by perspiration and other epidermal
excretions should be taken into account. For some types of research, the nitrogen in the products
synthesized, such as milk, egg or wool should be considered.
Nitrogen-corrected Metabolizable Energy (MEn): it is the total ME as corrected for nitrogen
retained or lost from the body. For birds and mammals with simple stomachs, the gaseous
products of digestion do not need to be considered.
Heat of Fermentation Corrected Metabolizabl Energy (MEhf): is the growth energy of feed
intake minus fecal energy, gaseous products of digestion, heat of fermentation and urinary
energy. MEhf= GEi-FE-GPD-HF-UE
Heat Increment (HI): is the increase in heat production following consumption of feed when the
animal is in a thermally neutral environment. It consists of increased heats of fermentation and of
nutrient metabolism. The energy of heat increment is wasted except when the temperature of the
environment is below the critical temperature.
Heat of fermentation (HF): is the heat produced in the digestive tract as a result of microbial
action.
Heat of Nutrient Metabolism (HNM): is the heat produced in intermediary metabolism as a
result of using absorbed nutrients.
Net Energy (NE): It is the difference between ME and HI. It includes the amount of energy used
either for maintenance only or for maintenance plus production. Below the critical temperature

43
some of the HI is also part of net energy. When reporting NE, one must state clearly which
functions are included. For example, there may be NE values for maintenance plus production
(NEm+p), NE for maintenance only (NEm), or NE for production only (NEp)
Net Energy for Maintenance (NEm): is the fraction of total NE expended to keep the animal in
energy equilibrium. In this state, there is no net gain or loss of energy in the tissues. The NE m for
a producing animal may be different from that for a nonproducing animal of the same weight,
because of the changes in amounts of hormones produced and differences in voluntary activity.
Net Energy for Production (NEp): is the fraction of net energy required ( in addition to that
needed for body maintenance) for involuntary work, for tissue gain (growth or fat production), or
for the synthesis of a fetus, milk, eggs, wool, fur, feathers etc. It should always be clearly stated
which production functions are included, such as:
net energy for eggs (NEegg), net energy for fur (NEfur), net energy for gain (NEgain), net energy for
milk (NEmilk), net energy for pregnancy (NEpreg), net energy for wool (NEwool) and net energy
for work (NEwork).
Basal Metabolism (BM): is the chemical change which takes places in the cells of an animal in
the fasting and resting state when it uses just enough energy to maintain vital cellular activity,
respiration and circulation as measured by the basal metabolic rate. It is a constant for adult
homo therms and can be computed as kcal/24hr. =70(Wkg0.75). For the measurement of basal
metabolism, the animal must be under basal conditions, i.e. in a thermally neutral environment as
post-absorptive state, conscious and quiescent/inactive.
Energy of Voluntary Activity (VAE): is the amount of energy needed in getting up, standing,
moving about to obtain feed, grazing, drinking, lying down etc.
Heat to keep body warm (HBW): is the additional heat needed to keep the animal’s body warm
when the temperature of the environment is below its critical temperature. The critical
temperature for an animal is defined as that environmental air temperature below which its heat
production increases. The heat increment and heat of digestive fermentation, in total or in part,
can be used for keeping the animal warm.
Heat to Keep Body Cool (HBC): is the extra energy expended by the animal when the
temperature of the environment is above its zone of thermal neutrality. Above a critical air
temperature for an animal, the rate of metabolism remains rather constant with a rise in air
temperature, until the air becomes so hot that the body temperature increases.

44
Total Heat Production (HP): is the total heat production of an animal consuming feed in a
thermally neutral environment.
Energy Balance (EB): is the relation between the GEi and the energy output. It is calculated as
EB= GEi-FE-UE-GPD-HP.
Carbon Balance (CB): is the relation between the carbon from feed intake and the carbon
output. It is calculated as the carbon content of the feed consumed, minus the carbon in feces,
urine, gaseous products of digestion and carbon dioxide.

5.1.1. Gross Energy of the feed

Animal obtain energy from its feed. The quantity of chemical energy present in a feed is
measured by converting it into heat energy, and determining the heat produced. This
conversion is carried out by oxidizing the feed by burning it; the quantity of heat resulting from
the complete oxidation of unit weight of a feed is known as the gross energy or heat of
combustion of that feed.
Gross energy is measured in an apparatus known as bomb calorimeter, which in its simplest form
consists of a strong metal chamber (the bomb) resting in an insulated tank of water. The feed
sample is placed in the bomb, and oxygen admitted under pressure. The temperature of the water
is taken, and the sample is then ignited electrically. The heat produced by the oxidation is
absorbed by the bomb and the surrounding waster, and when equilibrium is reached the
temperature of the water is taken again. The quantity of heat produced is then calculated from the
rise in temperature and the weights and the specific heats of the water and the bomb.
The bomb calorimeter can be used to determine the gross energy content of whole feeds or their
constituents, and of animal tissues and excretory products. The primary determinant of the gross
energy content of an organic substance is its degree of oxidation, as expressed in the ratio of
carbon plus hydrogen to oxygen. All carbohydrates have similar ratio and all therefore, have
about the same gross energy content (17.5 MJ/kg DM). Triglyceride fats, however, have
relatively less oxygen and therefore have a gross energy value that is much higher (39 MJ/kg
DM) than that of carbohydrates. Moreover, individual members of fatty acids series vary in gross
energy contents according to carbon chain length; thus the lower the members of the series (the
volatile fatty acids) are lower in energy contents. Proteins have a higher gross energy value than

45
carbohydrates because they contain the additional oxidizable element, nitrogen (and also
sulphur). Methane has higher energy value because it consists of solely of carbon and hydrogen.
The following table indicates the typical gross energy value (MJ/kg DM) of different feed
resources:
Feed Constituents Fermentation product Feeds
Glucose 15.6 Acetic 14.6 Maize grain 18.5
Starch 17.7 Propionic 20.8 Oat grain 19.6
Cellulose 17.5 Butyric 24.9 Oat straw 18.5
Butter fat 38.5 Lactic 15.2 Linseed oil meal 21.4
Fat (oil seed) 39.0 Methane 55.0 Grass hay 18.9

In spite of these differences among feed constituents the predominance of the carbohydrates
means that the feeds of farm animals vary little in energy content. Only feed rich in fat, such as
linseed oil meal with 90 g ether extract/ kg, have high values, and only those rich in ash, which
has no caloric value , are much lower than average. Most common feeds contain about 18.5
MJ/kg DM. Of all the gross energy of a feeds, not all is available and useful to the animal. Some
energy is lost from the animal in the form of the solid, liquid and gaseous excretion; another
fraction lost as heat.

5.1.2. Digestible Energy Content (DE)

A more useful measure of the energy value of feeds is the estimate of digestible energy content.
This takes account of the amount of energy that is lost in the feces, having not been digested and
absorbed by the animal. For pigs, this is a good estimate of the amount of energy provided by a
feed. For ruminant animals, a large amount of energy may also be lost as methane, as a result of
rumen fermentation. Let say a sheep ate 1.63 kg of hay DM having an energy content of 18.0
MJ/kg. Then the total energy intake of the sheep is therefore 1.63*18 which 29.3 MJ/day is. If in
the above case the sheep excreted 0.76 kg of faces DM contained 18.7 MJ/kg, or a total of 14.2
MJ/day. Therefore, the apparent digestible energy of the feed is (29.3 – 14.2)/29.3 = 0.515 and
the digestible energy content of the feed DM is 18*0.515 = 9.3 MJ/kg.

46
5.1.3. Metabolizable energy
Animals suffers a further losses of energy-containing substances in its urine, and particularly if it
is a ruminant, in the combustible gases leaving the digestive tract. The metaboizable energy of
the feed is less than digestible energy by the energy lost in urine and combustible gases. The
energy of urine is present in nitrogen containing substances such as urea, hippuric acid,
creatinine and allontatoin and also in such non-nitrogenous compounds as glucuronates and
citric acid.
The combustible gases lost from the rumen consist almost entirely of methane. Methane
production is closely related to feed intake, and at the maintenance level of nutrition about 7-9
percent of the gross energy of the feed (11-13% of digestible energy) is lost as methane. At high
level of feeding the proportion decline to 6-7 per cent of gross energy, the fall being most
marked for highly digested feeds. With previously fermented feeds, such as brewers’ grains,
methane production is low (3 per cent of gross energy).

Metabolizable energy value of a feed is determined in a feeding trial similar to a digestibility

trial, but in which urine and methane, as well as faeces are collected. Metabolism cages for sheep
and pigs incorporate a device for collecting urine. Urine of cattle is caught in rubber urinals
attached below the abdomen for males and over the vulva for females, and is piped by gravity or
suction to a collection vessel. An alternative method of collecting urine from females which is
commonly used for pigs is to insert an inflatable catheter into the vagina. When methane
production is measured the animal is usually kept in an airtight container known as respiration
chamber. When no respiration chamber is available, methane production can be estimated as 8
per cent of gross energy intake. In addition it is possible to calculate the metabolizble energy
values of ruminant feeds from digestible energy values by multiplying by 0.8. This implies that,
on average, about 20 per cent of the energy apparently digested is excreted in the urine and
methane. For poultry, metabolizable energy is measured more easily than digestible energy,
because the faeces and urine are voided together.

The energy in the feed, minus that lost in the feces, urine and as methane, is known as the
metabolizable energy (ME), and is the term usually used to assess the energy value of ruminant
feeds.

47
5.1.4. Net energy
The deduction of heat increment of a feed from its metabolizable energy gives the net energy
value of the feed. The net energy of a feed is that energy which is available to the animal for
useful purposes such as for body maintenance and for the various forms of production. Net
energy used for maintenance is mainly used to perform work within the body and will leave the
animal as heat. That used for growth and fattening and for milk, egg or wool production is either
stored in the body or leaves it as chemical energy and the quantity so used is referred to as the
animal’s energy retention. It is important to understand that of the heat lost by the animal only a
part, the heat increment of the feed, is truly waste energy which can be regarded as a direct tax
on the feed energy. The heat resulting from the energy used for body maintenance is considered
to represent energy which has been used by the animal and degraded into a useless form during
the process of utilization.
The following chart will summarize the partitioning of feed energy in animal body as illustrated.

5.2. Assessing Protein Quality of Feed

While the estimation of crude protein content will give a reasonable estimate of the Amount of
protein in a feed, of perhaps greater importance is the quality of that protein. The very different

48
digestive systems of pigs and poultry compared with sheep and goats mean that the assessment
of protein quality differs for these two classes of animal.

Degradable Protein
`When -a sheep or goat eats any protein, it first goes into the rumen, where it is attacked by the
rumen micro-organisms. How much of the protein gets degraded by the micro-organisms
depends on how fast the protein is broken down by them, and on how fast feed leaves the rumen.
If the feed is broken down quickly, and feed flows out of the rumen only slowly, then most if not
all of the protein will be broken down (degraded) in the rumen. If the feed is broken down
slowly, and feed flows out of the rumen more quickly, then little if any of the protein will be
degraded.

49
A. Degradation rate slow; outflow rate fast; B. Degradation rate fast; outflow rate
-little protein degraded -most protein degraded
Degraded protein will only be of any use to the animal if the rumen micro-organisms are able to
build it up into microbial protein. This microbial protein will then eventually leave the rumen
and be digested, absorbed and used by the animal. The rumen micro-organisms will only be able
to use degraded protein to make microbial protein if they have enough energy. They will get this
energy from fibre (if it can be degraded), but also from sugars and starch in the diet. They will
not get any energy from fat or oil in the diet, as micro-organisms are unable to ferment fat to any
great extent.

Estimation of Degradable Protein

The common way to estimate how much and how quickly a protein will degrade in the rumen is
to take samples of the feed and put them in porous bags. These are placed in the rumen of an
animal (usually sheep, cow or buffalo) that has been operated on so that it has a hole (with a cap
on it) in its rumen. The bags are taken out at different times, and the amount of protein that is left
in the feed that is still left in the bag is measured. From the amount of protein that is left in the
bag at different times, the rate (and extent) of protein degradation can be calculated. Protein
degradability is usually expressed using three terms, a, b and c. a is the proportion of protein that
is almost immediately degraded, and so is likely to be degraded in the rumen no matter what the
outflow rate is. b is the proportion of protein that is potentially degraded, depending on the
relative rates of degradation and outflow. c is the rate of degradation of b.

To calculate the proportion of protein that will be degraded, you also need to know the outflow
rate from the rumen (k). For most tropical livestock, being kept at or near maintenance, this is
likely to be 0.02/h. In other words, 2% of the material in the rumen will flow out into the
animal’s lower gut every hour. The proportion of a feed’s protein that is degradable can be
calculated from the equation:
Degradability =( a + (bc / (c + k )))  and since usually k = 0.02 then Degradability = a + bc / c +
0.02 The amount of degradable protein in a feed can be estimated by multiplying its
degradability by its crude protein content.

50
Example: Alfalfa (lucerne) meal has the following characteristics: Protein consumed

Parameter %

a 39.3

b 36.6

c (fractional rate, h -1) 0.0491

Crude protein content 16.5

Its degradability is therefore: =39.3 + (36.6 x (0.0491/(0.0491+0.02)))

=39.3 + (36.6 x (0.0491/0.069))
=39.3 + (36.6 x 0.711)
=39.3 + 26.0
=65.3%
Its degradable protein content is 65.3% of 16.5%, or 10.8%.

Digestible Un degraded Protein

The protein that is not degraded in the rumen may be digested and absorbed by the animal. This
protein is called digestible; un degraded protein (DUP). There are times (particularly in early
lactation) when animals may need some DUP to meet all their needs for protein, if the rumen
micro-organisms are not able to make enough protein for the animal. To estimate how much un
degraded protein is supplied by a feed, subtract the degradable protein content away from the
feed’s crude protein content:
Un degraded protein = Crude protein – Degradable protein.
Not all of this un degraded protein will be digested by the animal. With most feeds, however, 95-
98% of the un degraded protein will be digested by the animal and if there is no other
information available then this is probably a reasonable estimate to use. To estimate the amount
of indigestible protein there is in a feed, a feed might be heated with acid detergent, and the
nitrogen content of the residue determined. This gives an estimate of the feed’s acid detergent

51
insoluble nitrogen (ADIN) content, and is taken to be an estimate of the N fraction that will not
be digested in the gut. To estimate the indigestible protein content, therefore, the ADIN content
is multiplied by 6.25 (see estimation of crude protein for an explanation). Indigestible protein
(IP) = ADIN x 6.25. The digestible, un degraded protein content of the feed may then be
calculated from: DUP content = CP content – Degradable protein content – IP

Digestible Crude Protein

Protein digestibility for pigs can be estimated by feeding them known amounts of the feed under
investigation and then collecting all the faeces they produce. The feed and faeces are then
analyzed for protein, and by knowing how much protein has been fed, and how much protein has
been excreted, the digestibility of the protein is calculated from:
Digestibility (%) = (Protein consumed-protein excreted) x 100
Protein consumed
Since this method is expensive and time consuming, laboratory tests have been developed to
predict protein digestibility. The feed can be mixed with digestive enzymes (pepsin and
pancreatic, which are available commercially). These will digest the digestible part of the
protein, and the feed/enzyme mixture can then be filtered. The digested protein, being by now
soluble, will be filtered off with the enzymes. The undigested protein will remain and can be
measured and from this, the protein digestibility can be estimated. This method is also expensive
and uses chemicals that can be hard to obtain for some laboratories. A good prediction of protein
digestibility can also be achieved (for tropical forages) by estimating the proportion of protein
(N) that is water soluble. This is done by putting the sample of feed through three 30 min cold
water wash cycles in a washing machine, and then measuring the amount of N that is left in the
residual material.

52
 CHAPTER 6. Voluntary Feed Intake and its Regulations
Voluntary feed intake is the amount of feed consumed by an animal voluntarily within a specific
period of time when the feed is supplied ad libitum (free choice). Voluntary feed intake can also
used in assessment of feed quality in terms of palatability. The level of feed intake dictates the
whole rate of metabolism in the body. The more feed an animal consume each day, the greater
will be the opportunity for increasing its daily production. An increase in production that
obtained by higher feed is usually associated with an increase in over all efficiency of the
production process, since maintenance costs are decreased proportionally as productivity rises,
but not true for all. Feeding is a complex activity that includes search for feed, recognition of
feeds and movement towards it, sensory appraisal of the feed and initiation of eating and
ingestion. It is only in the books and scientific experiments do the feeder set rigid feed
allowances. In practice the feeder aims to satisfy the cattle to their appetite. Prediction of
voluntary feed intake is much more difficult as many feed variable may have to be taken into
account. Usually, feed intake is expressed in terms of gram per kilogram metabolic body weight
per day (g/kg wo.75/day). It can also be expressed as gram per day or as percent body weight.
Generally, feed intake is correlated to surface area or volume of the body rather than body
weight of the animals.

6.1. Factors Affecting Feed Intake

However nutritious the feed offered to an animal is, it is of no use if the animal does not eat it. In
animal production enterprises, profits greatly depend on the ability to successfully maximize
feed intake. It is essential, therefore, to understand the large number of physiological,
environmental and management factors that influence feed intake. Although there is still much to
learn, scientists and producers have identified many of these factors through research and
experience. The two fold purpose of understanding factor affecting feed intake are to discuss
control mechanisms of feed intake and to quantify intake for each of the animals commonly used
for food and fiber production. A number of factors affect the amount that an animal eats each
day:
1. Volume of the reticulo-rumen: This is related with the volume of the rumen and reticulum to
hold the feed ingested by the animals. Generally, the more the volume of rumen and reticulum

53
the increased the voluntary feed intake of the animal as the volume accommodated more feed.
Positive correlation can be observed between intake and the volume.
2. Rate of fermentation of the feed: Feeds with high rate of fermentative characters result in
more spaces or volume in the digestive tract of the animal where this causes increased feed
intake as feed stay in the digestive tract for a short period and make the volume empty for the
next meal.
3. Rate of passage: The higher the rate of passage the higher will be the rate of voluntary feed
intake though the passage has different effect depends on species of animal involved.
4. Moisture content of the feedstuff: Feeds with high moisture content causes high water in the
digestive tract and affect the space for dry matter intake. However, too low moisture content of
the feed also reduce the overall total dry matter intake due to the long stay of the feed in the
mouth of the animal before going to the lower tract. Feed digestion needs water, and dry feeds
(especially straws and stovers) are particularly hard to eat and the animal needs to be able to
drink while they are eating them to help them chew and swallow them. Ideally, livestock should
always have a supply of clean, fresh water. This is rarely the case, but the more often they can be
provided with fresh water the healthier they will be.
5. Feed Presentation: Livestock prefer succulent feeds (fresh grasses and leaves) to dried
forages like straw. With all livestock, chopping (or in the case of poultry, grinding) the feed will
also make the animals eat more. This of course assumes that there is a plentiful supply of feed,
and high intakes are wanted so that animal productivity can be increased. There are many times
of the year (particularly at the end of the dry season) when feed is in short supply, and it is more
important then that the feed provides ‘gut fill’ so that the animal feels satisfied. Feeding forages
with higher fibre content and in a long rather than chopped form will help with this. Some feeds
are better than others at providing gut fill and indigenous knowledge is very important at
selecting such feeds. Feeds should be presented in such a way that animals are able to eat it in the
way that they naturally feed. Goats browse, and so prefer a feeder that holds the feed at a height
where they need to reach up to get it rather than a trough on the floor. Sheep and cattle on the
other hand prefer a trough on the ground. Refused feed that has been rejected by animals
(particularly once it has been trodden on and dunged on) needs to be cleared away. It will not be
eaten by livestock, and mixing fresh feed with it will only put animals off eating the fresh
material. Sheep, goats and poultry digest feed better if small amounts are offered to them at

54
frequent intervals, rather than large amounts at once. This is not always practical, but two or
three feedings a day is better than one and if concentrates are being fed to animals it is better if a
small amount is fed every day (and two or three times a day rather than just once) rather than a
large amount every few days.
6. Diet Composition: A number of feeds are unpalatable to livestock. Animals will avoid such
feeds, and may reject the whole feed mix if they cannot select more palatable feeds from it.
Feeds are sometimes unpalatable because they are toxic, but this is not always the case. If an
unpalatable feed has been included in the diet because it provides a particular nutrient that is
otherwise limiting in the diet, then the unpalatable feed needs to be well mixed with the rest of
the feed if it is to be eaten. Feeds with strong (palatable) smells and tastes may need to be added
to mask the unpalatable feed. To some extent, livestock will select feeds that provide them with
the nutrients that they need, and provided they are given a wide enough choice of feeds they will
select a reasonably balanced diet. This does not happen in all situations, though, and if there is
one particular feed that an animal likes, it may well eat it to excess and reject other feeds,
resulting in an unbalanced diet. If that is the case, then the amount of the ‘favourite’ feed needs to
be restricted so that the animal will then move on to eat other, less desirable feedstuffs. If the
livestock keeper wants to feed particular feeds to their livestock, then the diet needs to be
restricted so that the animal will eat those feeds. On the other hand, with highly fibrous feeds like
straws, it is better to offer large amounts of the feed (two or three times what the animal will eat)
so that it can select the bits of the feed that are more palatable and digestible. Feeds that have
grown mould should not be fed to livestock. They are likely to reject them anyway, unless they
have nothing else to eat, but the moulds produce toxins which can cause disease or death in the
livestock.
7. Individual Animal: An animal’s appetite changes as its requirement for nutrients changes.
Young, growing animals have a greater appetite than adults. Lactation brings about a big
increase in appetite because of the demands of milk production.
8. Herd/flock Pressures: When other animals in the flock or herd are eating, individual animals
are encouraged to eat. However, all flocks and herds have a hierarchy and while dominant
animals get more than their fair share of feed offered, the more submissive/docile animals in the
flock or herd can only eat what is left. They may still be harassed and prevented from eating
when others have stopped. Ensuring there is sufficient trough or feeder space so that all members

55
of the flock or herd can eat at the same time reduces this problem, but younger and more
vulnerable members (or those with particularly high requirements because of lactation) may need
to be fed separately to ensure that they get the feed that they need.

6.2. Feed Intake Regulation in Monogastric Animals

Control centers in the central nervous system
Feeding in mammals and birds is controlled by centers in hypothalamus, situated beneath the
cerebrum in the brain. It was originally proposed that there were two centers of activity. The first
of these was the feeding center (lateral hypothalamus), which caused the animal to eat food
unless inhibited by the second, the satiety center (ventro medial hypothalamus), which
received signals from the body as a result of consumption of feed. Quite simple it was considered
that the animal would continue to eat unless the satiety center received signals which inhibited
the activity of the feeding centre.
Short-term regulation
Chemostatic theories
The release of nutrients from the feed in the digestive tract, their absorption and passage via the
portal system to the liver and their presence in circulating blood all provide opportunities for the
nutrients to signal their presence to the satiety center of the hypothalamus. According to the
chemostatic theory, the rise in concentration at these sites of some critical substance sends a
signal to the brain to cause the animals to stop eating, and a fall in concentration of the glucose in
the blood, cause an animal to feel hungry and hence to start eating. It is always known that blood
glucose level rises after a meal and then falls slowly. It has been suggested that gluco-receptors,
perhaps located in the hypothalamus itself, monitor either the absolute concentration of the
glucose in the blood or the difference in concentration between arterial and venous blood. Recent
investigation indicated that receptors are located closer to the point of the origin of glucose in the
gut and liver which could evoke a faster response to the ingestion of feed. Thus glucose infused
into the intestine or the hepatic portal system causes a greater reduction in intake than glucose
infused into the peripheral circulation. Glucose in the duodenum has been shown to generate
signals that are transmitted neural and may cause the flow of digesta from the stomach to be
retarded, hence reducing feed intake. Another possible means of communication between the gut
and the brain is provided by the peptide hormone, cholecystokinin, this is released into the gut

56
when digestive products such as amino acids and fatty acids reach the duodenum and is known to
act on the hypothalamus. In the liver, glucose and other nutrients that are oxidized in that organ
are believed to send signals via the vagus nerve that eventually reach the hypothalamus.
The short-term control of intake in the fowl does not seem to be influenced to the same extent by
blood glucose or other nutrients and it appears that signals are received directly from the crop.
Thermostatic theory
This theory proposes that animals eat to keep warm and stop eating to prevent
hyperthermia. Heat is produced during the digestion and metabolism of feed and it is
considered that this heat increment could provide one of the signals used in the short term
regulation of feed intake. IT has been established that there are thermo receptors, sensitive to
changes in heat, present in the anterior hypothalamus and also peripherally in the skin. Some
support for this thermostatic theory is obtained from observations, with a number of species,
which feed intake increase in cold and decrease in hot environments.
Long-tem regulation
The long-term preservation of a relatively constant body weight combined with animal’s desire to
return to that body weight if it is altered by starvation or forced feeding implies that some agent
associated with energy storage act as a signal for the long-term regulation of feed intake. One
suggestion is that this might be fat deposition. Studies with poultry tend to support this lipostatic
theory of regulation. Cockerels forced to eat twice their normal intake of feed deposited fat in the
abdomen and liver. When force-feeding was stopped the birds fasted for 6-10 days, and when
poultry feeding recommenced feed intake was low. It was evident from these studies that the
birds lost weight when forced feeding ceased, and tissue fat concentration decreased to levels
approaching normal after 23 days. The exact mechanism by which the hypothalamus receives the
lipostatic signal is not known although a natural steroid may be involved.
In pigs, it had appeared that any feedback mechanisms from body fat to the controlling centers of
feeding is not as sensitive as that in poultry and other animals. This insensitivity may be arisen
through early genetic selection for rapid weight gain, when excessive carcass fat was not
considered, as it is today, an undesirable characteristic. The natural propensity of the modern pig
to fatten is usually counteracted in practice by restricted feeding and also by selection of pigs
with a smaller appetite.

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Sensory appraisal
The senses of sight, smell, touch and taste play an important role in stimulating appetite in man,
and influencing the quantity of feed ingested at any one meal. It is also a common assumption
that animals share the same attitudes to feed as ourselves but it is now generally accepted that the
senses play a less important role in feed intake in farm animals than they do in man.
The term palatability is used to describe the degree of readiness with which a particular feed is
selected and eaten but palatability and feed intake are not synonymous. Palatability involves only
the senses of smell, touch and taste. Most domestic animals exhibited sniffing behavior, but the
extent to which sense of smell is necessary in order to locate and select feeds is difficult to
measure. A variety of aromatic substances, such as dill, aniseed, coriander and fenugreek, are
frequently added to animal feed. The inference is that the odour from these species makes the
feed more attractive and hence increases intake. Although transitory increase in feed intake may
occur, the effects of these additives have yet to be convincingly demonstrated to be long lasting
and terms of overall increased feed intake.
Similarly, with the sense of taste, most animals show preferences for certain feed when presented
with a choice. Typical is the presence of young pigs for sucrose solutions rather than water. The
fowl is different to solutions of the common sugars but finds xylose objectionable, and will not
ingest salt solution in concentrations beyond the capacity of its excretory system. Every species
studied has shown considerable individual variability, e.g. in a litter of pigs tested with saccharin
solutions of different concentrations, some animals preferred high level of the sweetener whereas
others rejected them.
Physiological factors
The classical experiments of Adolph in 1947 demonstrated that, when the diets of rat where
diluted with inert materials to produce a wide rage of energy concentration, the animals where
able to adjust the amount of feed eaten so that their energy intake remain constant. This concept
that animals eat for calories’’ has also be shown to apply to poultry and other non-ruminants farm
animals. The most diluted diet had an energy concentration which was only half that of the
original and much lower than the range normally expressed by chicks. The chicks responded by
eating up to 25 per cent more feed, but even so energy intake decline by up to 29 per cent. If the
energy content of a diet is increased by the addition of a concentrated source of energy such as
fat, chicks respond in the opposite way. They eat less, but the reduction in intake may be

58
insufficient to prevent a rise in energy intake. Where extensive diet dilution is carried out, by
using low digestible materials, the ability to adjust the intake may be overcome because gastiro-
intesitinal capacity becomes a limiting factor. The crop appears to be concerned with intake in
the fowl, since cropectomized birds eat less than normal when feeding time is restricted.
Inflation or introduction of inert materials into the crop is known to cause a decrease in feed
intake. In mammals, distention and tension receptor has been identified in the oesophagus,
stomach, duodenum and small intestine. Distention in these areas of the tracts increases the
activity in the vigus nerve and in the satiety center of the hypothalamus.
The general relationship between feed intake and energy requirement suggests that, as with
energy, intake should vary not direct with live weight but with metabolic live weight (w 0.75). This
relationship is general relationship held to exist although variation can also occur depending
upon the physiological state of the animal. For example, lactation is usually associated with a
marked increase in feed intake, and in the rat at the peak of lactation, feed intake may be nearly
three times that of a non-lactating animal. In sows, the smaller the amount of feed given during
pregnancy, the greater is the amount consumed during lactation. Reports of changes in feed
intake during pregnancy are conflicting. There are several reports of increase in intake occurring
with onset of pregnancy in rats, but other report suggests little or non-change. It would seem
reasonable to assume that intake increase with exercise and studies with rats have shown that
there is a linear relationship between feed intake and the duration of exercise. There is, however,
little information about farm animals on this subject.
Nutritional deficiencies
Utilization by the tissues of the observed products of digestion depends upon the efficient
functioning of the many enzymes and coenzymes of the various metabolic pathways and dietary
deficiencies of indiscernible amino acids, vitamins and minerals are likely to affect the intake of
feed. In poultry, sever deficiency of amino acids reduced feed intake whereas moderate
deficiencies, insufficient to affect growth markedly, increase intake. When hens are given a diet
containing high concentrations of calcium (30g/kg), intake is about 25% greater on egg forming
than on non-egg forming days. This large variation does not occur when low calcium diets are
given with calcium being provided separately as calcareous girt. It would appear that laying hens
‘eat for calcium’.

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Choice feeding
Animals have precise nutritional requirements, but under natural conditions are faced with a
wide Varity of feeds to choice from, some of which are nutritionally inadequate.
The domestic rat and mouse are know to regulate their intakes on feeds to satisfy, as far as
properties of the feed allow, their requirements for energy, protein and certain other nutrients. In
study with farm animals attention has concentrated on poultry and it has been demonstrated that
the domestic fowl has specific appetites for calcium, phosphorus, zinc, thiamin and various
amino acids.
The commercial application of the ability of poultry to select feed for their nutritional content
uses a whole cereal grain and a balancer feed contains relatively high level of amino acids,
vitamins and minerals. The birds are thus allowed to balance the energy:protein ration of their
overall diets. The balancer feed is formulated so that equal proportions of the two feed are
expected to be eaten, and because milling, mixing and pelleting costs are avoided for the whole
cereal total feeding costs can be reduced. The choice feeding systems have been used
successfully, with large flocks of growing turkeys and growing replacement laying stock. A
similar ability to select a balanced diet from feed has been demonstrated in broiler chickens and
adult laying hens, but some of these studies have given variable results. The theory that poultry
have a control system that allows them to chooce suitable amount of different feeds to satisfy
their nutritional requirements is regarded as being to simplistic and other factors such as physical
form of ingredients, composition of the feed, trough position and previous experience are also
likely to be involved.
6.3. Feed Intake Regulation in Ruminants
Although feed intake can be controlled at the metabolic level in ruminants, the signals are likely
to be different from those in monogastric animals. The amount of glucose absorbed from the
digestive tract of the ruminant is relatively small and blood glucose levels show little
relation to feeding behavior. It would therefore, seem unlikely that a glucose mechanism intake
control could apply to ruminants. A more likely chemo static mechanism might involve the
volatile fatty acids absorbed from the rumen. Intra rumen infusions of acetate and
propionate have been shown to depress intake of concentrate diets by ruminants, and it is
suggested that receptors for acetate and propionate occur on the luminal side of the reticulo-
rumen. Butyrate seems to have less effect on intake than acetate or propionate, probably because

60
butyrate is normally metabolized to acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutrate by the rumen epithelium.
With diets commonly consists of roughages, infusion of volatile fatty acids have had less defined
effects on intake. As indicated above, in ruminants on such diets control of feed intake
appears to be exercised at the level of the digestive system, and features of the feed have an
important influence on intake.
Feed characteristics that determine intake
Ruminants are adapted to the utilization of what may be termed bulky feeds, but may
nevertheless have difficult in processing such feeds. Rumination and fermentation are relatively
slow processes, and fibrous feeds may have to spend a long time in the digestive tract for their
digestible components to be extracted. If feeds and their indigestible residues are detained in the
digestive tract, the animal’s throughput hence its daily intake will be reduced. It is generally
considered that stretch and tension receptors in the rumen wall signals the degree of fill to the
brain, but what constitutes the maximum and hence critical fill to the rumen is uncertain. The
voluminous bulky feeds such as hay and straw will fill the rumen to a greater degree than the
concentrates has received some support, although after being chewed, the voluminous feed are
not as bulky as they are in the trough. Another concept of rumen fill is that animals eat to
maintain a constant amount of dry matter in the rumen. There is also doubt about the
contribution of water to the rumen fill. Water-filled balloons/distended in the rumen within the
plant tissues promote a lesser dry matter intake than comparable feeds of lower water content.
It has long been recognized that in ruminants there is a positive relationship between the
digestibility of feeds and their intake. Intake more than doubled as the energy digestibility of
the feed increased from 0.4 to 0.8 coefficient of digestibility. Supplementing roughage with
highly digestible concentrates also result in increased intake in ruminants. However, the effect on
intake of adding a concentrate supplement to roughage depends on the digestibility of that
roughage. If the digestibility is low as for cereal straw with dry matter digestibility of 0.4, total
intake will be increased more than if its digestibility is high such as young grassland herbage
with 0.8 coefficient of digestibility. This implies that concentrate added to roughage of low
digestibility tends to be eaten in addition to the roughage, but when added to roughage of
high digestibility it tends to replace the roughage. Even though rate of digestion of the diets
and digestibility are generally related to one another, feed intake is actually more closely
related to rate of digestion than to digestibility of the diet. It means that feeds that are

61
digested rapidly, and are also of high digestibility, promote high intakes. The faster the rate of
digestion, the more rapidly is the digestive tract emptied, and the more space is made available
for the next meal. The chemical components of feeds that determines their rate of digestion is
neutral detergent fibre (NDF), which is itself a measure of cell wall content, thus there is a
negative relationship between the NDF content of feeds and the rate at which they are digested.
One consequence of the relationships just described is that feeds that are equal in digestibility but
differ in NDF (cell wall) content will promote different intakes. An example is provided by the
two families of pasture plants, grasses and legumes. At equal digestibility, legumes contain less
cell wall (hence more cell contents) and are consumed in quantities about 20% greater than grass.
Although rate of digestion and intake are related to the concentration of cell walls in ruminant
feeds, the physical form of the cell walls also affects intake. The mechanical grinding of
roughages partially destroys the structural organization of the cells, thereby accelerating their
breakdown in the rumen and increasing feed intake. Moreover, grinding and pelleting result in
increased feed intake despite a reduction in digestibility. The fine particles produced in ground
roughages pass rapidly out of the rumen, leaving room for more food but allowing some
digestible martial to escape undigested. On the other hand, chemical treatments of roughages that
disrupt the cell wall structure cause large increases in intake. Moreover, the different
morphological part of the same plant can also cause different intake as for example cell wall
structure comes from the comparison of intakes of the leaves and stems of pasture plants.
Although the two components may be equal in digestibility, the cell wall in leaves are more
easily broken down, so animals given leaves eat about 40% more dry matter per day than those
offered stems.
The following table illustrates how different processing has effect on feed intake and
digestibility.
Forms of roughages
Measure Species Percentage difference
Long Pelleted
Sheep 56.8 82.4 +45
Intake (g/kg W0.75)
Cattle 81.8 90.7 + 11
Sheep 0.672 0.586 -13
Digestibility
Cattle 0.699 0.569 - 19

Nutrient deficiencies that reduce the activity of rumen microorganisms are liable to reduce feed
intake. The most common is protein or nitrogen deficiency, which may be corrected by
supplementation with rumen degradable protein or even urea. However, protein supplements for

62
ruminants even given low-protein forages seem to act in the animal tissues as well as in the
rumen, because supplements given post-ruminally (e.g. through an abomasal fistula) also
improve feed intake. Other nutrients whose deficiencies are liable to restrict feed intake in
ruminants are sulphur, phosphorus, sodium and cobalt.
There are some feeds eaten in lesser quantity than would be expected from their digestibility or
cell wall content. These include some types of silage, particularly those with a high content of
fermentation acids or those that have been badly fermented and hence have high ammonia
content. The physical form of the feed can also be involved, as fine chopping of the silage or of
the grass from which the silage is made will increase intake, possibly because it prevents the
formation in the rumen of a dense mat of fibrous material. Sheep are more sensitive to silage
than cattle, and respond more to having their feeds chopped or ground.
Feeds with intakes less than expected may also be labeled as ‘unpalatable’. Generally, however,
palatability is not thought to be an important factor determining intake, except where the
feed is protected against consumption or contaminated in some way.
Animal factor affecting intake in ruminants
If the capacity of the rumen is a critical factor in determining the feed intake of the ruminants,
then circumstance that change the relationship between the size of the rumen and the size of
whole animal are likely to affect intake. As ruminants of a given species grow, their feed intake
follows approximately the proportionality to metabolic body weight referred to earlier. However,
cattle have a greater intake per unit of metabolic body weight than sheep. A research indicated
that a growing steer (300 kg) steer on a diet containing 11MJ ME/kg DM will consume about 90
g DM per kgW0.75 per day (6.3 kg DM per animal per day) where as a growing lamb (40 kg) will
consume only 60 g DM per kgW0.75 per day (0.96 kg per animal). Intake seems to be related to
fasting heat production, which is itself related to metabolic body weight but is similar per unit of
metabolic body weight in sheep than in cattle. When animals become excessively fat their intake,
tends to stabilize or in other words, not to increase as body weight continuous to increase. This
may be due to abdominal fat deposits reducing the volume of the rumen but also be a metabolic
effect (i.e. lipostatic limitation of intake) conversely, in very lean animals intake per unit of
metabolic body weight tends to be high. This effect is seen in animals showing compensatory
growth after a period of feed restriction. It is also to be seen in ruminants chronically short of

63
feed, as in some developing countries, where animals appear to be constructed of skin and bone
enclosing a large rumen.
In pregnant animals, two opposing effects influences feed intake. The increased need for
nutrients for fetal development cause intake to rise. In the later stage of pregnancy the effective
volume of the abdominal cavity is reduced as the fetus increases in size, and so is the space
available for expansion of the rumen during feeding. As a result intake will be depressed,
especially if the diet is predominantly a roughage one. The increased intake in ruminants with the
onset of lactation is well known. This increase is mainly physiological in origin although there
will be a physical effect resulting from the reduction in fat deposits in the abdominal cavity.
There is a noticeable lag in the response of feed intake to the increased energy demand of
lactation. In early lactation, the dairy cow loses weight which is replaced at the later phase of
lactation when milk yield is falling while intake of DM remain high. The intakes of growth
energy by the lactating cows where about 50% higher than those of non-lactating animals.
Environmental factors affecting the feed intake of ruminants
Grazing ruminants
The intake of ruminants in their natural habitat is influenced not only by the chemical
composition and digestibility (or rate of digestion) of the pasture herbage, but also by its physical
structure and distribution. The grazing animal has to be able to harvest sufficient herbage to meet
its needs without undue expenditure of energy. Its intake is determined by three factors, bit size
(the quantity of the DM harvested at each bit), bit rate (number of bits per minutes) and grazing
time. For example, a grazing dairy cow (600kg) has a maximum bit size of 0.6 g DM, grazes at
60 bites per minutes and hence harvests at 36 g DM per minutes or 2.16 kg per hour. To achieve
a reasonable intake of 16 kg DM per day it will therefore, need to graze for 16/2.16 = 7.4 hours
per day. Cows normally graze for about 8 hours per day, but some times for as mush as 10 hours
per day. In this instance the cow should be able to achieve the necessary intake in a grazing time
within the eight hour period. For the cow to achieve maximum bits size and bite rate the herbage
must be suitably distributed.
Other environmental factors
Environmental temperature influences the intake of ruminants as its does of monogastric species.
At temperatures below the thermo neutral zone (the range of temperature between lower and
upper critical temperature) intake is increased, and at temperatures above the thermo neutral

64
zone, intake is reduced. Well-fed ruminants have a broad thermo neutral zone, extending to quite
low critical temperatures at the lower end. However, at the upper end (i.e. in hot climates)
temperature can exert a strong influence on intake, especially in more productive animals with
high nutrient demand. For example, for temperate (Bos taurus) breeds of cattle it has been
estimated that intake falls by 2% for every 1oC rise in average daily temperature above 25oC.
Another feature of the environment that has an effect on intake is day length. Generally,
domestic livestock are less affected by day length. Very evident effect is observed in deer when
as day length decline which result in sever reduction of feed intake. Sheep my also reduce its
feed intake as day length get shorter, as but to a much lesser extent than do deer. Cattle seem not
to be affected by day length.
Ill-health can reduce the intake of ruminants. Contrary to popular opinion, infections of gastro-
intestinal parasites tend to reduce intake, presumably because the interferences with digestive
function overrides any metabolic stimulus arising from a reduction in the absorption of nutrients.
Infections with external parasites, such as ticks also reduce intake.

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 Chapter7. Feeding Standards and Nutrient Requirement of farm animals.

Feeding standards are the tables which indicate the quantities of nutrients to be fed to the
various classes of livestock for different physiological functions like growth, maintenance,
lactations, egg production and wool growth. The nutrient requirements are generally expressed
separately for each functions or an overall figure for the combined functions are generally
expressed for the separate body functions but in case of poultry and pigs combined requirements
of maintenance and other body functions are given. There are two terms which have been used in
the feeding standards. One is the nutrient allowance and another is the nutrient
requirements. The former gives an extra allowance of nutrient over the requirement which gives
a margin of safety where as latter terms give the requirements for optimum production. There are
three sets of standards which are available for feeding the various categories of livestock in the
different countries. 1. National Research councils of USA (NRC) 2. Agricultural Research
Council of UK (ARC) and 3. Indian standards.
Advantages of feeding standards
1. Serve as a general guide for feeding of livestock
2. Useful for practical feeding purpose
3. Gives an idea about total feed and nutrient requirement of energy specific for
physiological functions
4. Useful in planning the experiments and interpreting the result depending upon nature
and objectives of the investigations.
5. Useful for calculation of total requirement of herd and thus helps in planning of feeding
schedules for future.
6. Being flexible feeding standards can be modified as per demands, availability and costs
of feeding stuffs.
Limitations of feeding standards
1. It can’t give exact needs of individual animals
2. Unable to indicate whether or not the animals are fed properly
3. Can not become complete guide for feeding of animals and hence difficult to use as a
rule

66
 4. It may not be useful under the situations where palatability and physiological nature of
feed alters its voluntary intake and thus its requirements.
5. Environment and climatic changes can alter the nutrient metabolism and therefore these
can not be useful in all such conditions.
6. It may change according to genetic make up
7. No useful measure of food energy is given
8. Factors such as biological value, amino acid composition, available minerals and
vitamins etc are not taken into account.
9. Modifications are needed according to availability of feeds.
Nutrient Requirement is a statement of what animals on average require for a particular function,
the allowance is greater than this amount by a safety margin designed principally to allow for
variations in requirement between individual animals. Feeding standards may be expressed in
quantities of nutrients or in dietary proportions. Various units are used for feeding standards.
Example, the energy requirement of ruminants may be stated in terms of NE, ME or their protein
or Metabolizable protein. Standards may be given separately for each function of the animals or
as overall figures for the combined functions. Examples are often given separately for
maintenance and for milk production, but those for growing chicken are for maintenance and
growth combined. In some cases the requirements for single functions are not known: this is true
particularly of vitamins and trace element requirement.
7.1. Nutrient requirement for maintenance
An animal is in a state of maintenance when its body composition remains constant, when it
does not give rise to any product such as milk and does not perform any work on its
surroundings. Animals deprived of food are forced to draw upon their body reserves to meet
their nutrient requirements for maintenance. Since the energy so utilized leaves the body as heat,
the animal is then in a state of negative energy balance. The purpose of maintenance ration is
to prevent this drain on the tissues and the maintenance requirement of a nutrient can therefore
be defined as the quantity which must be supplied in the diet so that the animal ’s
experiences neither net gain nor net loss of that nutrient.

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7.2. Nutrient requirement for growth
Growth defined as the increase in size of bones, muscles internal organs and other parts of the
body. It is normal process before birth, and after birth until the animal reaches its full mature
size. Growth is influenced primarily by nutrient intake. The pattern by which animals grow from
conception to maturity can be represented by a sigmoid (S- shaped) curve. During the foetal
period and from birth to puberty, the rate of growth accelerates; after puberty it decelerates and
reach a very low value as the mature weight is approached. Animal growth and animal
nutrition interact with one another, in the same that each can influence the other. The growth
pattern of an animal determines nutrition; an animal’s growth pattern of an animal determines
nutrition requirements. Conversely, by altering its nutrition, an animal’s growth pattern can be
modified. Another aspect of the interaction is that the growth pattern of animals determines the
composition of the product of growth, meat and so affects the consumer of the meat. When
feeding animals for meat production, the farmer is often aiming to produce carcass that meet a
particular specification for weight and composition. However animals used for other purposes,
such as reproduction or milk differ from those meat animals.
7.3. Nutrient requirement for reproduction
In reproducing animals there is an interaction between productions. Reproduction increases the
animals’ requirements for nutrients but conversely, the nutrient supply of animals can influence
their reproductive process.
The influence of nutrition on reproduction begins in the animal life as the plane of nutrition in
young animals can affect the age at which they reach puberty. In mature animals, poor nutrition
can reduces the production of ova and spermatozoa. So that the female either fails to conceive or
produce fewer offspring than normal (i.e. litter size is reduced). In pregnancy, females have
specific nutrients requirements for the maintenance and growth of the fetus (es). Puberty in cattle
is markedly influenced by the level of nutrition at which animals have been reared. In general
terms, the faster animal grows, the earlier it reaches sexual maturity. In cattle, puberty occurs
at a particular live weight or body size rather than at a fixed age. The tendency to day is for
cattle, sheep and pigs of both sexes to be mated when relatively young, which means that in the
female the nutrient demands of pregnancy are added to those of growth. In adequate nutrition
during pregnancy is liable to retard fetal growth and to delay the attainment of mature size by
mother. In complete skeletal development is particularly dangerous because it may lead to

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difficulties at parturition. Rapid growth and earlier attainment of a size appropriate to breeding
has the economic advantage of reducing the non productive part of the animal’s life. Many
nutrient deficiencies influence fertility indirectly through their effects on the general metabolism
of the animal.
Example of nutritional cause and reproductive failure in cattle
1. Over feeding and under feeding:- Over feeding accompanied by extremely high
condition or under feeding, accompanied by emaciated and run down condition, usually
results in temporary sterility over fat females experience birth difficulties. Excessive
thinners results in low birth weights and weak young.
2. Energy: - a low level of energy during, the least third of pregnancy and immediately
following parturition will have a marked adverse effect on rebreeding. Fewer female
will come in to heat at a beginning of the breeding season and fewer will conceive.
3. Protein: A low level of protein during gestation results in lowered reproduction,
lighter birth weights and delayed heat following parturition.
4. Lactation; milk production is a by product of the reproductive process. The
lactation requirements for moderate to heavy milk production are much more rigorous than
the maintenance or pregnancy requirement. The nutrient needs for lactation depend on the
amount and composition of milk secreted. Although high producing cows require more
total feed than low producers, they utilize proportionately more nutrients for milk
production and generally they return more net income over feed cost.
7. 4. Nutrient requirement for production
The amount of feed offered to any animal`s growth, milk production, reproduction, work
purpose, over and above maintenance is known as nutrient for production purpose.
1. For Wool production: sheep needs more protein for wool growth. The lack of protein
in sheep ration makes the wool rough and coarse quality. Example Adult sheep requires 1 kg
of and0.12 kg DCP daily for maintenance and production.
2. For milk production: The composition and quality of milk varies with breed and species
of animals. All nutrients of milk come from blood, which should be replaced by feed
ingredients. The level of milk production will be maintained as low as these nutrients are
supplied in diet according to needs of animals therefore cow needs additional nutrients for

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milk production of energy 3 kg of milk 1 kg concentrates in addition be given to the cow.
For every 1 kg of milk of 4% fat a cow requires 0.045kg DCP and 0.316 kg TDN.
3. For egg and meat production in poultry: Egg contains 67% water, 13% protein, 9%
fat and 11% minerals. All these nutrients are supplied by blood for egg formation. Egg is more
nutritive therefore all essential minerals, vitamins and amino acids should be present along
with enough energy in the feed. Also the protein in poultry ration should be of good quality
containing, lysine, methionine, arginine, cysteine, tryptophane for egg and meat production
otherwise production will be lowered.
4. For fattening purposes: pigs, goats and sheep and calve for beef raised for meat
production nutrients should be such that can give a quick return as for growth and meat is
concerned for better profit. The maximum fat in body is stored from carbohydrates. Although
excess carbohydrates, fat and protein are +converted into body fat. Animal’s nutrient
requirement varies with stage of fattening whether preliminary or intensive but on an average
animal needs 1.5 to 2 kg additional carbohydrates.

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Chapter8. Ration Formulation
Ration is the feed allowed for a given animal during of 24 hours. The feed may be given at a
time or n portion at intervals. Balanced ration is a ration which provides the essential nutrients
to the animal in such proportion and amounts that are required for the proper nourishment of the
particular animal for 24 hours that growth, maintenance, production and reproduction. An ideal
ration is a feed that contains essential nutrients present in a balanced ration and has an ability to
full fill all the requirement of a particular animal. Diet is a feed consumed by animals at a time
to satisfy its appetite.
What is needed in ration formulation?
A. A feeding standard (Either NRC or ARC) to know amount required per animal per day
and percentage of over all feed mixture or amount per kg of a ration.
B. Feed composition table which provides information concerning the nutritive
composition of the feeds to be used in balancing the ration.
8.1. Information needed for ration formulation
1. Nutritional requirement of the animals
2. Nutrient composition of the available feedstuffs
3. Nutrient availability
4. Nonnutritive character of feed stuff
5. Cost of available feedstuff
6. Expected daily feed intake
8.2. Methods of ration formulation
1. Algebraic methods
2. Pearson square methods
3. Two by two matrix methods (double Pearson square methods)
4. Trial and error methods
5. Computer application
Commonly used methods for ration formulation are algebraic and Pearson square methods.
Example1: Balance a 100 kg ration for 16% CP nutrient from sorghum grain and Soya bean
meal having 9.5 and 49% CP using both algebraic and Pearson square methods.
Solution: Balance a ration so it contains 16%. The assumption is that ration always implies that
100.

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Sum of the ingredients is = 100 and sum of the nutrient = 16.
SG+SBM = 100-----------------------------------------------------Feed equation-------1
Let say X is SG and Y is SBM--- X + Y = 100
X*9.5% + Y*49% = 16 ------------------------------------------CP equation---------2
X*0.095 + Y*0.49 = 16
Now equate equation 1 and 2 to be remain with one variable or substitute X for Y.
Let substitute X for Y in equation 1---X + Y = 100 implies that X = 100 –Y. and substitute in
equation two
X*0.095 + Y*0.49 = 16- implies (100-Y)*0.095 + Y*0.49 = 16
9.5-0.095Y + 0.49Y = 16
9.5 + 0.395Y = 16
0.395Y = 16-9.5
Y = 6.5/0.395
Y= 16.46%
Now X = 100-Y --- X = 100-16.46-----X = 83.54%
Therefore, 83.54% SG and 16.46% SBM are used to formulate a ration containing 16% CP in
100% ration.
Apply a Pearson square method

9.5% SG 33% SG

16%

49% SBM 6.5% SBM

39.5% grand total
Now calculate for each of these two for their particular proportion
SG = 33% of the total grand 39.5 ----33/39.5*100 = 83.54% part of SG
SBM = 6.5% of the total grand 39.5 --- 6.5/39.5*100 = 16.45% par of SBM
Example2. Formulate a 100kg ration containing of 18% CP from sorghum grain, maize grain and
SBM having 9.5, 9.0 and 49% CP.

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 Chapter9. Feed Preparation and Processing

Feed processing refers to the operation necessary to achieve the maximum potential nutritive
value of feedstuff to maximize their nutritive value and the net returns from their use. Feed
processing involves changing ingredients of wide ranging physical, chemical and nutritional
composition into a homogenous mixture (mixed compound feeds) suitable for producing a
desired nutritional response in the animal to which the mixture is fed. Processed mixed or
compound feeds are designed to provide the animal’s daily requirement of all known nutrients
with the intention to obtain maximum levels of production with minimum wastage of nutrient
and at minimum cost.

Feed processing is basically a physical one and chemical changes are few. Physical changes
involve addition or removal of moisture, treatment with heat or pressure, agglomeration (a
clustering together) and particle reduction. Chemical changes may involve structural changes in
the starch and disrupting the protein matrix that may result in changes in digestibility and
metabolic end products. In some cases both physical and chemical changes occur at the same
time and are usually referred to as physicochemical changes.

Feed processing influence the nutritive value of feeds, enhancing some and lowering others.
Many methods used for commercial processing of grain decrease the nutritive value of some of
the ingredients. It has been indicated that the bran of cereal grains is higher in most vitamins than
flour. Heat treatment of grain results in gelatinization of starch and denaturing of the protein.
Some processes to which feedstuffs are subjected result in the destruction of certain vitamins,
others enhance the stability of some vitamins, and still others bring the improvement in the
availability of vitamins from certain feedstuffs.

9.1 Purpose of feed processing

To make more profit
Profit in the livestock business may be enhanced by either reduction in costs or increasing
production or both. The profitability of feed preparation is determined by these same criteria.
Feed efficiency can be routinely improved by changing the method of grain processing.

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To alter particle size
Some feeds need to be reduced in size so that they can be consumed, or so that they may be more
digestible. In some instances, particle size is increased (agglomerated) by pelleting or by cubing.
To change moisture content
The moisture content of feedstuff may need to be changed to make it safer to store, more
palatable, more digestible or to prepare it for other processes. Moreover, the total dry matter
intake may be reduced in high moisture containing root crops, which may be undesirable when
maximum production is desired.
For safe storage grain should have less than 14% moisture level (corn, rye and sorghum-14%,
barley and oats-14.5%, soy beans-13%). These figures must be modified according to
temperature and desired storage time; higher temperature and longer storage time necessitate
lower moisture. For safe storage, the moisture contents of hay should not exceed the following
maximums: loose hay-25%, baled hay-20-22%, chopped hay-18-20% and cubes 16-17%.
Water addition to feeds stored as high-moisture grain, silage, hay may be desirable. Moreover,
water can be added to finely grounded meals mixture at the time of feeding in order to lessen
dustiness and increase palatability.
To change the density of feed
The weight per unit volume or bulk of a ration affects total intake; hence bulky rations which
make for fill reduce dry matter consumption. As a result very bulky feeds are sometimes pelleted
or cubed in order to increase energy density and feed consumption.
To change acceptability (palatability)
In most instances, feeds are processed in such manner as to increase acceptability (palatability)
and feed intake. To this end, molasses, flavors and fats may be added. For example, salt in small
amount is added to increase intake while excess quantity limit intake.
To change nutrient accessibility
When used alone and in their natural state, few feedstuffs meet the nutrient requirement of the
animals to which they are fed.

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To increase nutrient availability and digestibility
Gelatinization of starch granules (hydration or rupturing of the complex starch molecules) may
render them more digested, with the level of gelatinization appearing to be influenced by such
factors as steaming time, temperature, grain moisture and variety of grain.
To detoxify or remove undesirable ingredients
Some feeds may contain toxic substances, the excesses of which will prevent animals to perform
normally or even cause death. Feedstuffs that sometimes cause toxic reactions along with the
inhibitor(s) and the deactivation process are given in the table below.
Feedstuff Inhibitor(s) Deactivation process
Cottonseed Gossypol: cyclopropene fatty Adding iron salts: rupturing pigments
meal acids gland
Soybean meal Trypsin inhibitor: an unidentified Heat: autoclaving
factor
Linseed meal Crystalline water soluble Water treatment
substances
Raw fish Thiaminase Heat
Alfalfa Saponins: pectin methyl estrase Limit amount fed
Rye 5-N-Alkyl resorcinols Limit amount fed
Sweet clover Dicoumarol
Wheat grain Unidentified Heat
Rapeseed Isothiocynate: thyroactive Heat
materials

To improve keeping quality

Because feeds are seasonally produced, some of them must be stored for used in the non-growing
season. Usually, this involves the application of some types of preservation. Feed stored in bulk
should be first checked for their moisture contents as they are likely to mold and spontaneous
combustion may also take place.
To enhance rumen bypass
Processing, especially heat and pressure treatment may be used for the purpose of increasing
rumen bypass.

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9.2. Grain Processing Methods
Most concentrate processing methods have as their primary objective, improve starch availability
in cereal grain, which, in turn, enhance digestion and feed efficiency. Since 70 to 80% of the dry
matter in grain is composed of starch, this is a logical approach. However, the method of
accomplishing this are complicated because:
 The type of the starch varies among the grain, with the starch in some grains more
digestible than in others, and
 Availability of the starch even varies from one grain variety to another.r
Grain processing gives greater return when feed intake of the grains is high. Animals feed
maintenance rations are not normally fed much grain; hence, the increase in feed efficiency may
not return the added processing cost. Though several processing methods have evolved, it is
generally recognized that no one is precise/perfect for at least two or more processing methods
are involved in feed processing. For instance, for making pellets: grinding is followed by added
heat and moisture then pressure. Despite some overlapping, the following classification of grain
processing methods is outlined:
1. Mechanical alterations
It is the oldest and widely used methods for processing grains and those which merely cause
physical disruption of the cells by mechanical means. The fact that the more nutritious portions
of the grain are surrounded by the outside coating or hull makes it easy to understand how the
exposure of these nutrients to the action of digestion processes would increase the utilization of
the nutrients. Some mechanical process involved in feed processing here listed below:
 Dehulling: is the process of removing the outer coat of grain, nuts and some fruits. The
hulls are high in fiber and low in digestibility by swine, poultry and other mono gastric
animals. Hulls may combine with other residues from cereal grain and marketed as mill
by-products. The protein content of un hulled (un decorticated) oilseeds is relatively low.
 Extruding (gelatinization): is the process by which feed is pressed, pushed or protruded
through constriction under pressure. Extruding usually involves grinding the grain,
followed by heating with steam in order to soften it, then forcing the material through a
steel tube by an auger. The softened material is then extruded through cone-shape holes,
which are smaller where the feed enters and gradually enlarges where the feed is
expelled.

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  Grinding: is the process by which feedstuff is reduced in particle size by impact, shearing
or attrition/abrasion. Grinding is the most common, cheapest and simple methods of feed
preparation. It is usually accomplished by means of a hammer mill which reduces the
particle size of the grain until it passes through a screen of certain size.
 Rolling: is the process by which grain is compressed into flat particles by passing it
between rollers. The rolling may be accomplished without the addition of water (dry
rolling) or after subjecting the grain to steam (steam rolling). The process result in
increased surface area and reduced density of the material treated.
2. Heat treatments
Heat treatment of feeds of animal has been around for very long time. Excess heat damage some
nutrients, such as the amino acids and vitamins, whereas proper heating of protein sources (such
as soybean) of carbohydrates sources (such as cereal grain, potatoes and beans) results in better
availability of the nutrients. Heating of soybeans destroys the trypsin inhibitor, increases
amino acid availability; result in better availability of the fat, and increases metabolizable
energy. Proper heating of cereal grains such as corn, barley and milo will make for partial
gelatinization and improve rate and efficiency of gains for cattle.
Thiaminase found in raw fish can be deactivated by cooking the fish or dehydrating the fish meal
averts since it is heat labile. Avidin in raw egg white that causes biotin deficiency can be
destroyed by cooking. Prolonged heat treatment in processing destroys several vitamins. The fat
soluble vitamins and biotin, folacin, panthenic acid and thiamin are particularly susceptible to
destruction by heat. This is especially true if the material contains high levels polyunsaturated
fat. Losses of water soluble vitamins occur during cooking when the cooking water is drained off
and not dried with the feed material. Thus, the B vitamins content of fish stick water is much
higher than that of fishmeal, and the final fishmeal dried without the fish-soluble fraction is very
low in water-soluble vitamins content. In general, heat treatments do not improve the nutritional
value of most feedstuffs for monogastrics. However, they are the most successful of the newer
feed processing techniques for ruminates. Dry heat processing (micronizing, popping and
roasting), moist heat processing (cooking and exploding), flaking (steam flaking and pressure
flaking) and pelleting are some categories of heat treatment.

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3. Moisture alterations
Water is important in feed preparation and processing. Sometimes the water content of a feed
must be altered for proper feed storage and sometimes it must be changed for feeding purposes.
Some feeds must be stored dry; others must be stored wet. Feeds carry more than 14% moisture
cannot be stored in bulk, for they will likely mold. For safe storage, therefore, grains with higher
moisture content must be dried, ensiled or acid treated.

The moisture content of feeds that are to be preserved for ensiling is also of importance, since it
affects the ease with which ensiling can be effected. Grass-legume forage must frequently be
wilted to reduce the moisture to save storage. On the other hand, mature forages often require the
addition of water during the ensiling process. Very dry feeds are often very dusty following
grinding or dry rolling. Animals universally dislike dusty feeds; consequently, powdery rations
are not eaten well. Dry dusty rations may be improved by adding small quantities of water, by
steaming or by feeding the product in wet form.

9.3. Roughage processing for ruminant.

Little study has been made of forage preparation, except from the stand-point of mechanizing
and ease in mixing. With the increasing competition of grain for human consumption around the
world, it is expected that roughage preparation will assume greater importance. The following
generalizations are pertinent to all forage processing:
 Most forages are roughages and ruminants need roughages. Biologically, roughages are
coarse feeds that stimulate or require chewing activity and influence the passage or
residues through the gastrointestinal tract. Roughage implies coarse texture and high
fiber. However, if high fiber feed is finely grounded, it is no longer roughage even though
the fiber concentration is unchanged; the fine grinding of forage result in decreased
chewing activity.
 In preparing forages, avoid processing those with high moisture, which may heat and
produce spontaneous combustion, and those in which there are foreign objects (wire and
other hardware) which animals may not be able to avoid, and which may generate sparks
and ignite a fire during processing (grinding, chopping, conveying or mixing).

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  Processing forages does increase cost depending on the method of processing. Therefore,
livestock producers should determine which processing method would be most profitable
for them. For example, in computing the cost of baled hay, with which most processing
methods are compared, such added hidden cost as losses in handling, shrinking and
wastage, grinding costs and losses, insurance, interest and storage must be considered.
 Processed forages result in the forced feeding of the entire plant, including stems which
may be of low nutritional value. With high-producing animals, this may be a
disadvantage.
The common methods of forage preparation are chopping, grinding, shredding, cubing, drying,
ensiling and pelleting.
Chopping, Grinding or shredding
Chopping, grinding or shredding result in forages divided into smaller particle; but they differ in
how they function and in the size of the particles. In comparison with similar forage fed in long
form, a forage subjected to any one of these three processes is easier to handle and mechanize,
can be stored in a smaller area at less cost, is fed with less feed refusal and waste, and may make
for slightly greater production. Low-quality, coarse forages are usually improved more from
chopping than high-quality, fine forage. Bear in mind that though these processing have some
significant effect on intake and digestibility of forage feeds but it does nothing to improve the
nutrient content.
Chopping: it involves cutting forage not less than 5 cm in length. With some dry feeds chopping
has the disadvantage of being dusty, leaf loss or shattering in field chopping because forages are
needed to be dry than moisture level for baling the roughages.
Grinding: it involves cutting forage feeds to less than 2.5 cm in length, done by hammer mill in
which forage is beaten by revolving metal hammers until it is small enough in size to pass
through the screen placed in the grinder. Fine grinding is more costly than coarse chopping;
hence it is less appealing from a practical standpoint. Ground forages are less digestible for
ruminants because they pass through the paunch more rapidly, with only limited bacterial action.
When finely grounded hay is fed to lactating cows, the fermentation in the rumen produces less
acetic acid and more propionic acid than when coarse forage is fed, and in turn, this result in the
fat content of the milk being substantially reduced.

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Shredding: a process similar to chopping except that, shredding tends to separate the stems
longitudinally rather than cut them crosswise. Coarse forages such as fodder and Stover are
better suited to shredding than to chopping and grinding. In some way it may be superior to
chopping because of exposing more of the inner part of the stem to fermenting bacteria in the
rumen, thereby increasing the likelihood of better digestion. Result in better digestion than
chopping and grinding.
Cubing (wafering): it is a process of compressing long or coarsely cut forages into cubes about
1.25 inch square and 2 inch long. They do not necessitate fine grinding, and they facilitate
mechanization in both, hay making and feeding.
Drying: help safe storage and keep the material`s primary condition. For instance hay moisture
content should be lowered to the following: loose hay (25%), baled hay (20-22%), and field
chopped hay (18-20%) and cubes (16-17%).
Ensiling: it is refers to the change, which take place when forage or feed with sufficient moisture
to allow fermentation is stored in a silo in the absence of air. The entire ensiling process requires
2 to 3 week, during which time a small amount of oxygen is deleted with aerobic respiration and
anaerobic fermentation occurs.
Pelleting: When applied to forage pelleting is a process of forcing ground forage (usually with
some added moisture) through a thick steel die and compressing it into a circular or rectangular
mass which is cut at predetermined length. They can be formed into shapes of varying thickness,
length and hardness. The larger shapes, commonly fed to cattle and sheep on a range are referred
to as cubes. Binding agents are sometimes added to feedstuffs to regulate the hardness of pellets,
especially forage pellets, which bind less than concentrates. The two biggest deterrents to
pelleting forages are fine grinding and cost. For ruminant animals, pelleted forage should be
chopped coarsely in order to allow for optimum cellulose digestion in the rumen and to alleviate
the incidence of bloat. Since pelleting of forage usually involves quite fine grinding prior to the
pelleting process, and since finely grounded feeds cause lowered butterfat, it follows that
pelleted forage is not suitable for lactating cows. Because of the high cost of pellets mills and
their lack mobility, pelleting is largely confined to commercial feed companies and very large
operations who manufacture sufficient tonnage to make pelleting economically practical.
Research indicate that on average cattle fed high-roughage (above 80% roughage) or all-
roughage rations will eat about 0.33 more pellets than long or chopped hay, make about 0.5-0.75

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lb faster daily gains and require 2 to 2.5 lb less feed per pound of gain. It`s also recognized that
low-quality roughages are improved by pelleting.
The practice of pelleting forages will likely increase for the following reasons:
 They are less bulky and easier to store and handle than any other form of forage, thus
lessening storage and labor costs.
 Pelleting forages prevents animals from selectivity, such as eating the leaves and leaving
the stems.
 Pelleting decreases wastage of relatively unpalatable forages such as ground alfalfa.
 Pelleting roughages increases intake by 50% or more. Larger responses in intake are
associated with poor-quality roughage, high-roughage rations and younger cattle.
 Pelleting of roughages improves utilization of the digestible energy; partially because
processing causes a higher percentage of roughage to the digested post-ruminally.
Both cubing and pelleting forages will simplify hay making, lessen transportation costs and
storage space, reduce labor, make automatic hay feeding feasible, decrease nutrient losses and
eliminate dust.

9.4. Processed Feed Quality Control

Feed quality control programs must blend feed ingredients using standard machinery and
procedures to deliver feeds that consistently contain the formulated nutrients in an available form
and contain minimal level of toxic substances. Feed quality control programs were defined as
“all actions directed towards ensuring the product meets the specifications established by the
manufacturer” or as “A system for making sure that proper standards are maintained through use
of periodic inspections”.
Process control
The process by which high-quality ingredients are made into high-quality feeds involves three
components within the feed mill: personnel, machinery and procedure.
 Personnel: Three general characteristics should be sought in new mill employees
productivity; interest, alertness and ability to work as a team member. Employees should
be quickly and efficiently trained to do their jobs. The training should include what job to
do and why.

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  Machinery: equipment selection, operation, repair and troubleshooting can be difficult.
However, the following general points will help to reduce machinery problems:
Application: was the equipment designed to do the job?
Installation: Was the equipment installed according to the manufacturer rule?
Adjustment: Are the critical adjustment points within the machine set correctly?
Operation: Is the machine being operated according to the manufacturer’s
recommendations?
Capacity: Is the equipment being run within the rated capacity?
Lubrication: Is the corrected amount of the proper lubricant used within the
corrected time frame in the machine?
Maintenance: Can maintenance and possible repaires be predicted on each piece
of equipment?
 Procedures: procedural difficulties are usually fairly easy to identify since problems will
tend to repeat. However, every procedure instituted should incorporated the following:
Communication: does the person doing the procedure understand what is
Expected
Identification: Are controls on equipment clearly identified?
Traceability: Will this procedure allow tracing problems to their sources?
Verification: Are samples being taken and stored that will allow you to verify
source of the problem,
Records: Are all records being kept of use?

Finished feed quality

Finished feed analysis is necessary and important because they provide the mill with a final
result on how well quality was controlled. A general rule of thumb is to collect one sample of
each formula per week or one sample per 100 tones of production, whichever is greater. When a
problem is discovered, it should be addressed and resolved as soon as possible. The steps
outlined below are one method of addressing finished-feed problems:
 Is the analysis correct? Ask the lab to recheck the assay and continue to examine the
problem
 How was the sample taken? Was the sample representative?

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 Is only one nutrient level out of the control or are several? This could be clue as to
whether a certain ingredient was left out of the formula.
 Was the regular crew operating the mill when the feed was produced?
 Check inventory records for any discrepancies between the actual and predicted
inventory records.
 Check the scale and metering devices for correct adjustment.
 Check ingredient and finished-feed bins at the feed mill for hang-ups or bridging
problem.
 Recheck the mixing time to be certain it is correct for the ration inventory.
 Check the ingredient assay value to see if they indicate a deficient load was received.
 Check the formula matrix to be certain that ingredients assay value are corrected and
reflect values presently being received.

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