PLASTIC AND RUBBER

Plastic is a polymer material that has the ability to be molded and shaped by the application of heat and
pressure.

Rubber is an elastic material that is either obtained from rubber plants or synthesized using petroleum
oil.

The Plastic Forming & Manufacturing Process

1. Plastic Injection Molding
 
What is plastic injection molding?
Plastic injection molding is a high-volume manufacturing method, where a liquid plastic resin is injected
into the empty cavity of a forming die, taking on the shape of the interior surface. When this resin is
cooled and solidified, the forming die opens, the finished part is ejected, and the process is repeated. 
Plastic injection molding has proven itself to be a stable and reliable high-volume production method,
accounting for more than 80% of the common plastic items we encounter every day. 
What are the pros and cons?
The advantage of PIM is that millions of identical parts can be made quickly, with an excellent surface
finish, and at a low cost. Molds however can be expensive and complex, depending on the part
geometry. Careful engineering design of the mold is required to prevent defects and optimize part
quality and processing speed.
 
2. Rotational (Roto) Molding
 
What is rotational molding?
Rotational molding also uses a mold tool, consisting of a core side and a cavity side. However, the
manufacturing process is quite different from injection molding.
The plastic powder is first poured into the cavity of the mold, and then the mold is placed in an oven.
While being heated, the mold is slowly rotated on two axes. Gravity is used to stick the plastic to the
tool walls and build up the correct thickness.
Finally, the mold is removed from the oven and slowly cooled to prevent warpage. Full cooling can take
several minutes, after which the tool is opened and the part removed for the next cycle.
What are the pros and cons?
Rotational molding is ideal for making large, hollow, or concave shapes, often for outdoor use like
canoes, tubs, or water storage tanks.
The finished parts are stress-free and have no seams so they’re strong, and the tools are relatively
simple and inexpensive to make. The downside is that tools don’t last more than a few thousand cycles
before they need to be replaced, and the part finish quality is average at best so it’s not suited for
precision forming.
 

3. Extrusion Blow Molding

 
What is extrusion blow molding?
Molten plastic in the form of a large droplet, called a parison, is placed into a two-piece clamshell mold.
After the mold closes, the parison is inflated like a balloon until it fills the empty cavity. Because the
walls of the mold are water-cooled, the plastic quickly solidifies and the part can be ejected.
What are the pros and cons?
This is the most common way to make thin-walled, inexpensive containers like disposable drinking cups
or bottles. It’s fast and the tools are easy to make, but the parts cannot be very complex or made with
high precision.
 

4. Injection Blow Molding

 
What is injection blow molding?
During injection blow molding, gas pressure is used to force the molten resin into a mold cavity.
 
What are the pros and cons?
The process is easily controlled and repeatable and is commonly used for transparent plastic drinking
bottles. It makes for excellent surface quality but it’s not ideal for thin walls.
PET (polyethylene terephthalate) or PEEK (polyether-ether-ketone) are the typical resin choices for
drinking bottles, due to their clarity and durability, and because they’re rated as safe for consumables.
They’re also easily recycled.

5. Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)

 
What is reaction injection molding?
RIM is most often used in the automotive industry because it produces lightweight parts that have a
rigid skin. This skin is easily painted to make body panels, dashboards, and other car parts. However,
thermoforming plastics won’t work in this process. Instead, this process requires thermosetting plastic.
Thermosetting plastics undergo an irreversible chemical reaction inside the mold. This usually causes
them to expand like foam, filling a mold cavity. When the chemical reaction is done the plastic sets into
its final form.
 
What are the pros and cons?
Tooling costs for prototypes are relatively low, while production tooling is moderately expensive. The
main cost is in the material, bearing in mind that the resulting part must always be finished, usually with
a urethane-based gel coat or by painting. Therefore, the process is more labor intensive which increases
the piece price.
 

6. Vacuum casting
 
What is vacuum casting?
Vacuum casting is a great choice for making a small number of high-quality rapid prototypes without a
big investment in tools or material.
A master model of any rigid solid (often this is a 3D printed master pattern) is placed into a sealed box,
which is then filled with a flexible urethane or silicone. When the master is removed, a cavity is formed
inside the mold that can now be filled with plastic resin to form a copy of the original. Vacuum pressure
is used to pull air out of the mold so that it fills completely with no air bubbles.
In this process, the surface finish quality and detail are excellent and pourable resins can imitate many
engineering grades of plastic. Notice also that the pourable liquid resins aren’t quite the same as their
counterparts used in plastic injection molding. In the former case, resins are solidified by a chemical
reaction with a hardening agent, not by cooling down.
 
What are the pros and cons?
Polyurethane vacuum casting is fast because a silicone mold tool can be made in just a few days. It
requires a much smaller initial investment, and the fidelity of the copies is excellent – even capturing
fine grain texture.
The drawback is that the tools are fragile, and they react with the chemicals in the resin and must be
replaced after about 20 copies or so.
 
7. Thermoforming
 
What is thermoforming?
This is a type of vacuum forming, where a thin or thick gauge plastic sheet is placed over a die, heated to
a temperature that allows the material to become pliable, then stretched over the surface of the die
while vacuum pressure pulls the sheet down and into its final shape.
This process can also be done with simple dies and very basic equipment. It’s often employed with
samples and prototypes of thin-walled, hollow-bodied parts.
In industry, it’s used for plastic cups, lids, boxes, and plastic clamshell packaging, as well as for auto body
parts in thicker gauge material. Only thermoforming plastics are suitable for this process, not
thermosets, because the material needs to soften under heat and then become rigid again when it
cools.
 
What are the pros and cons?
Thermoforming is very cost-effective and can be done with simple equipment. In fact, even home shops
and DIY people use thermoforming to make models and prototypes. The process is also safe because
there are no bad chemicals or high temperatures involved.
However, it’s only suitable for making simple shapes, and once the material cools it will shrink quite a bit
so it’s not a high-precision application. Also, the relatively thin plastic stock is needed, although many
sheets can be laminated together after forming to make a more rigid final product.
 

8. Compression Molding
 
What is compression molding?
The raw material, usually some type of elastomer or polyurethane, is pre-heated and placed inside the
open cavity of a die. A cap or plug is used to close the die and apply heat and pressure, causing the
plastic to cure. This process is great for rubber keypad switches, gaskets, O-rings, and other soft, pliable
thin-walled parts.
 
What are the pros and cons?
It’s relatively inexpensive and wastes little material, although controlling the consistency of the finished
piece can be difficult and much care needs to be taken in the preparation of the initial mold design.
Making a compression molding die is much easier and less expensive than a plastic injection mold tool,
and relatively simple equipment can be used for this plastic manufacturing process.
 

What Materials Are Used In Plastic Manufacturing?

There are over 10,000 different types of plastic resins commercially available, each of them specially
formulated to achieve very specific chemical and mechanical properties.
Although we can’t possibly list them all, there are ten major groups that account for the vast majority of
industrial and consumer products. They are: Polyamide, Acrylic, Polycarbonate, POM, Polystyrene, ABS,
Polypropylene, Polyethylene, Polyurethane, and Thermoplastic Rubber.
Plastic manufacturers can also add glass or carbon fibers to increase strength and stiffness, or mix two or
more resins together to combine their properties. These plastic types provide a full range of benefits
including strength, impact resistance, flexibility, chemical resistance, light weight, toughness, and optical
clarity.

The Advantages of Using Plastics in the Construction Industry

Different forms of plastics are used in multiple industries with varying uses. However, one of the most
prevalent sectors where plastics are used is the construction industry, here plastics are essential.
Plastics can be so useful in this sector because of the different properties that the range of plastics hold,
there is a plastic to fit most uses. These are just a few reasons as to why plastics are an extremely useful
material in the construction sector.

Cost
One of the main advantages to using plastic as a construction material is the cost to produce and use
plastics – it is less expensive than most other materials. It is generally cheaper and can easily be
produced in much larger quantities than metal. This is the main reason that plastic is commonly used in
construction. The amount of energy it takes to manufacture plastics is far fewer than the amount it
takes to produce metals.
Resistance
Plastics have a high resistance to corrosion, making them perfect for use where a metal may start to rust
and corrode. Therefore, plastics are the most common material to construct water pipes out of.
Weight
Plastic is a very lightweight material compared to many other construction materials, this gives the
material a greater flexibility in its use on site and in transportation. Plastic can be transported in much
larger amounts than other materials because of their weight, this cuts down on transportation costs to a
construction site. Plastics can be easily and safely lifted into place or around the site.
Colour
Plastics can easily be coloured in their manufacturing stage which is a useful property to have on a
building site. Parts can be colour coded according to size or the use of the part, this would be much
more difficult and time consuming with metal parts.
Environment
Plastics high resistance means that no rust will form on plastic therefore, no rust will seep into the
ground or water supply. This is a major positive when using parts underground or for carrying water. The
process of manufacturing and the use of plastics on a construction site uses a lot less energy than
metals, this is because plastics are so much lighter so the energy used in construction and transportation
is a lot lower.
Plastic is a recyclable material and will not corrode which is a positive when using a material where
there may be some waste. The prospect of pollution is lower for plastics when you take into
consideration the mining and melting of metals process.
Moulding
Small, intricate pieces are frequently needed in a construction project. Plastics can be melted down and
moulded into intricate shapes in very large quantities, making them the perfect choice in construction. It
is able to fit itself together without the use of clips or any other material which is why it is used for cable
conducts.
This material is used throughout the construction industry but some of the most popular uses are as
follows:

 Water Pipes.
 Window Frames.
 Doors.
 Insulation when constructing green or low energy buildings.
 Protecting the outer shell of the roof from damage.

Properties/Characteristics of Rubber:

Rubber finds a wide field of application because of the following properties:

1. It is elastic; because of this property a rubber band can be stretched to 9 or 10 times its original
length and when the load is removed it regains its original length.

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2. It is strong and tough. Because of this property it can be put to use even under abnormal
conditions.

3. It is highly impermeable to both water and air and therefore, it can be used to retain water as in
rubber bottles, hoses etc.

4. It exhibits a great resistance to abrasion, tearing and cutting over a wide range of temperature—
7 to 115°C.

5. It is a bad conductor of heat.

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6. It can contain liquids and gases.

7. The synthetic rubber offers great resistance to acids, petroleum products etc.

9. Its properties such as hardness, strength, abrasion, resistance etc., can be modified to the
desired extent by compounding techniques.

9. When two fresh surfaces of milled rubber are pressed together, they coalesce to form a single
piece. This property (known as tackiness) of rubber makes the manufacturing of composite articles
such as a tyre, from a separate piece very simple.

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10. The plasticity of rubber makes it pliable and amenable to all manufacturing processes.

11. By vulcanizing the rubber, its mechanical properties can be considerably improved.

12. Rubber insulation and other rubber products require shaping prior to vulcanisation because the
vulcanised rubber cannot be shaped by mechanical pressing once it has acquired its characteristic
plasticity. By vulcanising rubber in moulds, products of rather intricate shape can be obtained.

13. The electrical insulating properties of pure rubber are inferior to those of vulcanised rubbers.

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14. Ordinary electrical insulating rubbers, have the following electrical characteristics under
normal conditions –

Volume resistivity- 1 x 10 14 to 1 x 10 15 ohm cm.

Loss tangent- 0.01 to 0.03 at 50 Hz.

Dielectric Constant: 2.5 to 5.

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15. The electric strength of organic rubbers strongly depends on the kind of current involved, the
degree of stretch, and the time during which the voltage remains applied. When left unstretched
and subjected to a short-time 50 Hz test voltage, rubber will have an electric strength within the
following limits, -depending on the pure rubber constant.

For a 20 to 25% rubber content: 20 to 30 kV/mm

For 30 to 35% rubber content: 30 to 45 kV/mm

The D.C. electric strength of rubber is 2 to 2.5 times the electric strength at 50 Hz.

16. Although rubber is practically water and gas tight its electrical characteristics are affected by
moisture, especially for rubbers, compounded with considerable quantities of the substances
which increase the sensitivity to moisture. Only specially compounded rubbers can maintain their
electrical characteristics nearly unchanged when kept continuously in contact with moisture.

17. For normal rubbers the maximum operating temperature is usually considered to be 55°C, for
rubbers of great heat resistance it is equal to 65°C. For butyl rubbers the working temperature can
be as high as 90°C. 9.2.3.

Uses of Rubber:

The following are some of the uses of rubber:

1. Thermal insulation

2. Lining of reservoir

3. Rain water and flexible tubing

4. Belting of all types

5. Tyres and tubes

6. Adhesive

7. Hose pipes, printing roller etc.

9. Mounting material

9. As a buffer

10. Gasketina material.

Types of Rubber:

There are generally two types of rubber:

1. Natural rubber

2. Synthetic rubber

1. Natural Rubber:

Natural rubber is an elastic material present in the latex of certain plants. More than 95 per cent of
this rubber is obtained from the latex of rubber trees. Hevea prasiliensis, grows on plantations,
mainly in Sri Lanka and Malaya Peninsula. Small quantities of rubber are produced in Brazil from
uncultivated trees and from the guagle shrub in Mexico and south western United States.

Latex is a milky colloidal fluid containing from 30 to 40 percent of the rubber, the remaining being
mainly water and a small amount of protein and resinous material. It oozes from superficial cuts in
rubber trees and is collected in containers. A plantation grown tree continues to yield for about 40
years and give enough latex to make from 1.5 kg to 3 kg of rubber each year.

Latex is treated in two ways to obtain rubber goods. The crude rubber is either co- agulated from it
by acids of heat and then processed; or the latex itself is mixed with appropriate compounding
materials and then precipitated directly with appropriate compounding materials and then
precipitated directly from solution in the shape to be used, such as rubber glove.

The recovery of rubber from guayule is carried out in different manner. The entire plant, which
may contain as much as 20 percent by weight of rubber, is harvested after 4 years growth, ground
up and soaked in water. The latex comes at the surface and is skinned off; the woody material
becomes water logged and sink to the bottom. The resin content of guayule rubber is 18 to 20
percent compared to about 4 percent for hevea rubber. This resin may be extracted by means of
solvents and can be recovered and utilized.

Natural rubber is a polymerised from of isoprene (2-methyl-l, 3-butadiene). The polyhydrocarbon

chain consists of 2000-3000 monomer links. The polymerisation occurs by a biochemical reaction in
which a particular type of enzyme acts as a catalytic agent.

Crude Rubber:

It is usually obtained from latex by coagulation with organic acids, washing and coagulum with
water as it passes between rolls, and finally drying the washed sheet as it comes from the rolls.
i. If the rough rolls rotating at high speeds are used and the rubber is then hung in the air to dry,
the product is known as pale “crepe rubber”.

ii. If smooth rolls rotating at the same speed are used and the rubber is then dried in a smoke
house, the product is known as smoke sheets. It is tougher than pale crepe.

Crude rubber is tough, strong, elastic substance made up of 92% or more of a hydro carbon chain
polymer (C 5H8).

Crude rubber does not possess the properties that cause the familiar manufactured articles to be
considered so valuable. At the temperature of very hot summer weather, pure rubber becomes
soft and sticky, during very cold weather it becomes hard and brittle. In either of these conditions,
it is useless for the purposes to which it is commonly put. However its properties are greatly
improved by addition of other materials followed by suitable heat or other treatment.

Physical Properties of Crude Natural Rubber:

The physical properties of crude natural rubber are indicated below:

1. At low temperature rubber becomes stiff and when it frozen, it attains fibrous structure.

2. Raw rubber when heated to 130°C becomes soft and plastic. The plasticity can be varied within
certain ranges by chemicals.

3. Co-efficient of cubical expansion is 670 x 10 -8. When rubber is extended heat is produced. This is
called Joule’s effect. When rubber is stretched to 82% it generates 680 calories/gm of heat.

4. Heat of combustion of raw rubber is 10547 calories/gm.

5. Specific gravity of raw rubber at 0°C is 0.95 and 0.934 at 20°C.

6. Specific heat of raw rubber at room temperature is 0.502.

2. Synthetic Rubber:

Rubber produced by artificial chemical process is known as “synthetic rubber”.

Synthetic rubbers, or “elastomes” are derived from such raw materials as coke, limestone,
petroleum, natural gas, salt, alcohol, sulphur, ammonia and coal tar.

Elastomers are not strictly speaking synthetic rubber, for rubber has never been synthesized. They
are rubber like materials which have many of the characteristic properties of rubber and some of
which resemble rubber in their chemical nature.

The processing of synthetic rubbers involves approximately the same steps and equipments as that
of crude rubber. Their properties while similar to those of rubber, are capable of wider variation.
Some elastomers are more resistant that rubber to sunlight, others have greater solvent
resistance; and some have greater elasticity.

Forms of Rubber:

The important forms of rubber are described below:

1. Gutta Percha Rubber:

It is a variety of natural rubber, prepared from the leaves of tress known as the dichopsis gutta and
palaginum gutta (mostly grown in Malaya peninsula).

It becomes soft and sticky at a temperature of about 100°C.

As compared to other varieties of rubber, it absorbs less water.

Uses:

It is extensively used for preparing ropes of submarine and as an insulating material in electrical
works.

2. Foam Rubber:

It is prepared by adding the chemically producing gases in the liquid latex and stirring the mixture
till foam is formed. It is then converted into solid foam and is given the desired shape.

Uses:

It is wisely used for packing pads, pillows etc.

3. Sponge Rubber:

It is prepared by adding sodium bicarbonate during the process of vulcanisation. The evaporation
of moisture leaves pores which result in sponge rubber.

Uses:

It is used as a heat and sound insulating material.

4. Guayle Rubber:

It is a variety of natural rubber available in North America.

It is prepared from the branches of guayule,

It contains 70 percent of hydrocarbon, 20 percent of resin, 10 percent of insoluble materials,
cellulose, liquid etc.

5. Smoked Rubber:

It is a variety of crude rubber.

The rubber pieces after coagulation are dried in room filled with smoke at a temperature of about
40°C to 50°C.

It is so named as drying is carried out in a smoke room.

6. Polybutadiene Rubber:

It is a variety of synthetic rubber (produced by The Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Ltd., near
Baroda); commercially known as Cisrub.

It has high abrasion resistance and strength.

Uses:

It is nicely used in producing beltings, floor tiles, automotive moulded goods, hoses, tyres, seals,
gaskets etc.

Plasticization:

In order to make crude rubber workable, it is kneaded to a plastic mass by passing it through
heated rollers which travel towards each other at different speeds. By this process the rubber is
subjected to both compression and shearing stresses which cause the rubber to twist, crack or tear
and become plastic. Other ingredients can also be added into the rubber mass during the process.

Compounding:

The rubber available in plastic state is compounded with other ingredients to modify its properties.

A number of different substances which can be mixed with rubber to give it definite properties
are classified as follows:

(i) Vulcanates:

These are the substances (e.g., sulphur etc.) which are added to crude rubber to reduce its
plasticity while maintaining its elasticity.

These are essentially required for carrying out the process of vulcanization.

(ii) Plasticizers:
These are the materials (e.g., vegetable oils, waxes, stearic acid, etc.) which are used to soften the
crude rubber.

(iii) Accelerators:

These are the substances (e.g., lime, magnesia, litharge, white lead etc.) which are used to reduce
the time required for the completion of the process of vulcanization.

With their use, the quantity of sulphur required for vulcanization is also reduced.

(iv) Antioxidants:

These are the materials (e.g., phenols, amines, waxes etc.) which when added in small quantities to
rubber decrease the rate of its deterioration by agencies like light, heat and by the presence of
copper or manganese, salts or soaps etc.

(v) Fillers, Reinforcing Agents and Colouring Agents:

The addition of fillers is made to modify the properties of rubber and to lower the cost of rubber
product.

“A reinforcing agent “is one which when added to rubber increases its tensile strength. Materials
like zinc oxide and carbon black serve both as fillers and reinforcing agents. Some other reinforcing
agents are magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate and barium sulphate.

“Colouring agents” are added to obtain the rubber in desired shade.

Example:

Ferric oxide—red colour; “Lithophone”—white colour; “Lead chromate”—yellow colour etc.

Calendering:

A calendering machine is used to obtain rubber in the form of sheets of definite thickness. The
rubber mass is made to pass between large steel rollers of the machine, at carefully controlled
temperature and pressure. The rollers press the rubber mass into sheets of uniform thickness and
desired finish.

Vulcanisation:

The crosslinking process in elastomers is called vulcanization, which is achieved by a non-reversible

chemical reaction, ordinarily carried out at an elevated temperature.

In most vulcanization reactions, sulphur compounds are added to the heated elastomer; sulphur
atoms bond with adjacent chains and crosslinks them.
Useful rubbers result when about 1 to 5 parts (by weight) of sulphur is added to 100 parts of
rubber. Increasing the sulphur content further hardness the rubber and also reduces its
extensibility.

Unvulcanized rubber is soft and tacky, and has poor resistance to abrasion. Vulcanization enhances
modulus of elasticity, tensile strength and resistance to gradation. The magnitude of modulus of
elasticity is directly proportional to the density of the crosslinks.

Vulcanization normally results in increased elasticity and strength, increased durability and
increased resistance to adverse effect of weather and chemical agents.

Vulcanized rubber has low electrical and thermal conductivity and is resistant to abrasion and
action of chemical reagents and weather.

The process of vulcanization, in the manufacture of rubber goods, is carried out after calendering
and extrusion. When the rubber goods are to be manufactured by the process of moulding,
vulcanization is performed simultaneously with moulding.

Fabricating operations and lathe cutting are performed after the vulcanization process.

Extruding:

By this process rubber goods of constant cross-section like tubes, insulation on wire etc. can be
manufactured.

In this process, this rubber compound is fed into the extrusion die by means of a screw fed and’
the extruded products are either coiled or laid in lengths in large flat trays and vulcanized in open
stem heaters.

Moulding:

In this process the rubber is forced into the mould (of heavy metallic construction) under high
pressure (rubber is not melted and poured like metal).

For getting non-porous uniform product, the process of moulding is performed in heated moulds in
which the rubber compound is forced under high pressure.

Reclaimed Rubber:

Reclaimed rubber is the rubber recovered from worn-out rubber articles and rubber wastes from
factories and then treated suitably for re-use.

For reclaiming rubber, the metal and fabric contents of the worn-out rubber are first removed and
then it is heated in a closed iron vessel which contains an alkali solution. This treatment makes the
rubber free from the remaining fabric contents and free sulphur. The treated rubber is washed and
dried.
 Advantages:

1. It is durable.

2. It is cheap.

3. Can be prepared speedily.

4. Has a uniform composition.

Disadvantages:

1. Elasticity is low.

2. Low resistance to friction.

3. Low tensile strength.

Uses:

It may be used for making the articles like shoe soles and heels, water-proof foot wear, electrical
goods etc.

Reducing the risks

1. Initial bulk storage of raw materials
• Regularly monitor temperatures below the material surface
• Control moisture levels
• Ensure adequate ventilation
• Minimise pile sizes
• Ensure separation between all stockpiles
• Manage stock to prevent prolonged storage.
Due to natural water-repellent properties and oil-based run offs, water-based solutions for fire
prevention or suppression are ineffective for plastics and rubber. Instead, you may want to consider
applying a compressed air foam system, which allows the agent to bind to the materials, removing
oxygen supply.

2. Processing
• Conduct regular, planned maintenance of all machinery and equipment to monitor for friction or
mechanical failure
• Frequently clean all machinery and equipment to reduce buildup of combustible particles.
Certain parts of the processing equipment may need localised application protection, and detection
systems, such as infra-red or video flame detection, which can also help to monitor for sparks or
embers.

3. Storing processed materials

• Turn stockpiles frequently where risk of self-combustion is high
• Regularly monitor sub-surface temperatures
• Control moisture levels
• Control material risks – eg exposed metal content.
Due to its high calorific value, water alone will often not be effective in suppressing fires for SRF or RDF.
Here, Class A penetrating foam systems, using cannons, deluge or hose reels systems, will likely be more
effective. This focuses suppression on a particular area or hotspot, reaching below the surface to
suppress at the point of ignition.

Any fire mitigation measures should be supported by a full fire risk assessment to ensure the solution is
tailored to the individual application. This will account for multiple considerations, including the quantity
of material stored, its form and the processing activity, to ensure solutions are effective in mitigating risk