46B chapter 8: Techniques of Integration 57, Brahe [2° VI? a sing 3 Solve te equation in par (a) for 0, using 30) integration by parts. b. ausubstitution, Y= JU) path of hie . a tigonometric substitution. 58. Path of a water skier Suppose that a bost is positioned atthe ctigin with a water skier tethered to the boat a the point (30, 0) (on a rope 30 ft long. As the boat travels along the positive y-axis, ‘he skier is pulled behind the boat along an unknown path = fl@),4s shown inthe accompanying fire. v900 = 3 &. Show that (2) = (int: Assume tat the skier is always pointed directly atthe boat and the rope ison a line tangent tothe path y = f(s)) 8.5 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions ‘This section shows how to express a rational function (a quotient of polynomials) asa sum of simpler fractions, called partial fractions, which are easily integrated. For instance, the rational function (5x ~ 3)/(4? — 2x ~ 3) can be rewritten as Se=3 2 =2ke-3 ¥+T 3 ‘You can verify this equation algebraically by placing the fractions on the right side over a ‘common denominator (x + 1)(z — 3). The skill acquited in writing rational functions as such a sum is useful in other setings as well (for instance, when using certain transform ‘methods to solve differential equations). To integrate the rational function (Sx ~ 3)/(* — 2x ~ 3) on the left side of our previous expression, we simply sum the integrals ofthe fractions on the right side: ‘The method for rewriting rational functions as a sum of simpler fractions is called the ‘method of partial fractions. In the case of the preceding example, it consists of finding constants A and B such that Sx AL B-d-3 +i (Pretend for a moment that we do not know that A = 2 and B = 3 will work.) We call the fractions A/( + 1) and B/(x — 3) partial fractions because their denominators are only part ofthe original denominator x? ~ 2x — 3. We call A and B undetermined coef ficients until suitable values for them have been found. To find A and B, we first clear Equation (1) of fractions and regroup in powers of x, obtaining a Sr ~3 = AQ ~3) + Bor+1)=(4 + Be ~ 3A 4B. ‘This will be an identity in x if and only ifthe coefficients of like powers of x on the two sides are equal: A+B=5, -3A+B= Solving these equations simultaneously gives A = 2 and B= 3.55 Integration of Ratonal Functions by Partial Fractions. 469 General Description of the Method Success in writing a rational function f(z)/g(x) as a sum of partial fractions depends on two things: © The degree of f(x) must be less than the degree of g(x). That is, the fraction must be proper. If it isn’t, divide f(x) by g(x) and work with the remainder term, Example 3 of this section illustrates such a case © We must know the factors of g(x). In theory, any polynomial with real coefficients can be written as a product of real linear factors and real quadratic factors. In practice, the factors may be hard to find. Here is how we find the partial fractions of a proper fraction f(2)/ g(x) when the factors of are known, A quadratic polynomial (or factor) is irreducible if it cannot be written as the product of two linear factors with real coefficients, That is, the polynomial has no real roots ‘Method of Partial Fractions when f(x)/g(2) is Proper 1. Let x ~ r-be linear factor of gx). Suppose that (x ~ "isthe highest power of x ~ r that divides g(x). Then, to this factor, assign the sum ofthe 'm partial fractions: Do this for each distinct linear factor of g(x). 2 Let x? + px + q beam irreducible quadratic factor of g(x) so that 22 + px + q has no real roots. Suppose that (x? + px + gy" isthe highest power ofthis factor that divides g(x), Then, to this factor, assign the sum of | them partial fractions: BxtG | Bert G Bx t Gy + peta + pera Gt pet g Do this for each distnet quadratic factor of g(). 3, Set the original fraction f(2)/g(x) equal to the sum of all these partial fractions. Clear the resulting equation of fractions and arrange the terms in decreasing powers of x 4. Equate the coefficients of corresponding powers of x and solve the resulting equations forthe undetermined coefficients, EXAMPLE 1 Use paial fractions to evaluate tad &= det Da tye Solution The partial fraction decomposition has the form —#te+1 A. pyc @—De+D@+3) > e-To xed xt3 To find the values of the undetermined coefficients A, B, and C, we clear fractions and get tae FLAG + De + 3) + BO D+ 3) + CO D+ (x? + 4x + 3) + BC? + 2x — 3) + Cl? = 1) =(A+B+ Ox + UA+ 2x + BA 3B~ 0),470 ‘Chapter 8: Techniques of Integration ‘The polynomials on both sides of the above equation are identical, so we equate coeffi- cients of like powers of x, obtaining Coefficient of) A+ B+C Coefficient of! 4A + 2B Coefficient of": 34 - 3B C= 1 There are several ways of solving such a system of linear equations for the unknowns A, B, and C, ineluding elimination of variables or the use of a calculator or computer. Whatever method is used, the solution is A = 3/4, B = 1/2, and C = ~1/4, Hence we have ane nara |i 3 1 1 =3infx= 1] +dinje+ 1) -Line +3) +x, ‘where K’is the arbitrary constant of integration (to avoid confusion with the undetermined coefficient we labeled as C).. . EXAMPLE 2 Use partial fractions to evaluate Solution First we express the integrand as coefficients, sam of partial fractions with undetermined 6x7 _ A GHP xt 2” @s2y 6+ 7= AGH DAB Matty both sides by + 29% Ax + QA +B) Equating coefficients of corresponding powers of x gives A=6 amd 2A+B=12+8=7, of A=6 and Therefore, +14 [(6_-_5_), wr IGS ata) dx 2 6 fp - sf rrr ae =omnlet2)+5utay'ee, . ‘The next example shows haw to handle the case when f(x)/g(x) is an improper frac- tion. It is a case where the degree of f is larger than the degree of g. EXAMPLE 3. Use partial fractions to evaluate 2s) — dst 5-3 [eats te Solution First we divide the denominator into the numerator to get a polynomial plus a oper fraction 2x Box —3Re Se 3 2a = 4x? = Ge Se-38.5 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions. «= 471 ‘Then we write the improper fraction as a polynomial plus a proper fraction, 2a! ~ a2 ‘We found the partial fraction decomposition of the fraction on the right in the opening «on ety [2 S2+2in|rt i] +3inkx—3l +e. . De = 4 - 2 EXAMPLE 4 Use partial fractions to evaluate mm +4 Savicty* Solution The denominator has an irreducible quadratic factor as well as a repeated linear factor, so we write rt4 _Art+B, Cy @+ne- eet eT Ga Clearing the equation of factions gives De + A= (e+ BM DP + CO ~ D(a? +1) + D(x? +1) = A+ On + 24+ B-C+ Det + (A= 2B + Or+@-C+D) Equating coefficients of ike terms gives @ Coefficients of": 0 =A4+C Coefficients ofx*: 0 = 2A + B- C+D Coefficients of x!) 2 =A ~ 28 + € Coefficients of": 4 = B- C+D We solve these equations simultaneously to find the values of A, B, C, and D: —4=-24, A=2 Sbtat fourth equation from second. C=-As-2 From theft equation B=A+CH2/2=1_—_ From eins equation snd C= —A D=4-B+C=1. From the fourth equation. ‘We substitute these values into Equation (2), obtaining _-te+4 de+i 2 4 1 (+ De Fed Finally, using the expansion above we can integrate: mms aeti_ 2 Setieines joes ~ [area472 Chapter 8: Techniques of integration EXAMPLE 5 Use partial fractions to evaluate f __ fe xe + 1 Solution ‘The form of the partial fraction decomposition is 1 A, Brt+C, Dr+E Awe tear ee Maltplying by x02 + ?, we have Le AQ? +1)? + Br + Ox +1) + De + Be AGA + 2x2 +1) + BGA + 2°) + CG + x) + De + Br = A+ Be + CE OAT B+ Det + (CH Bx tA If we equate coefficients, we get the system A+B=0, C=0, 2A+B+D=0, C+E=0, A=1 Solving this system gives A= 1, B= —I, C= 0, D and B = 0. Thus, Lye ae It wit atrl* a [ae_ [xax _ xdx * fasi /e@+P = [ee A fae 1 fete : eo afu apa du = ode = tof] — Sinful + ek = In|x| ~ Sim? + 1) + a meri” * ntl Logg = Ver Ae +1) ‘HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY The Heaviside “Cover-up” Method for Linear Factors Olver Henvside When the degree ofthe polynomial f(s) is es than the degre of g(x) and (41850-1925) a0) = @ = = 1) 1) isa product of n distinct linear factors, each raised to the first power, there is a quick way tocexpand f(x)/(x) by partial fractions. EXAMPLE 6 — Find A, B, and Cin the partial fraction expansion x4 = Dear 26-3) B teats % Solution If we multiply both sides of Equation (3) by (x ~ 1) to get Ce -1) and set x = 1, the resulting equation gives the value of A: ape Toray At OO A8.5 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions. = 473 ‘Thus, the value of A is the number we would have obtained if we had covered the factor (e ~1) in the denominator of the original fraction etl (= Der = 2M = 3) o and evaluated the rest at x = I: A ay+i f=) |) = 20 1 corer ‘Similarly, we find the value of 2 in Equation (3) by covering the factor (+ — 2) in Expres- sion (4) and evaluating the rest at x = 2: pet 5 @-b[wa]Je-9 OCD 1 cover Finally, C is found by covering the (x ~ 3) in Expression (4) and evaluating the rest at x3 . P+ 10 c-— - = ads s. . B-HE=-Ja~ Hy) OD t coer Heaviside Method 1, Write the quotient with (x) factored: £0) _ i) 8@) ME) =H) 2. Cover the factors (x ~ 1) of g(x) one at a time, cach time replacing all the uncovered 2's by the number 7, Tis gives a number A, foreach root So) Gann) fe) Ga GH) AF A= fe) OG, — Ge Dd G 3. Write the partial fraction expansion of f(8)/g(%) as £0) _ —_* 3@) EXAMPLE 7 Use the Heaviside Method to evaluate eta e+ ae ior474 (Chapter 8: Techniques of Integration ‘The degree of f(x) = x +4 is less than the degree of the cubic polynomial + 3x? — 10r, and, with e() factored, etd xt + 3x = 10r ae = 2x +5) ‘The roots of g(x) are 7 = 0, % = 2, and 15 = —5, We find Ay= Ot 4 Te ]O- 2045) IG) 5 1 come Aye 2th 6 ae alersy BD 7 coer Aye a EES — ales] CHEN” 3S 1 corer ‘Therefore, ats xe DFS and zt4 2 3 1 . fataiss Zin |x| +3inlx—2]- Aine + si +c Other Ways to Determine the Coefficients Another way to determine the constants that appear in partial fractions is to differentiate, asin the next example. Still another is to assign selected numerical values tox. EXAMPLE 8 Find A, B, and Cin the equation x-1_iA Bc @+y etl G+ Gey bby clearing fractions, differentiating the result, and substituting x Solution We first clear fractions: AG + IP + BE +N FC 2. We then differentiate both sides with respect to x, Substituting x = 1 shows C obtaining 1=2AG +1) +B. Substituting x = —1 shows B ‘A =0, Hence, . We differentiate again to get 0 = 24, which shows xo 1 2 Gt G+ Gti In some problems, assigning small values tox, such as tions in A, B, and C provides a fast alternative to other methods. 0, +1, +2, to get equa-EXAMPLE 9 & = De 2 = 3) ‘8.5 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions = 475 Find A, B, and C in the expression eed by assigning numerical values tox, Solution Clear fractions to get P41 = AG 2 3) + Be NG 3) + Oe — De 2 ‘Then let x = 1, 2,3 successively to find A, B, and C: x Conclusion: Exercises fsa Expanding Guotients into Patil Fractions 2 AP + 1 = ACIX-2) + BO) + CO) 2=24 A= QP +1 = AO) + BUY + CO) 5 B Gp +t 10 (0) + BO) + CX) c eet 1s ys @=Ne=We=H "¥-1 y= 24 x= . 1dr wlth fe Expand the quotients in Exercises 1-8 by paral acon. —a7 2 poe? e+? “Poa i “See aso 8 oe Nonrepeated Linear Factors In Exercises 9-16, express the integrand as a sum of partial fractions and evaluat te integrals. 10, ae Fem para Fhe D Mya oe 16. fox ph Repeated Linear Factors In Exercises 17-20, express the integrand as a sum of partial fractions and evaluate the integrals. 2 4 dx _ eT ede Irreducible Quadratic Factors In Exercises 21-32, express the integrand ass sum of pata fractions loam tesega a [Opes PG 2 [etary ae » [ie yet oy + at tet ® Posi? * [erie * ses %6 Les 1 8 fae 20 + So + 8 + 4 (+ 26 + 2)) 08 — 403 + 20? ~ 30+ @ +i? ao 2476 Chapter 8: Techniques of Integration Irproper Fractions 56, The ysis In faeries 77-38, pefom long vison on he ingrod, wit the tycuts proper tacion esa um of pal factions aed then eve the ere=3 tera ae ae +1 zs wfetle x fae een 8 Pate «fetta cs vie vie om fstte [sR Find, wo decimal plas, he scoot ofthe sentido the epon i the st quan bounded bythe = curve Evaluating Integrals ye urs and he line x ='V3. vate the megan Exercises 39-50 [Js Find he oon ofthe centroid fis region two dina » [att ase pies. fae et a. fx oss snow ay + any 6 cod 0+ cos = [omsestian 8 e+ Ne => e+ Pan! Ga) + 9x? +x “ (98 + Ie + 1 sna to. Sri mene nt ps ee 4 foe 4% | ope yve® diffusion” to describe the way information spreads through = 1m a, see ceo eh vinin aban es eee eaten roma eben af «[- crepes eie aah aed as a differentiable function of time 1, and the rte of diffusion, «dz, ip assumed to be proportional tothe numberof people who 4 1 have the information times the number of people who 40 not ° Sam +e » faa ‘This lead othe equation (in: Letx + 1 = 02) (win Multiply by 9) = pa = 9 Initial Value Problems Solve the inal value problems in Exercise on where N isthe numberof people inthe population ‘Suppose # is in days, £= 1/250, and two people start a ‘rumor at time # = 0 in a population of N = 1000 people. for asa funetion a (@- wen H=1 @>2, =o a Bnd as fonction - ». When wil half the population have ear the rumor? (his is 82, (34 +42 +1) = 2V3, a0) = 93/4 ‘when the rumor will be spreading the fastest.) rem Second-order chemical reactions Mary chemical reactions SB. (P42) GH R+Z GPO, AAI are the result of the interaction of two molecules that undergo change fo produce a new product. The rate of the reaction typi: cally depends on the concentrations of the two kinds of mole- cules, Ia isthe amount of substance A snd b is the amount of substance B at time # = 0, and if x isthe amount of product at time f then the rate of formation of x may be given by the difer- ential equation ° ser 08-261 O>—D, 0) Applications and Examples In Exercises 55 and 56, find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the shaded region about the indicated axis, 55, The x-axis ae - SF = Kab —2), 1 de G96 Dae ‘where isa constant fr the reaction. Integrate both sides of this ‘equation fo obtain a relation between x and 1 (a) if a = b, and (if a # b, Assume in cach case that x = 0 when ¢ = 0.