10.1 sequence HISTORICAL ESSAY Sequences and Series 10 Infinite Sequences and Series OVERVIEW Up to this point in calculus, we have focused on the derivative and integral of a function. Now we introduce a third key topic of interest in the analysis and computation of functions, called infinite series. Such series give us precise ways to express many num bers and functions, both familiar and new, as arithmetic sums with infinitely many terms. For example, we will earn that 5 Fel 24 720 ~ 40,320 — Often scientists and engineers simplify @ problem by replacing a function with an approximation using the first few terms of a series that expresses it. One method repre sents a known differentiable function f (x) as an infinite series in powers of x, so it looks like a “polynomial with infinitely many terms,” as we see with the cosine function given above. Moreover, the method extends our knowledge of how to evaluate, differentiate, and integrate polynomials, so we can work with even more general functions than any encoun- {ered before, These new functions are commonly solutions to differential equations arising in important applications of mathematics to science and engineering, Everyone knows how to add two numbers together, or even several. But how do you add together infinitely many numbers? Or more generally, how do you add infinitely many powers of x? In this chapter we answer these questions, which are past of the theory of infinite sequences and series. As with the differential and integral calculus, limits play a ‘major role in the development of infinite series. Sequences are fundamental o the study of infinite series and many applications of mathe matics. We have already seen an example of a sequence when we studied Newton's Method in Section 4.6. There we produced a sequence of approximations x, that became closer and closer to the root of a differentiable function, Now we will explore general sequences of numbers and the conditions under which they converge toa finite number. Representing Sequences list of numbers 04,0, 35-4 ys10.1 Sequences 561 ina given order. Bach of ay, a a; and so on represents a number. These are the terms of the sequence. For example, the sequence 2,4,6,8, 10, 12, thas first term a, = 2, second term a, = 4, and mth term a, = 2n. The integer n is called the index of a,, and indicates where a, occurs in the list. Order is important. The sequence 2, 4, 6,8... is not the same as the sequence 4, 2, 6, 8 ‘We can think of the sequence +2n, Oy a, dy sa function that sends 1 to a,,2 10 4,3 to as, and in general sends the positive integer n to the mh term a,. More precisely, an infinite sequence of numbers is a function whose ‘domain isthe set of positive integers. ‘The function associated with the sequence 2,4,6,8, 10, 12,..., sends 1 to a; = 2,2 to a, = 4, and so on, The general behavior of this sequence is described by the formula a, = 2n. ‘We can equally well make the domain the integers larger than a given number n, and we allow sequences of this type also. For example, the sequence 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22... is described by the formula a, = 10 + 2n, Itcan also be described by the simpler formula , = 2n, where the index n stars at 6 and increases. To allow such simpler formulas, we let the first index of the sequence be any integer. Inthe soquence above, {a,} starts with 4 while {b,} starts with by ‘Sequences can be described by writing rules that specify their terms, such as a= Vi DM, or by isting terms oye fa} = (V1, V2, V3... Vay. F (p= {u-hh-b oa } = fo3,2, toh = {05 REE th} (4) © (eth bebe ebb We alto sometimes write a sequence using its ale a5 with {au} = {Vn} Figure 10.1 shows two ways to represent sequences graphically. Te fist matks the first ew poi from a. dy ayy yon he eal axis The second method swe the graph of the function defining the sequence. Te fonction is defined only on Integer Inputs, and the graph consists of some points in the xy-plane located at (1, a,), Qraghes (yay) Convergence and Divergence ‘Sometimes the numbers in a sequence approach a single value as the index 1 increases ‘This happens in the sequence562 Chapter 10: Infinite Sequences and Series 4 a a3 ages 7 23h 0 t 7 if. FIGURE 10.1 Sequences canbe represented as points on the real lie or as points in the plane where the horizontal axis isthe index numiber ofthe term and te vertical axis a, sits value whose tems approach 0s mgs arg, and inthe sequence (LBB ‘whose terms approach 1. On the other hand, sequences like } bre L bbe { V1, V2, V3,.00. Vinee} ne fee 0 aa 4 aye hhave terms that get larger than any number as n increases, and sequences like of 123 Non — DEFINITIONS The sequence {a,} converges to the number L if for every posi- FIGURE 10.2. Inthe repsenaion of JEFINITIONS The s converges othe number FIGURE 102 reprint | ve number there comespondsan integer N such tht forall, ity = isa ional ype of te n>N = lg nLl <6 seace of pons {4} IRBERUE, | Ye ach number Lexis, wey that (4,} Aver a's after ay Hie within € If {a,} converges to L, we write lim, a, = L, ot simply a,—>L, and FCO} bounce back and forth between 1 and —1, never converging to a single valve. The follow- ing definition captures the meaning of having a sequence converge to @ limnting value. Tt says that if we go far enough out in the sequence, by taking the index 1 to be larger than some value N, the difference between a, and the limit of the sequence becomes less than any preselected number € > 0. call Lthe limit of the sequence (Figure 10.2). )RICAL BIOGRAPHY ‘The definition is very similar to the definition of the limit of a function f(x) asx tends Oreane 10 00 (Fim, f(2) in Section 2.6). We will exploit this connection to calculate limits of (ca. 1820-1882) sequences. EXAMPLE 1 Show that (@ tm}=0 ) Jimk= —layemsansFIGURE 10.3 (a) The sequence iverges to 00 because no matter ‘what number Mis chosen, the tems of the sequence after some index all ein the yellow brand above M. (b) The sequence diverges to ~20 because all terms aller some index N lc below any chosen number re 10.1 Sequences 563 Solution (a) Let > 0 be given. We must show that there exists an integer N such that forall n, n>N = ‘This implication will hold if (1/n) < ¢ or n > I/e. If Nis any integer greater than 1/e, the implication will hold forall n > N. This proves that lity .(1/n) = 0. (b) Let € > O be given. We must show that there exists an integer N such that forall n, n>N => [kok M. If this condition holds we write lim ay = 00 or a,—¥00, Similarly if for every number m there isan integer N such that for all n > NV we have a, rs ap 7 1F0 ‘Sum and Quotient Rules . Be cautious in applying Theorem 1. It does not say, for example, that each of the sequences {a,} and {6,} have limits if their sum {¢, + b,} has a limit, For instance, {a,} = {1,2,3,...} and {b,} = (-1,-2.-3,...} both diverge, but their sum {a, + ,} = (0,0,0,...} clearly converges to 0. ‘One consequence af Theorem I is that every nonzero multiple of a divergent sequence {a,} diverges. Fo suppose, to the contrary, that {ca,} converges for some number © # 0. ‘Then, by taking k = 1 /c inthe Constant Multiple Rule in Theorem 1, we se thatthe sequence {h-cas} = {ec} converges. Thus, {ca,} cannot converge unless {a,} also converges. If {a,} does not converge, then {ca,) does not converge. ‘The next theorem is the sequence version of the Sandwich Theorem in Section 2.2 ‘You are asked to prove the theorem in Exercise 109. (See Figure 10.4.) THEOREM 2—The Sandwich Theorem for Sequences Let {a,}. {b,}, and {c,} be sequences of real numbers. If a = by * cy holds forall n beyond Some index N, and if litycoty = Hitynas ty ~ Ly then Tita by = L also. ‘An immediate consequence of Theorem 2 is that, if |by| ¢, and ¢,—r0, then b, +0 because ~c, = b, = ¢,. Weuse ths fact in the next example. EXAMPLE 4 Since 1/n—>0, we know that (@ S40 becauseFIGURE 10.5 Asn—*00, 1/n—-0 and 21/*— 2° (Example 6). The terms of {(1/m} are shown on the x-axis; the tems ‘of {20} are shown s the y-values om the raph of f() = 2" 10.1 Sequences 565 @ $0 because 1 cbse tecane scoeh iB ‘The application of Thorens and is bondene by hore sing tht applying a comets ncn a comerpnt sequence afc! amergertsopenes Wes the theorem, leaving the proof as an exercise (Exercise 110), ‘THEOREM 3—The Continuous Function Theorem for Sequences Let {a,} be sa sequence of real numbers. If a,—> L and if fis a function that is continuous at Land defined at all a, then fa,) —> f(D). EXAMPLE 5 Show that Vin D/n 1 Solution We know that (n + 1)/n— 1. Taking f(x) = V¥ and L = 1 in Theorem 3 gives vin T)/n—» VT = 1. . EXAMPLE 6 The sequence {1/n) converges to 0. By taking a, = 1/n, f(s) = 2% and L.= 0 in Theorem 3, we see that 2" = f(1/n)—> f(L) 1, The sequence {2} converges to 1 (Figure 10.5), 7 Using LHépital's Rule ‘The next theorem formalizes the connection between limy-ssod, and lime f(a). It ‘enables us to use I'Hpital’s Rule to find the limits of some sequences. THEOREM 4 Suppose that f(x) is a function defined for all x = np and that {dq} is a sequence of real numbers such that a, = f(n) for m = ng, Then dimfa)=L > ima, = 1, Proof Suppose that lima f(s) = ‘number M such that for all x, . Then for each positive number € there is a x>M = [fai] N = and mL) =f) -Ll0) 4 limxt=0 (al <0) & si (1 + ay =e (any) 6 lim =0 (yx ‘In Formulas (3) through (6), x remains fixed as no. Proof The first limit was computed in Example 7. The next two can be proved by tak- {ng logarithms and applying Theorem 4 (Exercises 107 and 108). The remaining proofs are given in Appendix 5. .Factortal Notation, ‘The notation al a factorial") Notice that (n + 1)! Thus, a= 1-2-3-4 3 een 24 and 23:4:5 = Sel = 120, We deline (tobe 1. Factorial grow even faster than exponentials, asthe table suggests. The values in the table * e are rounded. v 3 s us 10 22026 49x10 3,628,800, 24x 10 10.1 Sequences 567 EXAMPLE 9 These are examples ofthe limits in Theorem 5, In(7?) M7) 2mm gg 6 sama 0) VE = 2 = (ne A pormaied (© Vin = 3"(n") 1-1 Foxmola3 with + = 3 and Ferma 2 1\" 1 @ (-)'+0 Fooled wit x = ~2 © (Y= (1- Ble semswne 2 0 Formula 6 with x = 100 . Recursive Definitions So far, we have calculated each a, directly from the value of n. But sequences are often defined reeursively by giving 1. The value(s) ofthe initial term or terms, and 2 Arnule, called a recursion formula, for calculating any later term from terms that precede it. EXAMPLE 10 (4) The statements ay = 1 and a, rn... ofpositveintegers. With andsoon. () The statements aj =1 ad a,=n-a,-1 for m>1 define the sequence 1,2,6,24,...,ml,... of factorials. With a = 1, we have a= 2a = a, = 3a, = 6, a, = 4a, = 24, and soon. (©) The statements a, = 1, a, = 1, and Ggy, = G, + Gy; for n> 2 define the sequence 1, 1,2,3,5,..» of Fibonacei numbers. With a; = 1 and a, = 1, we have a= 141 20-241 = 3,05 = 3 +2 = 5,andsoon (@) As we can sce by applying Newton's method (sce Exercise 135), the statements 2g = Land ty. = 3 ~ [(Gin ay ~ %,)/(608.%, — 2x) | form > O define a sequence that, when it converges, gives a solution tothe equation sin x ~ x = 0. . 4,1 + Lforn > I define the sequence 1, 2,3, L,wehave d= a + 1 = 2a, = Bounded Monotonic Sequences ‘Two concepis that play a key role in determining the convergence of @ sequence are those of a bounded sequence and a monotonic sequence. DEFINITIONS A sequence {a,} is bounded from above if there exists a number M such that a, = M for all n. The number M is an upper bound for {a,}. If Mis an upper bound for {a,} but no number less than M is an upper bound for {a,). then M is the least upper bound for {,} ‘A sequence {a,} is bounded from below if there exists a number m such that a, = m for all n. The number m isa lower bound for {a,}. If mis alower bound for {4,} but no number greater than m is a lower bound for {4,}, then m is the greatest lower bound for (4,} If {a,) is bounded from above and below, then {a,} is bounded, If {a,) is not bounded, then we say that {a,} is an unbounded sequence.56B chapter 10: Inrite Sequences and Series Convergent sequences are bounded FIGURE 10.6 Some bounded sequences bounce around between their bounds and fail to converge to any limiting value. FIGURE 10.7 Irehe terms of a nonde- creasing sequence have an upper bound M, they have s limit == EXAMPLE 11 (a) Theseqpence 1:23 ..-sm-. us nuper ound ease ovnuly upases bry mtr Hower tunel By eve al ue ta Soult Temonter™ = 1s epee lower wun of sues 0) Thesequence2,3,..04- 7.0 shod above by every el winder ear thn ga cup dM 1 ath fe per Don ese 12, The sees is ao unde belo by er umber ks thn or eq ty ch its gets ower Sound 7 Ifa sequence {a,} converges to the number L, then by definition there is a number N such that Ja, ~ L| <1 if n > N. Thats, L 1N. If Mis a number larger than L + 1 and all ofthe finitely many numbers ay, dy... dy then for every index n we have @, = M so that {a,} is bounded from above. Similarly, if ‘mis anomber smaller than L ~ 1 and all of the numbers a, dy then m isa lower bbound ofthe sequence. Therefore, all convergent sequences are bounded. Although itis rue that every convergent sequence is bounded, there are hounded sequences that fail to converge. One example is the bounded sequence {(-1)"""} dis- cussed in Example 2. The problem here is that some bounded sequences bounce around in the band determined by any lower bound m and any upper bound M (Figure 10.6). An important type of sequence that does not behave that way is one for which each term is at Feast as larg, or atleast as small, a its predecessor. DEFINITIONS A sequence {a,} is nondecreasing if a, = ay. for all n, That is, ay = ay = as =... The Sequence is nonincreasing if a, = a,+; forall n ‘The sequence {a,) is monotonic if itis either nondecreasing or nonincreasing. EXAMPLE 12 (e) The see 12,3, same onder (b) The sequence 4, 23 a is nondecreasing. bhboge Co Tere td osc dicens aoe (The cana setence 3,3 3.03. sth andecesing ad noniesig (© Thesqunce yyy isnt moti . ‘A nondecreasing sequence that is bounded from above always has a least upper bound. Likewise, a nonincreasing sequence bounded from below always has a greatest lower bound, These results are based on the completeness property of the real numbers, discussed in Appendix 6. We now prove that if L is the least upper bound of a nondecreas- ing sequence then the sequence converges to L, and that if Lis the greatest lower bound of ‘amoninereasing sequence thea the sequence converges to L. | THEOREM 6—The Monotonic Sequence Theorem Ifa sequence {a,} is both | bounded and monotonic, then the sequence converges Proof Suppose {a,} is nondecreasing, Ls its least upper bound, and we plot the points (1,4), 24),-.- ,(ta,),... in the sy-plane. If M is an upper bound of the sequence, all these points will lie on or below the line y = M (Figure 10.7), The line y = L is thelowest such line, None of the points (n, a,) lies above y L ~ €,if € is a positive number. The sequence converges to L because lower line y 10.1 Sequences 569 LL, but some do lie above any a. a, = L forall values of, and D. given any ¢ > 0, there exists at least one integer N for which ay > L— ‘The fact that {a,} is nondecreasing tells us further that a = ay >be for alln = N. ‘Thas, all the numbers a, beyond the Nth number lie within e of L. This is precisely the condition for L to be the limit of the sequence {a,} ‘The proof for nonincreasing sequences bounded from below is similar. . tis important to realize that Theorem 6 does not say that convergent sequences are monotonic. The sequence {(-1)""1/n} converges and is bounded, but iis nt monotonic since it altemates between positive and negative values as it tends toward zero. What the theorem does say is that # nondecreasing sequence converges when it is Bounded from above, but it diverges to infinity otherwise Exercises PO Finding Terms of a Sequence Bach of Exercises 1-6 gives a formula for the nth term a, of sequence {4,}. Find the values of a, 23 43, and ay lon a= eon cae 34- oe A= 24 C0) z awl 84-25 64-83 Bach of Exercises 7-12 gives the fist erm or two of a sequence along, ‘with a recursion formula for the remaining terms. Write out the first ten terms ofthe sequence. Te ay Ms dyes = ay + (1/29) Bay = 1 Goa = alle + D) 9. ay = 2, dy = CDM ay)? 10, 0 = 2, Oye, = nail + 1) La aye Oya + by a= 2 a a2 = testy Finding a Sequence's Formula In Exercises 13-26, find a formula forthe nth term of te sequence. 1B. The sequence 1,=1, 1,1, 1, 14. The sequence —1, 1,— ‘swith aerating sens J Lyalyese swith eating signs 15, The sequence I,~4, 9, 16,25, Sauces of the pasve ine ‘es with aheating ies 16, The sequence 1, Reciprocal of squares of the postive integee, with, sheratng signs e916 Powers of 2 divided by rotpls of 3 Intsges difring by 2 divided by products of ‘consecutive inegers 19, The sequence 0,3,8, 15,24, Squares of the positive ‘ntgers diminished by 1 20, The sequence ~3,~2,—1,0, 1, 21. The soquence 1, 5,9, 13.17, lneperstesining with 3 very ther od positive me 22, Tresetene 6 10.1418. Sey ten pie 3 $8.0 ar, tongs ang y 3 divided by ftorals ma A,B 27 4 125 us ae ans Tee (Cubes of postive integers vided by power of 25, The sequence 1,0, 1.0, 1, 26, The sequence 0,1, 1,2,2,3,3,4, ‘Aerating I's nd 0's Bach postive integer repeated Convergence and Divergence Which of the sequences (4,} in Exercises 27-90 converge, and ‘hich diverge? Fin the limit of each convergent sequence. 2. a= 2+ 0lY ma, a, = m4 30. 0, = —3Vn= Tn 2n (003) 55. a, = Vit 56. 0, = VE nan (Q)" sana ranen 9.4, NP) 106. The zipper theorem Prove the “zipper theorem for sequences: if {4,} and {b,} both converge to Z then the sequence (4, Bye By yD converges to L. 107. Prove that lity .0o Ym = 1. 108. Prove that lim, wx! = 1, (¢ > 0) 109, Prove Theorem 2. 110. Prove Theorem 3 In Exercises 111-114, determine if the sequence is monotonic and if it is bounded, n+ Qn tay un. a, = At M2 a= Spr 113. a, = 2" 14, a, ‘Which of the sequences in Bxercises 115-124 converge, and which verge? Give reasons for your answers. 18. a, 120. The frst term of a sequence is x) = cos (I). The next terms are 2% = "oF cos 2), whichever is larger; and xy = 2 oF cos 3), ‘whichever i larger (farther to the right). In general, sysn max (ap c08 0+ 1D} Ls Vin 121. a, 12, «, =ttt nt) 1 a, 124, a, 2a, — In Exercises 125-126, use the definition of convergence to prove the given limit ms sals 3) 127, The sequence {n/(w + 1)} has a Jeast upper bound of 1 Show that if M is a number less than 1, then the terms of {n/(n + 1)} eventually exceed M. That is if M <1 there is an integer N such that n/(n + 1) > M whenever n > N. Since rifts + 1) < 1 for every n, this proves that 1 isa least upper bound for {n/(n + 1)) 128, Uniqueness of least upper bounds Show that if Mf, and My are least upper bounds forthe sequence {a,}. then Mi = Ms ‘Thatisa sequence cennot have two different east upper bounds. 129, Is it te that a sequence {a,} of postive numbers must con- ‘verge iit is bounded from above? Give reasons for your answer. 125, fn 8" = 0572 Chapter 10: Infinite Sequences and Series 130, Prove that if {4,} isa convergent sequence, then to every pos tive number there coresponds an integer N such that forall m and n, m>N and n>N = laa ce 131. Uniqueness of limits Prove that limits of sequences are unique. That is, show that if Ly and Lp are numbers such that ay Ly and ay > Ly thea Ly = Ly. 132, Limits and subsequences Ifthe terms of one sequence appear in another sequence in their given order, we call the first sequence 2 subsequence of the second. Prove that if two sub- sequences of a sequence (a,} have different limits Ly # Z>, then (a,} diverges. 133, Fora sequence {a,} the terms of even index are denoted by ag and the terms of odd index by as. Prove that f ay Land yy Ly then a > Le 134, Prove that a sequence {a,} converges to O if and only if the sequence of absolute values {|ap| } converges to 0. 135, Sequences generated by Newton's method Newton's method, applied to a differentiable function f(), begins with a starting value tp and constructs from it sequence of numbers {x} thst under favorable circumstances converges to a zero of f. The recursion formula forthe sequence is _ St) FG) 2, Show thatthe recursion formula for f(x) = 2? canbe writen a8 4 = Oe + a/3)/2 b. Stating with x» = 1 and a = 3, calculate suecessive terms ofthe sequence until the display begins to repeat. What number is being approximated? Explain, 136, A recursive definition of 22/2 If you stat with x, = 1 and define the subsequent terms of {4} by the mule B= Sao $008 Ryn ty YOu generate = sequence that converges aa>o, 10.2 Infinite Series rpidly to m/2. (9) Try it. (@) Use the accompanying Bigue to explain why the convergence is so rapid. COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS ‘Use & CAS to perform the following steps forthe sequences in Exer- cises 137-148, ‘a, Calculate and then plot the first 25 terms of the Sequence. Does the sequence appear fo be bounded from above or below? Does it appesr to converge or diverge? I it does converge, what i the limit L? ‘lf the sequence converges, find un integer 1V such that |, ~ Z| 0.01 for n > N, How far in the sequence do You have to get forthe terms to lie within 0.0001 of L? 1a = Va 138. a= (16 93)" 139.05 = ath 140. a, = 1, ay: a, + 2" 11 a= sin 102 «= main! 143. a, = 144, 0, = BP 145. a, = (0.9999)" 146. a, = (123456)'"" 147. a, & 148. a, = we a 1 [An infinite series isthe sum of an infinite sequence of numbers ata tate Ha,+ “The goal of this section is to understand the meaning of such an infinite sum and to develop methods to calculate it, Since there are infinitely many terms to add in an infinite series, we cannot just keep adding to see what comes out. Instead we look atthe result of, summing just the first terms of the sequence. The sum of the first n terms ata tate tay is an ordinary fnive sum and can be calculated by normal addition. Itis called the mth partial sum. As n gets larger, we expect the partial sums to get closer and closer toa limiting value in the same sense thatthe terms ofa sequence approach a limit, as discussed in Section 10.1 For example, to assign meaning to an expression like Aylylyh itgetete de