UNIT 8 – It’s Only Temporary

We now turn to what became the de facto standard of intercomputer

communications – TCP/IP.

The following information comes from Wikipedia:

The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual model and set of communications
protocols used on the Internet and similar computer networks. It is commonly known
as TCP/IP because the foundational protocols in the suite are the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). It is occasionally known as the
Department of Defense (DoD) model, because the development of the networking
method was funded by the United States Department of Defense through DARPA.

The Internet protocol suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying

how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received.
This functionality is organized into four abstraction layers which classify all related
protocols according to the scope of networking involved. From lowest to highest, the
layers are
• the link layer, containing communication methods for data that remains within
a single network segment (link);
• the internet layer, providing internetworking between independent networks;
• the transport layer, handling host-to-host communication; and
• the application layer, which provides process-to-process data exchange for
applications.

Technical standards specifying the Internet protocol suite and many of its
constituent protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
The Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model, the more comprehensive
reference framework for general networking systems.

The Internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by
the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in the late 1960s. After starting
the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on several other data
transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Kahn joined the DARPA Information
Processing Technology Office, where he worked on both satellite packet networks
and ground-based radio packet networks and recognized the value of being able to
communicate across both.

In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, the developer of the existing ARPANET Network
Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture
interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for
the ARPANET. A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability
issues. The Transmission Control Program was split into two distinct protocols, the
Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol.

One popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's
work, can run over "two tin cans and a string.

DARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the
University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on
different hardware platforms.

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In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for
all military computer networking. IBM, AT&T, and DEC were the first major
corporations to adopt TCP/IP, despite having competing internal protocols (SNA,
XNS, DECNET).

The spread of TCP/IP was fueled further in June 1989, when AT&T agreed to place
the TCP/IP code developed for UNIX into the public domain. Various vendors,
including IBM, included this code in their own TCP/IP stacks. Many companies sold
TCP/IP stacks for Windows until Microsoft released a native TCP/IP stack in
Windows 95. This event was a little late in the evolution of the Internet, but it
cemented TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols, which began to lose ground.

The TCP/IP model and other related protocols are maintained by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF), whose parent organization is the Internet Society,
and which also cooperates closely with other standards bodies such as the W3C
(World Wide Web Consortium) and ISO/IEC (International Electrotechnical
Commission).

By comparing the OSI and TCP/IP models (see below), it is easy to see that the
TCP/IP model is much simpler. However, it must be noted that TCP/IP was
supposed to be temporary until a functioning model could be developed within the
framework of the OSI Model.

Figure 1. Protocols and Services of the OSI Model

FACTOID - In TCP/IP certain ports are used for only certain protocols; e.g. SMTP
(25), HTTP (80), and FTP (20)
http - //www.meridianoutpost.com/resources/articles/well-known-tcpip-ports.php

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The application layer is where applications create user data and communicate this
data to other applications on another or the same host. This is the layer in which all
higher-level protocols, such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, operate. Processes are
addressed via ports which essentially represent services.

The transport layer performs host-to-host communications on either the same or

different hosts and on either the local network or remote networks separated by
routers. The Transmission Control Protocol provides flow-control, connection
establishment or handshake, and reliable transmission of data.

The internet layer has the task of exchanging datagrams across network
boundaries. It provides a uniform networking interface that hides the actual
topology (layout) of the underlying network connections. It is therefore also referred
to as the layer that establishes internetworking, indeed, it defines and establishes the
Internet.

The link layer defines the networking methods within the scope of the local network
link on which hosts communicate without intervening routers. This layer includes
the protocols used to describe the local network topology and the interfaces needed
to cause the transmission of Internet layer datagrams to next-neighbor hosts.

VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL NON-TECHNICAL
abstraction (n) - абстрагування, boundary (n) - кордон;
абстракції, абстрактність; абстракция (территориальная) граница
address (v) - адресувати; адресовать conceptual (adj) - концептуальний;
понятийный
connection establishment (n) - constituent (n/adj) - складова;
встановлення з'єднання - ; непосредственная составляющая
установление соединения
datagram (n) - дейтаграма; de facto (adj) - де факто; фактически
дейтаграмма
end-to-end data communication (n) - despite (prep) - незважаючи на це;
наскрізна передача даних; сквозная несмотря на
передача, сквозная связь;
двухточечная связь, прямая связь
между конечными пунктами
flow-control (n) - управління потоком; foundational (adj) - фундаментальні;
управление потоком основополагающий
framework (n) - рамки, структура, framework (n) - каркас; основа
лаштування; рамки, структура
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) - fuel (v) - заправлятися пальним;
Протокол передачі файлів; заправлять горючим или топливом
Используемый в Internet протокол
передачи файлов между хост-
компьютерами

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handshake (n) - рукостискання, inflexible (adj) - негнучкий; негибкий

квітирування; квитирование,
рукопожатие, обмен сигналами для
установления связи
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) - intervening (adj) - втручання;
Протокол передачі гіпертексту; язык являющийся помехой
передачи гипертекста
packetize (v) - передавати у вигляді monolithic (adj) - монолітний; не
пакетів; пакетировать разделённый на блоки
route (v) - маршрут; маршрут native (adj) - рідний (метд із
обработки запросов реалізацією у некерованому коді);
прирдный, родной (прогр. с
реализацией в неуправляемом коде)
SMTP (Simple Mail Transport predate (v) - датувати заднім
Protocol) - Простий протокол числом, випереджати, поперед;
транспортування пошти; обычный датировать задним, более ранним
протокол транспортирования почты числом
SSH (Secure SHell) - Протокол SSH public domain - публічний домен;
«Безпечний Шелл»; защищённый общего пользования, открытый
командный процессор, безопасный доступ
командный процессор, протокол
безопасной оболочки
stack (n) - стек (набір програних specify (v) - вказати, точно
асобів, що використовуються для визначати, обумовлювати ;
стаорення продукту. Зазвичай турмін специально упоминать, уточнять
використовується у посиланнях на
інструментарій, необхіжний для
розробки ПЗ; содержимое стека
suite (n) - комплект; набор,
аппаратная монтажа
transmit (v) - передавати; передать

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UNIT 8 – It’s Only Temporary

ACTIVITIES -

1. Discuss how TCP/IP differs from the OSI model?

2. Discuss how TCP/IP is like the OSI model?

3. Discuss how TCP/IP became the de facto standard for the Internet/

4. What do the following stand for and how they used -

a. XMT
b. RCV
c. EOT
d. ESC
e. ACK
f. NAK
g. WAK

Exercise 5. Match the word; phrase with its definition

1) abstraction a) the act of starting or creating something that will last
a long time
2) address b) very large, united, and difficult to change
3) connection c) happening between two times or between other events
or activities
4) framework d) fixed and unable or unwilling to change
5) handshake e) to provide power to something
6) stack f) an edge or limit of something
7) suite g) to broadcast something, or to send out or carry
signals using radio, television, etc.
8) transmit h) a set of related software (= computer program) products
9) boundary i) a method of storing information on a computer in which the
most recent item is found or dealt with before other items
10) fuel j) a signal sent from one computer to another to show that they
are ready to send and receive information
11) inflexible k) a system of rules, ideas, or beliefs that is used to
plan or decide something
12) intervening l) the act of joining or being joined to something else, or
the part or process that makes this possible
13) monolithic m) to speak or write to someone, or to direct information to
someone
14) establishment n) the situation in which a subject is very general and not
based on real situations

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Exercise 6. Fill in the blanks with the words/phrases from the Unit.

conceptual constituent de facto despite foundational native specify

1) Other fundamental ____________ and theoretical issues require investigation.

2) Let's look at the ______________ parts of this sentence.
3) English is de facto the common language of much of the world today.
4) I still enjoyed the week _______________ the weather.
5) This set of results modifies the assertion that verbal language is __________ to
early reading.
6) Dr Hall is a native Texan (= He was born in Texas).
7) My contract __________ (that) I must give a month's notice if I leave my job.

Exercise 7. Use these prompts while preparing to present your answer

to the class.

1. I would like to start by talking about …

2. Apart from that ….
3. And there is another thing …
4. The good thing about … is … .
5. On the other hand …
6. Having said that, … .
7. … any questions?

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Supplementary activities

Grammar

Exercise 8. Focus on the Linking Words. Study the table below and
think of your own examples.

Linking words show the logical relationship between sentences or parts

of sentences.

Positive and, both … and, not only … She is intelligent and You
Addition but, also, as well, too, generous. own
moreover, in addition to,
furthermore, further, also,
not to mention the fact that,
besides
Negative neither … nor, nor, neither, Neither Alex nor Olga
addition either can do this exercise.
Contrast but, not … but, although, Learning a foreign
while, whereas, despite, language might seem
even if, even though, on the easy, however, it
other hand, in contrast, depends which level you
however, (and) yet, at the need to obtain.
same time
Similarity Similarly, likewise, in the A cup of tea helps you
same way, equally feel better. Similarly, a
chocolate sweet may do
the trick.
Concessio But, even so, however, (and) They continued the
n still, (and) yet, nevertheless, concert, even though it
on the other hand, although, started raining.
even though, despite/in spite
of, regardless of, admittedly,
considering, whereas, while,
nonetheless
Alternative or, on the other hand, either He can tell the truth
… or, alternatively himself, or it will be
known anyway.
Emphasis besides, not only this/that, I think she is perfectly
but … also, as well, what is qualified for the position
more, in fact, as a matter of and, what is more, she
fact, to tell you the truth, is good-tempered.
actually, indeed, let alone
Exemplifi- as, such as, like, for The conference itself
cation example, for instance, was a success, but the
particularly, especially, in social events in
particular particular were
fascinating.

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that is to say, specifically, in I am pleased with your

Clarificatio
n other words, to put it another results. Specifically, I
way, I mean am pleased with your
progress in listening.
Cause; as, because, because of, He has chosen cyber-
Reason since, on the grounds that, security because it is a
seeing that, due to, in view good career choice.
of, owning to, for, now that,
so
Manner as, (in) the way, how, the The professor gave
way in which, (in) the same some recommendations
way (as), as if, as though, as as for the procedure of
for the contest.
Condition if, in case, assuming (that), The office will contact
on condition (that), you in case there are
provided/providing (that), changes in the schedule.
unless, in the event (that), in
the event of, as/so long as,
granted/granting (that),
whether, whether … or
(alternative condition), only
if, even if, otherwise, or
(else), in case of
Consequen consequently, then, under Most computer users
ce of a those circumstances, if so, if have never received any
not, so, therefore, in that formal keyboard training.
Condition
case, otherwise, thus Consequently, their
keyboard skills are
inefficient.
Purpose so that, so as (not) to, in Students are
order (not) to, in order that, recommended to take
for fear (that), in case, least notes in a lesson so that
they will be able to
revise the material
before exams.
Effect/ such; so … that, That laptop was more
Result consequently, for this modern therefore more
reason, as a consequence, powerful.
thus, therefore, so
Compariso as … as, than, half as … as, His first exam writing
n nothing like, the … the, twice was nothing like the
as … as, less … than second one.
Time when, whenever, as, while, She would like to attend
now (that), before, until, till, the optional course
after, since whenever she has
some spare time.
Place where, wherever You may sit down
wherever you’d like to.

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Exception But (for), except (for), apart All the exams have been
from passed successfully,
apart from one.
Relative who, whom, whose, which, This is a professor who
what, that teaches us IT in English.
Listing Beginning - initially, first …, First, we’ll revise the
Points; at first, to start/begin with, Tenses.
first of all; Next, I think we’ll do
Events
Continuing - secondly …, some vocabulary
after this/that, second …, exercises.
afterwards, then, next, Finally, we will have
before this; some speaking.
Concluding - finally, at last,
in the end, eventually, lastly,
last but not least
Reference considering, concerning, I am writing with
regarding, with respect/ reference to your
regard/ reference to, in announcement on the
respect/regard/reference to Net.
this/ to the fact that
Summarizi In conclusion, in summary, To sum up, you have to
ng to sum up, as I have said, as spend more time doing
(it) was previously stated, on your homework.
the whole, in all, all in all,
altogether, in short, briefly,
to put it briefly

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