4.

1 MEASUREMENT AND ERRORS

In the field of instrumentation, both static and dynamic errors can occur, affecting the accuracy and reliability
of measurements taken by instruments. Let's discuss static and dynamic errors in more detail:

1. Static Errors:
Static errors are associated with steady-state or constant conditions when using an instrument. They do not
change over time and can result from factors like calibration, environmental conditions, and inherent
instrument limitations. The main types of static errors include:

a. Systematic Error: These errors cause measurements to consistently deviate from the true value by a fixed
amount or in a particular direction. They can be caused by calibration drift, incorrect calibration procedures,
or biases in the instrument's design. Systematic errors can be minimized through proper calibration and
correction techniques.

b. Offset Error: Offset errors refer to a constant deviation of the instrument's output from the expected
value when the input is zero. They are usually represented as an additive constant. Factors like sensor
misalignment, improper zero adjustments, or electrical noise can cause offset errors.

c. Gain Error: Gain errors result in a scaling or amplification discrepancy between the input and output
signals of an instrument. They cause the instrument's output to deviate from the correct value by a fixed
factor or percentage. Gain errors can arise due to nonlinearity in the instrument's response, variations in
component characteristics, or signal conditioning issues.

2. Dynamic Errors:
Dynamic errors occur during time-varying or transient conditions. These errors often arise when there are
rapid changes in the measured signal or when the instrument's response time is insufficient to accurately
capture variations. Here are some common types of dynamic errors:

a. Response Time Error: Response time errors occur when an instrument fails to respond instantaneously to
changes in the measured quantity. The instrument's response time is determined by its physical
characteristics and can lead to inaccuracies if the changes in the measured signal occur more rapidly than the
instrument can track.

b. Aliasing Error: Aliasing errors occur in digitized systems when the sampling rate is inadequate to
accurately represent the frequency content of the measured signal. This can result in false or distorted
measurements, particularly when the input signal contains high-frequency components.

c. Hysteresis Error: Hysteresis errors are observed in instruments that exhibit a lag or memory effect when
measuring a changing signal. The output of the instrument may differ depending on whether the signal is
increasing or decreasing. Hysteresis errors can be caused by mechanical or electrical factors such as friction or
magnetic properties of components.
To ensure accurate measurements, it is important to understand and account for both static and dynamic
errors in the design, calibration, and use of instrumentation systems. Calibration procedures, error
compensation techniques, and appropriate instrument selection can help minimize these errors and improve
measurement accuracy.

Minimizing static errors and dynamic errors in measurements involves employing specific strategies and
techniques. Here's how you can reduce these types of errors:

Minimizing Static Errors:

1. Calibration: Regularly calibrate measuring instruments to ensure accuracy and correct any systematic
biases.

2. Instrument Selection: Choose high-quality instruments with low inherent errors and better resolution to
minimize static errors.

3. Environmental Control: Maintain a stable and controlled environment to minimize external influences such
as temperature, humidity, and electromagnetic interference.

4. Proper Technique: Use appropriate measurement techniques and ensure proper handling of instruments to
minimize errors caused by operator mistakes.

5. Zeroing and Nulling: Zero or null the measuring instruments before each measurement to eliminate offset
errors.

Minimizing Dynamic Errors:

1. Sampling Rate and Bandwidth: Use a high sampling rate and wide bandwidth to capture the dynamic
variations of the measured signal accurately.

2. Filtering: Apply suitable filters to remove noise and unwanted frequency components that may contribute
to dynamic errors.

3. Signal Conditioning: Use proper signal conditioning techniques to amplify weak signals and reduce noise
interference.

4. Shielding: Employ shielding techniques to minimize electromagnetic interference and reduce dynamic
errors caused by external sources.

5. Averaging and Smoothing: Utilize averaging and smoothing techniques, such as moving averages or digital
filters, to reduce random fluctuations in the measured data.

It's important to note that the specific methods for minimizing errors will depend on the nature of the
measurement system, the type of measurement being performed, and the level of accuracy required.
Therefore, understanding the measurement setup and the potential sources of errors is crucial in
implementing appropriate error reduction strategies.
QUESTIONS:

1. What is the primary characteristic of static errors in measurements?

A) They remain constant over time.

B) They vary randomly over time.

C) They are caused by fluctuations in the measured quantity.

D) They occur due to limitations in the measuring instrument.

Answer: A

2. Which of the following statements best describes dynamic errors in measurements?

A) They are errors that remain constant over time.

B) They occur due to limitations in the measuring instrument.

C) They are errors that vary randomly over time.

D) They are errors caused by fluctuations in the measured quantity.

Answer: C

3. Which of the following factors is likely to contribute to static errors in measurements?

A) Environmental noise

B) Instrument sensitivity

C) Measurement time duration

D) Signal amplitude variations

Answer: B

4. What is the main effect of dynamic errors on measurement accuracy?

A) They introduce a constant offset in the measured value.

B) They cause the measured value to fluctuate randomly.

C) They result in a systematic bias in the measurement.

D) They lead to incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument.

Answer: B

5. Which of the following terms is used to describe the precision of a measurement technique?

A) Static error

B) Dynamic error

C) Accuracy

D) Repeatability

Answer: D

6. What is the primary source of static errors in an analog-to-digital converter (ADC)?

A) Variations in the input signal frequency

B) Non-linearity in the conversion process

C) Quantization noise

D) Sampling rate limitations

Answer: B

7. How can static errors be minimized in measurements?

A) By increasing the measurement time duration

B) By using more sensitive measuring instruments

C) By reducing the environmental noise

D) By increasing the signal amplitude

Answer: B

8. Which of the following factors is likely to contribute to dynamic errors in measurements?

A) Instrument drift

B) Measurement uncertainties

C) Instrument resolution

D) Signal noise

Answer: A

9. What is the primary effect of dynamic errors on measurement precision?

A) They introduce a constant offset in the measured value.

B) They cause the measured value to fluctuate randomly.

C) They result in a systematic bias in the measurement.

D) They lead to incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument.

Answer: B

10. Which of the following terms is used to describe the accuracy of a measurement technique?

A) Precision

B) Static error

C) Dynamic error

D) Sensitivity

Answer: A

1. In the context of measurement errors, which of the following best describes a systematic error?

A) It remains constant over time and affects the accuracy of measurements.

B) It occurs due to random fluctuations in the measured quantity.

C) It is caused by limitations in the measuring instrument.

D) It results in a biased measurement consistently higher or lower than the true value.

Answer: D

2. Which of the following factors is most likely to contribute to static errors in measurements?

A) Measurement uncertainties

B) Environmental noise

C) Instrument resolution

D) Signal quantization error

Answer: C

3. What is the primary source of dynamic errors in high-speed data acquisition systems?

A) Instrument sensitivity

B) Sampling rate limitations

C) Signal amplitude variations

D) Environmental interference

Answer: B

4. Which of the following techniques is commonly used to compensate for systematic errors in
measurements?

A) Zeroing the measuring instrument before each measurement

B) Increasing the measurement time duration

C) Using statistical averaging to reduce random errors

D) Adjusting the calibration of the measuring instrument

Answer: D

5. What is the effect of static errors on the precision of a measurement technique?

A) They cause the measured value to fluctuate randomly.

B) They introduce a constant offset in the measured value.

C) They result in a systematic bias in the measurement.

D) They reduce the repeatability of the measurements.

Answer: D

6. Which of the following statistical measures is commonly used to quantify the precision of a measurement
technique?

A) Mean

B) Standard deviation

C) Median

D) Mode

Answer: B

7. What is the primary source of dynamic errors in time-domain measurements?

A) Instrument noise

B) Signal distortion

C) Instrument drift

D) Nonlinearity in the measurement system

Answer: D

8. How can dynamic errors be minimized in measurements?

A) By using averaging techniques to reduce random errors

B) By increasing the sampling rate of the measuring instrument

C) By using more sensitive measuring instruments

D) By reducing the environmental noise

Answer: B

9. What is the primary effect of systematic errors on the accuracy of a measurement technique?

A) They cause the measured value to fluctuate randomly.

B) They result in a biased measurement consistently higher or lower than the true value.

C) They reduce the precision of the measurements.

D) They introduce an offset that remains constant over time.

Answer: B

10. Which of the following statistical measures is commonly used to assess the accuracy of a measurement
technique?

A) Confidence interval

B) Range

C) Coefficient of variation

D) Mean absolute deviation

Answer: A
Maxwell bridges
Definition:
The bridge used for the measurement of self-inductance of the circuit is known as the Maxwell bridge. It is
the advanced form of the Wheatstone bridge. The Maxwell bridge works on the principle of the comparison,
i.e., the value of unknown inductance is determined by comparing it with the known value or standard value.

Types of Maxwell’s Bridge

Two methods are used for determining the self-inductance of the circuit. They are

1. Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

2. Maxwell’s inductance Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

In such type of bridges, the value of unknown resistance is determined by comparing it with the known value
of the standard self-inductance. The connection diagram for the balance Maxwell bridge is shown in the
figure below.

Let, L1 – unknown inductance of resistance R1.

L2 – Variable inductance of fixed resistance r1.
R2 – variable resistance connected in series with inductor L2.
R3, R4 – known non-inductance resistance
At balance,

The value of the R3 and the R4 resistance varies from 10 to 1000 ohms with the help of the resistance box.
Sometimes for balancing the bridge, the additional resistance is also inserted into the circuit.

The phasor diagram of Maxwell’s inductance bridge is shown in the figure below.

Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge

In this type of bridges, the unknown resistance is measured with the help of the standard
variable capacitance. The connection diagram of the Maxwell Bridge is shown in the figure below.
Let, L1 – unknown inductance of resistance R1.
R1 – Variable inductance of fixed resistance r1.
R2, R3, R4 – variable resistance connected in series with inductor L2.
C4 – known non-inductance resistance

For balance condition,

By separating the real and imaginary equation we get,

The above equation shows that the bridges have two variables R4 and C4 which appear in one of the two
equations and hence both the equations are independent.

The circuit quality factor is expressed as

Phasor diagram of Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge is shown in the figure below.

Advantages of the Maxwell’s Bridges

The following are the advantages of the Maxwell bridges

 1. The balance equation of the circuit is free from frequency.
2. Both the balance equations are independent of each other.
3. The Maxwell’s inductor capacitance bridge is used for the measurement of the high
range inductance.
Disadvantages of the Maxwell’s Bridge

The main disadvantages of the bridges are

1. The Maxwell inductor capacitance bridge requires a variable capacitor which is very expensive.
Thus, sometimes the standard variable capacitor is used in the bridges.
2. The bridge is only used for the measurement of medium quality coils.

Because of the following disadvantages, the Hays bridge is used for the measurement of circuit inductance
which is the advanced form of the Maxwell’s Bridge.

Certainly! Here are the multiple-choice questions (MCQs) related to Maxwell's bridge with their respective
answers:

1. Maxwell's bridge is used for the measurement of:

a) Resistance

b) Capacitance

c) Inductance

d) Voltage

Answer: c) Inductance

2. In Maxwell's bridge, the unknown inductance is represented by:

a) Lx

b) Rx

c) R1

d) R2
Answer: a) Lx

3. Maxwell's bridge is most suitable for measuring inductance values in the frequency range of:

a) DC (Direct Current)

b) Low frequency

c) Radio frequency (RF)

d) High frequency

Answer: c) Radio frequency (RF)

4. The balance condition in Maxwell's bridge is achieved when:

a) The galvanometer reads zero

b) The power source voltage is maximized

c) The inductor Lx is removed from the circuit

d) The resistors R1 and R2 have equal values

Answer: a) The galvanometer reads zero

5. Which of the following is a limitation of Maxwell's bridge?

a) It can only measure resistance, not inductance

b) It is not suitable for high-frequency measurements

c) It requires a large number of resistors

d) It cannot measure capacitors

Answer: b) It is not suitable for high-frequency measurements

Certainly! Here are some more challenging multiple-choice questions (MCQs) related to Maxwell's bridge:

1. In Maxwell's bridge, the unknown inductance is balanced with a known resistor. What is the relationship
between the unknown inductance (Lx) and the known resistor (Rx) when the bridge is balanced?

a) Lx = Rx

b) Lx / Rx = 1

c) Lx * Rx = 1

d) Lx / Rx = R1 / R2

Answer: d) Lx / Rx = R1 / R2

2. Maxwell's bridge is primarily used for measuring which of the following quantities?

a) Voltage

b) Resistance

c) Inductance

d) Current

Answer: c) Inductance

3. What happens to the galvanometer reading in Maxwell's bridge if the unknown inductance (Lx) is
increased while the other components remain the same?

a) The galvanometer reading increases.

b) The galvanometer reading decreases.

 c) The galvanometer reading remains unchanged.

d) The galvanometer reading becomes erratic.

Answer: a) The galvanometer reading increases.

4. Which of the following is a limitation of Maxwell's bridge?

a) It is only applicable to low-frequency measurements.

b) It cannot measure capacitance.

c) It requires a balanced AC power supply.

d) It is not suitable for measuring small inductance values.

Answer: b) It cannot measure capacitance.

5. Maxwell's bridge is most commonly used in which of the following industries or fields?

a) Telecommunications

b) Automotive engineering

c) Pharmaceutical manufacturing

d) Civil construction

Answer: a) Telecommunications
1. Maxwell's bridge is commonly used in which field of engineering?

a) Mechanical engineering

b) Chemical engineering

c) Electrical engineering

d) Civil engineering

Answer: c) Electrical engineering

2. In Maxwell's bridge, what is the purpose of the galvanometer?

a) To measure voltage

b) To measure current

c) To balance the bridge

d) To generate a reference signal

Answer: c) To balance the bridge

3. Which of the following is a requirement for accurate measurements using Maxwell's bridge?

a) A high-frequency power supply

b) Shielded cables

c) A low-impedance source

d) Zero ambient noise

Answer: d) Zero ambient noise

4. What happens if the resistance values of R1 and R2 in Maxwell's bridge are not precisely known?
 a) The bridge cannot be balanced.

b) The bridge still achieves balance, but the measurements are inaccurate.

c) The bridge will not work at all.

d) The bridge will require additional calibration.

Answer: b) The bridge still achieves balance, but the measurements are inaccurate.

5. Maxwell's bridge is not suitable for measuring which of the following components?

a) Resistors

b) Capacitors

c) Inductors with high Q factor

d) Transformers

Answer: b) Capacitors

6. Which of the following statements about Maxwell's bridge is true?

a) It can measure both inductance and capacitance simultaneously.

b) It requires an AC power supply to operate.

c) It is used primarily for high-frequency measurements.

d) It can measure both resistance and inductance.

Answer: d) It can measure both resistance and inductance.

7. What is the advantage of using a Wheatstone bridge configuration in Maxwell's bridge?

a) It allows for easier balancing of the bridge.

b) It eliminates the need for a galvanometer.

 c) It provides higher accuracy in measurements.

d) It enables measurement of complex impedance.

Answer: c) It provides higher accuracy in measurements.

8. Which parameter determines the frequency range in which Maxwell's bridge can accurately measure
inductance?

a) The value of the unknown inductance (Lx)

b) The value of the known resistor (Rx)

c) The value of the resistors R1 and R2

d) The value of the power supply voltage

Answer: c) The value of the resistors R1 and R2

9. Maxwell's bridge is widely used in which of the following applications?

a) Audio amplifiers

b) Medical imaging

c) Power distribution systems

d) Oscillator circuits

Answer: d) Oscillator circuits

10. Which of the following is a disadvantage of using Maxwell's bridge for inductance measurements?

a) It is not suitable for low-frequency measurements.

b) It requires complex calibration procedures.

c) It can only measure small inductance values.

d) It is sensitive to variations in ambient temperature.

Answer: a) It is not suitable for low-frequency measurements.
1. Which of the following components is typically used as a standard resistor in Maxwell's bridge?

a) Capacitor

b) Inductor

c) Resistor

d) Transformer

Answer: c) Resistor

2. In Maxwell's bridge, the balance condition is achieved when:

a) The unknown inductance is removed from the circuit.

b) The voltage across the galvanometer is maximized.

c) The ratio of the resistors R1 and R2 is equal to the ratio of the unknown inductance to the standard
resistor.

d) The power supply voltage is increased.

Answer: c) The ratio of the resistors R1 and R2 is equal to the ratio of the unknown inductance to the
standard resistor.

3. Which of the following factors can affect the accuracy of inductance measurements using Maxwell's
bridge?

a) Temperature variations

b) Humidity levels

c) Magnetic field interference

d) All of the above

Answer: d) All of the above

4. Maxwell's bridge is most effective when measuring inductances within which range?

a) Microhenries (μH)

b) Millihenries (mH)

c) Henry (H)

d) Kilohenries (kH)

Answer: b) Millihenries (mH)

5. The use of a variable capacitor in Maxwell's bridge can help compensate for:

a) Stray capacitance effects

b) Temperature variations

c) Resistor tolerance

d) Power supply fluctuations

Answer: a) Stray capacitance effects

6. Which of the following is a key advantage of using Maxwell's bridge for inductance measurements?

a) Wide frequency range coverage

b) High resistance measurement accuracy

c) Compatibility with nonlinear components

d) Direct measurement of Q-factor

Answer: a) Wide frequency range coverage

7. Maxwell's bridge can be used to determine the self-inductance of which of the following components?

a) Capacitors
 b) Diodes

c) Transformers

d) Resistors

Answer: c) Transformers

8. The accuracy of Maxwell's bridge measurements can be improved by:

a) Increasing the power supply voltage

b) Reducing the resistance values of R1 and R2

c) Using a more sensitive galvanometer

d) Balancing the bridge at multiple frequencies

Answer: d) Balancing the bridge at multiple frequencies

9. In Maxwell's bridge, if R1 and R2 have equal resistance values, the bridge is said to be:

a) Unbalanced

b) Balanced

c) Inoperative

d) Overloaded

Answer: b) Balanced

10. Which of the following is a disadvantage of using Maxwell's bridge for inductance measurements?

a) Limited frequency range

b) Complex circuit configuration

c) Sensitivity to ambient light

 d) Incompatibility with digital meters

Answer: a) Limited frequency range

Schering Bridge
The Schering bridge use for measuring the capacitance of the capacitor, dissipation factor, properties of an
insulator, capacitor bushing, insulating oil and other insulating materials. It is one of the most commonly
used AC bridge. The Schering bridge works on the principle of balancing the load on its arm.

Let, C1 – capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined,

r1 – a series resistance, representing the loss of the capacitor C1.
C2 – a standard capacitor (The term standard capacitor means the capacitor is free from loss)
R3 – a non-inductive resistance
C4 – a variable capacitor.
R4 – a variable non-inductive resistance parallel with variable capacitor C4.

When the bridge is in the balanced condition, zero current passes through the detector, which shows that the
potential across the detector is zero. At balance condition
Z1/Z2 = Z3/Z4
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3

So,

Equating the real and imaginary equations, we get

The equation (1) and (2) are the balanced equation, and it is free from the frequency.

The dissipation factor obtains with the help of the phasor diagram. The dissipation factor determines the rate
of loss of energy that occurs because of the oscillations of the electrical and mechanical instrument.

By the help of the above equation, we can calculate the value of tanδ which is the dissipation factor of the
Schering bridge.

Advantages of Schering Bridge

The following are the advantages of the Schering bridge.

1. Balance equations are free from frequency.

2. The arrangement of the bridge is less costly as compared to the other bridges.
High Voltage Schering Voltage

The low voltage Schering bridge has several disadvantages, and because of this reason, the high voltage and
high frequency are required for measuring the small capacitance. The circuit diagram of the Schering bridge is
shown in the figure below.
The following are the features of the Schering Bridge.

1. The high voltage supply obtains from the operational amplifier. The vibration galvanometer use
as a detector for the bridge.
2. The high voltage working capacitors are placed in the arms ab and ad. The impedance of the
arm ab and ad are very high as compared to the arm bc and cd. The term impedance means
the opposition offered by the circuit in the flow of current. The point c is earthed.
3. The impedance of the arm ab and ad is kept high so that the high supply will not affect the
potential across the arm bc and cd. The potential across the detector is also kept low.
4. The spark gap sets places on each arm for preventing the dangerous high voltage which appears
across the arm bc and dc because of the breakdown of the high voltage capacitors.
5. The power loss is very small in the arms ab and ad because of the high impedance of arms ab
and ad.
Measurement of Relative Permeability with Schering Bridge

The Schering bridge use for measuring the low permeability of the dielectric material. The relative
permeability shows the ability of the material for the formation of the magnetic field. It is calculated with the
help of the capacitance and dimension of the electrodes.

The relative permeability of the parallel plate arrangement is expressed as

Cs – the measured value of capacitance by considering the specimen as a dielectric.

d – Spacing between electrodes
A – Effective area of electrodes.
ε0 – permittivity of free space

The other method for calculating the relative permittivity of the specimen is explained below.
The relative permittivity of the specimen depends on the thickness of the specimen and the spacing between
them and the electrode.

Let, C – capacitance between the electrode and specimen

A – area of electrodes
d – the thickness of the specimen
t – the gap between specimen and electrode.
x – reduction in separation between the specimen and electrode.

Cs – capacitance of specimen.
C0 – Capacitance between the space because of specimen and electrode.
C – effective capacitance of Cs and C0.

The capacitance between the specimen and the electrode is expressed as

When we reduce the specimen and the spacing is again adjusted for obtaining the same value of capacitance,
the expression for reducing specimen is.

The insulating properties of electrical cables and equipment can also be measured through the Schering
bridge