NATURE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Having seen the wider context of science and technology—from

The perspective of their historical development – we move on
To more specific questions on the nature of science and technology. It is important
That we have a working understanding of the character of science and technology
Before we continue to discuss the subsequent topics.
In this unit, we shall discuss the meaning of science, technology; the types of
Research activities; the forces that drive the advances in science and technology;

The kinds of technology; the ethos of science and technology; and the limitations of
Science and technology:

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 appreciate the meaning of science, technology, and the Scientific method;
 define the various types of research activities, the Various types of technology;
 understand the dynamics of science and technology advances;
 appreciate the ethos and the limitations of science and technology.

DEFINITION: SCIENCE,TECHNOLOGY,AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

SCIENCE -Understanding Nature

Science may be viewed from two angles – science as content, and science as the physical
universe: the facts and patterns of its behavior in space and time, in terms of concepts and
principles. ‘Such knowledge is found in books, journals, and recently in electronic databases.
Such knowledge is what is taught in schools and universities in the different areas of science,
such as biology, chemistry, physics, and earth sciences.

Specific examples of science as content are: the facts of our solar system; the concept of gravity
that ties into a pattern our various experiences such as the fall of a leaf, the growth of trees, the
shape of the earth and the structure of the universe;
the principle of valence that brings order to the myriad combinations of elements forming the
material substances that we see;
the law of natural selection that unifies the vast phenomena of the biological world.

To connect our discussion here with some points raised in Unit 2, it could be said that science
as content is the accumulated knowledge of mankind on his physical environment, starting
from the earliest man up to the present. It goes without saying, that accumulated knowledge
has been continuously undergoing refinements, modifications, and radical changes in step with
mankind’s progress in its understanding of the physical universe.

On the other hand, as process, science refers to the dynamic interaction between theory and
experiment in arriving at concepts and principles governing a particular domain of physical
phenomena, say the behavior of electrons in photosynthesis. The process involves the
motivation and the attitude of a scientist or a group of scientists, the climate of opinion of the
scientific community, and the context of the larger society. The success of a scientist or a group
of scientists will always involve the work of other scientists, either directly through
collaboration or consultation, or indirectly through the use of the results of their work.

This highlights the cumulative character of science where the output of one is the input of
another and so on down the line. On the other hand, the expectations at large exert an
indirect influence on the process, as societal expectations form the background of scientists’
thoughts. The social milieu at the time of Newton and his contemporaries is one in which
navigational aids through sightings of heavenly bodies were a necessity for trade and
commerce. The hallmark that distinguishes science from any other study is the role of precise
and quantitative observation:

The ultimate test of ideas, of theories is conformance with the results of precise
measurements. The process is characterized by a critical attitude that recognizes only the
authority of experiment.

Scientific method is another name of science as process. In recent times, with the easy
availability and widespread use of computers, the word “experiment” assumes an additional
meaning. It now includes computer simulations. The scientific community the world over now
refers to the three elements of the scientific method: namely, theory, physical measurements
in the laboratory, and simulations or experiments using computers. What is impossible to carry
out in the laboratory, either because the cost is prohibitive or the time to do it will take more
than the age of the universe, can now be carried out conveniently using the computer.
A good example that illustrates the meaning of science as process or the so-called scientific
method is the discovery of the elliptical orbits of the planets around the sun by Kepler.

Let us consider this example in some detail, the evolution of our understanding of gravitating
bodies in the universe has a long history, that dates back to the earliest man. Our historical
references, however, will go only so far as they illuminate the stage of our understanding as
opened up by the work of Kepler.

Before the work of Kepler, the paths of planets and other heavenly bodies were thought to be
circular. This idea was part of the wider system of thought that divided everything into earthly
bodies and heavenly bodies. The earthly bodies included the earth and all things on it. The
substance out of which the earthly bodies were made was such that they were subject to
change and corruptible –they decay.
Other hand, the heavenly bodies, starting from the moon up, including planets and stars, were
thought to be perfect, not subject to change or to decay. They were thought to be made of a
substance different from that of the earthly bodies. Since they were perfect, so the thinking
went, the only paths worthy of their being are perfect paths. And perfect paths are circular
paths – they have no beginning nor end.
We can, thus, understand why the best minds at that time built their explanation/theory of the
motion of the heavenly bodies in terms of circles. The epitome of this approach is the Ptolemaic
system of cosmology that held sway across centuries, up to the 17th century.

Kepler (1571-1630) grew up in this circular-path mind set. He was consumed by a desire to
understand the "architecture" of the universe. He literally spent a lifetime, striving to read "the
mind of God. He read the works of Copernicus on the heliocentric theory of the world, where
the sun is the center and not the earth. He was convinced of the correctness of this system and
became a very strong adherent of the Copernican system.

Being a mathematician, Kepler maintained that a clue to the secret of the mind of God is
mathematics--geometry and numbers. Among his earliest attempts we find the work where he
tried to link the relative distances from the sun of the six the known planets with the
relationships between the five regular solids of geometry. In the absence of corroborative
observations, he had to discard this "beautiful" idea. His obsession was to work out "the
perfection of the heliocentric theory whose harmony and simplicity he contemplated 'with
incredible and ravishing delight'"' (G. Holton, 1973).

Meanwhile, in Copenhagen, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), a worldly man of wealth, outfitted an

island with the best instruments then available for observing the motions of heavenly bodies.
With meticulous care and help from his assistants, Brahe accumulated voluminous data on the
motions of heavenly bodies with astonishing precision, mostly accurate to less than half a
minute of arc. During the last years of Brahe's life, Kepler became one of his assistants. After
Brahe's death.
Kepler continued taking observations on the motions of planets and, most important of all
continued formulating theoretical interpretations of the enormous amount of accumulated
data.
Wearing, so to speak, the thinking cap of the period, Kepler tried to fit Brahe's accurate data on
Mars orbit to a Copernican system of circular paths of simple uniform motion. Four years of
laborious calculations using Brahe's data yielded an orbit just eight minutes of arc off as
compared to the result assuming circular paths. This is many minutes less than the error
contained in the data then available at the time of Copernicus (1473-1543). Thus, this
discrepancy would not have caused any worry to men at Copernicus's time. But, to Kepler,
knowing that Brahe's data on planetary positions contained errors much smaller than the eight
minutes of arc, the discrepancy signaled the failure of the scheme of circular paths to account
for the actual orbit of Mars when the data were accurate enough. This attitude of Kepler has
become the hallmark of scientists in the face of accurate quantitative measurement. This is the
meaning of the statement that the ultimate judge in science is experiment.
Kepler abandoned his cherished idea of circular paths and discovered, after years of continuous
work, that the planets traced in their paths a simple geometric figure whose properties had
been known to mathematicians since the second century B.C. --the ellipse. "Planets move in
elliptical paths, with the sun at one focus of the ellipse". This is a statement of the first law of
Kepler on planetary motions.
Kepler's discovery of the elliptical paths of planets affords a good illustration of the elements in
science as process. We see the interaction of and complementation between theory and
experiment -- the theoretical ideas of Kepler and the quantitative observations of Brahe. We
see the characteristic attitude of scientists toward their ideas when confronted with
quantitative fact -- Kepler abandoning the psychologically attractive, socially acceptable, and
philosophically satisfying idea of circular paths in the face of Brahe's accurate data on planetary
positions. We see the cumulative character of science -- Kepler stood on the shoulders of
Copernicus and used the results of the mathematician Apollonius on ellipses.

Exercise 1:
Write an essay on what science is in your own words.

TECHNOLOGY - Using Nature

Technology refers to the combination of the software (knowledge) and the hardware (machines
and processes) relevant in the manipulation of the environment towards the manufacture of a
product or the provision of a service.
A digital thermometer is one among the myriad different products man has a choice of.
Sampling survey is an illustration of provision of services. This brings us to the question of the
relationship of technology to science.

How does technology, as defined above of science-as content, and as process?

Let us first remind ourselves of the historical development by referring back to Unit 2.

There we noted the independent parallel development of technology and science from the
ancient times, through the middle ages, till the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. As
the level of technology as well as understanding rose, the level of interaction between science
and technology proportionally picked up. Science and technology are closely interrelated.
Understanding the underlying mechanisms of a set phenomena, say the phenomena of heat,
facilitates and accelerate progress in the use of aspects of the phenomena in the form of
technology package. Refrigerators and air conditioners are examples of such of such technology
package. The whole array of heat-engine-driven vehicles/machineries-from automobiles, to
power plants, to jet airplanes-is another example.

On the other hand, advances in technology lead to more precise measurements which become
input to advances in science. The relationship between science and technology is one of
mutually beneficial interaction.
With the definitions above, a comparison of the two may help further delineate the meaning of
each. Science is the “know-why” of things; technology, the “know-how” of things. The object
of science is knowledge; that of technology is a product. (Research is the name preferably
used for the activities in science; development, for the activities in technology).

Exercise 2:
Write an essay on what technology is in your own words.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Overlap rather than sharp boundary very often characterizes the relationship among research
activities. However, categories help our understanding by delineating boundaries, fuzzy though
they are. Research activities may be classified into three categories:
namely, fundamental research, applied research, and experimental development.

Fundamental research may be further subdivided into two kinds. One kind pursues knowledge
for its own sake. In this category belong researches in such areas cosmology, elementary
particle physics. There are no foreseen applications of the findings in these fields. The other
kind is called oriented investigation where the expectation is that the research will yield
knowledge that will be important in a wide area. An example of current research is the
investigation of amorphous magnetic systems such as the spin glass. A theoretical breakthrough
here will pave the way to the understanding of the other half of the universe - the non-
crystalline parts of the universe.

Applied research is a programmed set of activities with a specified target and expected results.
This type of research activity uses knowledge gained from fundamental research. An example is
the study of the effect-of fertilizers on the growth of plants. The relevant knowledge gained
from fundamental research in plant physiology will serve as guides in doing this investigation
and what results to expect: Another example is the determination of the dependence of the
electronic properties of a semiconductor material on the amount of intentional doping of
impurities. The concepts and principles from Solid State Physics will be relevant in carrying out
this study.

Experimental development is the translation of laboratory results to the production line, in the
manufacture of a product. This activity is directly and immediately connected to the creation of
wealth in a country. It involves the search of the most efficient process and arrangement for the
commercial production of a given product -- to minimize cost and maximize profits. In these
times of keen competition, this is indispensable to enter or maintain or increase one's share in
the world market.

We note that countries like Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea spend more than 50% of their R &
D funds in experimental development. The implication here is that these so-called NIC's - Newly
Industrializing Countries - make use of the results off fundamental and applied research in
advanced countries, which are readily available, and concentrate their resources in the
development of products based on those results, instead of allocating their scarce resources to
doing fundamental research for generating new knowledge.

Exercise 3:
Write an essay on "The importance of experimental development relative to fundamental
research and applied research"

TYPES OF TECHNOLOGY

In view of the widespread use of the phrase "high-tech" in conversation as well as in media, it is
useful to classify the types of technology according to low, medium, and high technology. As in
all such classification, one type shades into the other.

Low technology refers to a process or product derived from empirical know-how. An example
of this type of technology is the conventional plow. A carpenter of average skill could fabricate
a plow of the wooden type. For the metal variety, a town tinsmith could easily fashion one,
given the bulk of metal out of which the plow is made. The fabrication of the plow does not
require knowledge of science. The agricultural revolution in the Neolithic Age or the First
Revolution was based on low technology.

Medium technology refers to a process or product derived from classical science. An example
of this type of technology is electrical machinery. A certain level of understanding of the science
of electricity and magnetism is needed in making an electric motor or electric generator, given
the materials out of which the electrical machine is fabricated. Another example of medium
technology is the farmer's tractor. An understanding of the science of internal combustion
engines and of the science of electromagnetism is needed in the production of a farmer's
tractor. The industrial revolution or the Second Revolution was based on medium technology.

High technology refers to a process or product derived from the quantum nature of matter. An
example of this type of technology is microelectronics. A specific product under
microelectronics is a discrete transistor. This device exploits the quantum behavior of electrons
in the crystalline solid. The design and fabrication of a transistor device requires an
understanding of the properties of semi-conductor materials at the atomic level. The
information revolution or the Third Revolution which the world is presently undergoing is based
on high technology.

Exercise 4:
Discuss your own example of low, medium and high technology.
DYNAMIC OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ADVANCES

The question of how science or technology advances is an important one to consider. We would
like first to look at science. We shall examine this question from two competing views:
the internalist view and the externalist view.

Scientific Change

The internalist view holds that the development of science is dictated by the
internal logic of the discipline and by the element of creativity of individual scientists. In this
view, the development is unpredictable. The study of the motion of the heavenly bodies affords
us a good illustration.

The ideas of Copernicus on the heliocentric theory of the known universe then and the accurate
observations of Tycho Brahe led to the discovery of elliptical orbits by Kepler. The constellation
of ideas then -- generated by such men as Copernicus , Kepler -- led Galileo to the discovery of
the law of inertia . These ideas , in turn , led to the formulation by Newton of the laws of
motion in its general form , as far as classical physics is concerned . We see a continuity in the
progression from Copernicus to Newton , determined by the internal logic of the subject of
motion , so to speak . The progress from Copernicus to Kepler , from Kepler to Galileo , from
Galileo to Newton was dependent on the creative genius of these individuals . Thus , the
advance is unpredictable .

The image of science that comes out of the internalist view is that of " autonomous " science .
The logic of the subject matter and the unpredictable creativity of the individual scientists are
the dominant determining factors , if not the only ones , in shaping the steps that science takes
in its onward march in pushing the frontier of man's understanding of the universe .
The externalist view , on the other hand , advocates that the development of science is
determined by factors external to science per se , such as social pressures or metaphysical
principles . The consideration of the advance from classical physics to quantum physics gives us
an example.

Classical physics may be looked at as a group of concepts and principles that deals with the
physical aspects of the universe from the point of view of particles and waves , that interact in
time and space . Concepts such as -- mass , acceleration , velocity , position in space , intervals
of time -- were arrived at by considering the motion of objects of direct experience . In the
same way , principles such as the conservation of linear momentum , the conservation of mass ,
the conservation of energy -- again were arrived at by considering objects of direct experience .
In short , classical physics is a system of ideas that evolved through man's direct experience of
physical objects via his senses . These ideas , then , are expected to be applicable to objects
directly observable to man's senses.

Just before 1900 , men of learning -- scientists and philosophers of science -- issued remarks to
the effect that the study of the fundamental science of physics in the coming century would be
boring . It would only involve the refinements of established measurements to the next decimal
place .
The dominant considered opinion at that time was that all there was to know was already
known . Classical physics was perfected . What it covers is all there is to be known in physics .
Yet , in the year 1900 , Max Planck , a virtuoso in classical physics , had to invent an "
outrageous " hypothesis just to be able to fit the laboratory data taken by his colleagues on the
electromagnetic emissions of heated bodies . Contrary to classical physics , Planck hypothesized
that energy is emitted by heated bodies in discrete packets called " quanta " . This opened the
floodgate to a new physics -- the physics of objects beyond the direct experience of man's
senses : the world of atoms , molecules , and their constituent particles . The new physics is
called Quantum Physics .

Max Planck fired the first salvo , so to speak . A flurry of theoretical and experimental
investigations in various centers in Europe followed . The leading centers were the University of
Gottingen in Germany , the University of Cambridge in England , and the Theoretical Institute of
Physics in Copenhagen . The young Einstein , then , was the first to apply the quantum
hypothesis to another not understood phenomenon in terms of classical physics : the
photoelectric effect . Einstein later won the Nobel Prize in Physics for this work , and not for his
work in Relativity for which he is justly famous .

Scores of other scientists set forth to explore the world of atoms and molecules . Around 1926 ,
there was a host of ad hoc hypotheses and theoretical ideas invented to understand the
mounting data on the happenings at the atomic level . The key to understanding the puzzle of
the atom was provided by the work of the young Heisenberg .
The key idea that led Heisenberg to the formulation of the solution of the puzzle of the atom is
the metaphysical idea that physics ought to deal only with measurable variables . The young
Heisenberg was inspired by the work of Einstein in which this idea played a key role in the
formulation of Special Relativity . In the case of Heisenberg , this metaphysical idea was crucial
in arriving at his formulation of Quantum Mechanics , in which he abandoned the notion of
orbits of the constituent particles in the atoms .

We recall that Rutherford in 1909-1911 proposed a model in which the atom is like the solar
system : the nucleus acts like the sun with the electrons revolving around it . This picture is very
much in consonance with common sense . It is natural to expect the electrons revolving around
the nucleus to trace orbits . These orbits follow from the assumption that the electrons have
position and velocity at the same time . Yet , Heisenberg , in his analysis analogous to what
Einstein did in Special Relativity , came to the conclusion that there is no physical way to carry
out the simultaneous measurement of the position and velocity of atomic particles like
electrons . This conclusion became enshrined in the famous Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle .
One of the statements of this principle is the following : we cannot measure and thus cannot
know both the position and velocity of atomic particles at the same time ; if we measure and
know the position , we cannot measure and , thus , do not know the velocity , if we measure
and know the velocity , we cannot measure and , thus , do not know the position.
Thus , there being no way of measuring simultaneously both the position and velocity of atomic
particles , the notion of orbits is suspect . Guided by the metaphysical idea that only
measurable quantities be used in the formulations in physics , Heisenberg did away with the
orbits and used only the measurable quantities like the frequencies from spectroscopic data in
his successful formulation of Quantum Mechanics .

We see a discontinuity from Classical Physics to Quantum Physics . Furthermore , the image of
science that is projected by the externalist view is that of being " controlled " , not "
autonomous " .

Policy Implications.

The two views discussed above have corresponding policy implications as regards the way the
Government dispenses funds in support of the development of science . For the internalist view
, the attitude that the Government ought to have may be summarized as follows : let them be .
Since advances in science are determined by factors internal to the discipline and by the
unpredictable element of creativity of scientists , the Government ought just to give funding to
scientists with no questions asked . Let them be . On the other hand , for the externalist view ,
the attitude of the Government ought to be one in which its influence in guiding the
development of science be such as to maximize the congruence of its needs with that of science
.
From the discussions above , we see the complementation of the internalist and the externalist
view of the advance of science . In the same token , the attitude of Government in dispensing
its support for the development of science ought to exhibit the same complementation .

Exercise 5 : Write in your own words the difference between the internalist and externalist
views on scientific change .

Technological Change

In this section , we shall discuss the components of technology , the life cycle of technology ;
the dynamics of technological change ; and the supply - push and the demand - pull strategy .

Components of Technology

In general , we may look at technology as having two kinds of components -- the embodied
component and the disembodied component . The embodied component is usually what is
referred to when people use the term technology . This component refers to the physical
embodiment of the technology -- the equipment , the appliance , the machine , or the
manufacturing plant . To use the language of computers , the embodied component is the
hardware of technology .
On the other hand , the disembodied component of technology is usually forgotten or excluded
when people talk of technology . Yet , it is the most important component if we are to attain
the objective self - reliance It includes both information and understanding .

Information refers to instructions / data --regarding the operation of the machine or plant ; the
maintenance of the machine or plant ; the materials and tools used in the manufacture of the
machine or plant ; the process in the manufacture of the machine or plant . In short , the
information points to the various " recipes " regarding the machine or plant useful to or needed
by a technician or engineer .

Understanding refers to the science on which the technology is based , found in books and
journals , as actualized in the minds of engineer - scientists or scientist engineers who
conceived and designed the machine or plant . Of all components , this is the most difficult to
acquire . It requires scientists and engineers with advanced degrees in this age of science -
based technologies.

Both information and understanding constitute the so - called software of technology.

To acquire the hardware of technology is easy -- just buy it . Part of these information on a
given technology , on the operation and maintenance of the machine or plant , comes with the
purchase . The rest of the information , mostly proprietary , can be found in the data bases of
the manufacturer . This information may be acquired by either purchase through licensing
agreement or technology espionage . The component on understanding implies institutions
that give training in advanced degrees in science and technology , turning out graduates with
the necessary background to understand the science basis of the technology .

With these components of technology , technology transfer is not the mere acquisition of the
machine or plant . In view of the objective of becoming self - reliant in the given technology , it
is most of all the acquisition of the software, the information and the understanding .

Exercise 6 :

Write an essay on " What is technology transfer ? ".

Life Cycle of Technology

Just like an organism , technology goes through a cycle of birth and death : incubation ,
introduction , growth , maturity , and decline .

In the incubation period , many ideas are thought out in the design of a new product . Along the
way , many of them are eliminated ; until one becomes the successful idea and implemented in
the manufacture of a product .

The second stage begins -- the introduction . The technology undergoes its first application ; it is
introduced for the first time in the market . It could be rejected outright and could suffer either
of two fates : temporary freeze only to be successful at a later time , or permanent death .

If it is accepted , then it moves on to the third stage growth . The volume of application
increases as acceptance grows in correlation with the continuous improvement that the
technology undertakes .

Maturity , the fourth stage of its cycle , is reached when the volume of application is at the
peak. In time , new related more efficient technologies are born.

Obsolescence overtakes a given technology, and the fifth and final stage --decline -
- sets in. And a new technology takes over, going through the same life cycle, all over again.

We may look at the first two stages mentioned above as the launching of a given
technology. A complete launching of a given technology involves the following
(1) R& D investment -- money and manpower are needed to turn a successful idea
into a product, (2) market research -- the technology itself and/or the packaging of
the technology may or may not be acceptable; (3) design work -- a detailed
blueprint of the product is needed for its manufacture; (4) planning and installation
of the production plant, (6) trial production, (6) testing and improvement, (
promotion.

Dynamics of Technological Change

When television first appeared and introduced to the public, some negative
reactions registered among the older population. Some bewailed the fact that
television has altered the neighborhood relationship. Instead of spending time
chatting with their neighbors, people tend to stay at home and view television. This
is an example of a discontinuous type of innovation. It involves the generation of
new behavior patterns among the population that use the technology.

On the other hand, the introduction of color television sets is not expected to and,
in fact; did not generate disruptive impact on the behavior pattern already
established by the use of black-and-white television. This is an example of a
continuous type of innovation. It involves little or no change in the behavior
patterns of people. In the last example, the innovation consisted in the alteration of an existing
product. At this point of world development, the great bulk of the
product in the market this year was there last year.

Corresponding to these two types of innovation are the ways of their propagation.
For the discontinuous type of innovation, the spread of adoption of a radically new
technology is through diffusion. It involves the conversion of new clients to a new
idea as embodied in the new product. For the continuous type of innovation, the
propagation of the technology is through substitution. It is the displacement of the
old product by the new product. The client is familiar with the old product. It is a
question of the desirability of the added features that the new product offers.

Exercise 7:
What type of innovation is a digital thermometer, continuous or discontinuous?

Supply-push and Demand-pull Strategy

In connection with the subject on technological change, it is instructive and to demand include
discussion into two terms that are popularly used locally: supply-push and demand-
strategy. The generation of new technologies may be promoted through two
Strategies: supply-push or demand-pull.

In the Supply-push strategy, the generation of new technologies is not in response

To actual present demand, but in anticipation of future demand or created demand technology.
For example, superconductivity is not a present demand industry in our country

ln the demand-pull strategy, the generation of new technologies is in response to

actual present demand and not in anticipation of future demand or created demand
for the technology. For example, a more efficient process of drying copra iS
demanded by the industry. This is a present demand, not a future demand. This
means that the present demand for a more efficient copra drying technology will
pull the generation of such technology. That's why the name of demand-pull
strategy.

The level of development of a given country will require a different mix of these
two strategies. The policy orientation of the government administrators will dictate
the actual mix that is implemented.
ETHOS OF SCIENCE

In contrast to conventional religion, there is no Set of dogmas in science. In fact.

dogma and science are opposites. The attitude the scientist is one that holds all
knowledge (theories) in science as provisional, hot complete. It is one in which scientists live
comfortably with doubts and uncertainties, where the most cherished
ideas dissolve in the face of contrary evidence.

LIMITATIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The search for perfection, the search for completeness, has been a constant
motivation of man in doing Science. Perfection/ completeness is the holy grail. The
possibility of ever achieving the goal of this search was put to doubt in the same
decade as the discovery of the uncertainty principle by Heisenberg.

In 1930, through the work of Kurt Godel, it was established that the attainment of
perfection/completeness even right at the very citadel of reason -- mathematics --
is impossible. This result is contained in Godel's famous theorem. Let us put this
famous theorem in context. It has been the dream of mathematicians to reduce all
of mathematics to a finite number of axioms, in the manner of Euclidean geometry.
This means that, from a finite set of statements, all of mathematics-- already
established or yet to be discovered -- can be arrived at by deductive reasoning.
This was one of the outstanding problems posed by one of the great twentieth-
century mathematician, David Hilbert.

What Godel's work showed is the following. Say, we have a set of axiomatic
statements about an arithmetic system, from which any other statement about the
arithmetic system can be deduced or proved."Godel found out that there are
statements on the arithmetic system which are true which cannot be deduced from
or proved using the set of axiomatic statements. If the set of axiomatic statements
is enlarged to accommodate the proof of the statements found to be true, then
other new statements crop up which are true but which cannot be deduced from or
proved using the enlarged set of axiomatic statements. This goes on ad infinitum.
Moreover, Godel showed that one cannot prove the consistency of one's axioms.

What is the interpretation of Godel's work? Simply put, all of mathematical

knowledge cannot be encompassed by a finite set of statements. Completeness is
denied to human beings as far as mathematics is concerned. There will always be
mathematical truths that lie beyond the compass of man's knowledge at any time
To put it another way, our mathematical knowledge will always be incomplete.
This makes mathematics as human as any other of man's endeavor. Future
mathematicians will take heart that they will always have a chance to discover
significant mathematical truths, despite the vast amount of accumulated
mathematical knowledge.
Now, mathematics per se is not the subject of our discussion. It is science--
science is not mathematics. There are two aspects here, One, although science is not
mathematics, science is mathematical (at least the physical sciences) through and through in its
formulation. Consequently, it is expected that the intrinsic incompleteness that limits
mathematics holds true also the sciences-- at least in the physical sciences

In science there is not only the connect wire meant of consistency but also the requirement of
correspondence with reality. This additional requirement in science makes for at the greater
limitation in science. Reality is illusive. The conventional science, there is not only the
requirement of consistency, but also then science can only hope to better and better
approximate reality.

We now move on to a different kind of limitation. This is limitation in connection

e domain of validity of the scientific method. Powerful though the methods
Science and technology are, limitations circumscribe science and technology. Just
any other human endeavor. Not all questions meaningful to ask from the point
of view of humans are amenable to the methods of science and technology. For
example, the search for meaning in life, a most natural and important question to
each individual, is of a kind that is outside the direct ability of science and
technology to address.

The question of the purpose of living is another instance. Only questions pertaining
to the physical aspects of existence or of the universe are amenable to the methods
of science and technology. Even for these kind of questions, the answer that
science and technology give remains provisional, which may have to be modified
or discarded in the face of contrary data. The answer of science and technology is
never complete. Moreover, the products of science and technology may have
detrimental effects to man or to society. Science and technology may provide man
the means, but by themselves do not set the ends.

Exercise 8: Write an essay on any one of the topics: Uncertainty Principle and the Limits of
Science and "Godel's Theorem and the Limits of Science.