MATHEMATICS

MODERN IN THE
WORLD
PRELIM
Module Overview
This module will teach you how to deal with a lot of number patterns. These
number patterns are called sequences. Go over the lessons and have fun in working
with the exercises. What you are expected to learn It is expected that you will be able to
demonstrate knowledge and skill related to sequences and apply these in solving
problems. Specifically, you should be able to: a) list the next few terms of a sequence
given several consecutive terms. b) derive by pattern searching, a mathematical
expression (rule) for generating the sequences. c) generate the next few terms of
sequences defined recursively. d) describe an arithmetic sequence by any of the
following: • giving the first few terms • giving the formula for the nth term • drawing the
graph How much do you know

CHAPTER 1
MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO):
• Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world.
• Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life.
• Argue about the nature of mathematics, what is it, how it is expressed,
represented and used.
• Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.

WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?
• Mathematics is the study of pattern and structure. Mathematics is fundamental to
the physical and biological sciences, engineering and information technology, to
economics and increasingly to the social sciences.
• Mathematics is a useful way to think about nature and our world.
• Mathematics is a tool to quantify, organize and control our world, predict
phenomena and make life easier for us.

WHERE IS MATHEMATICS?
• Many patterns and occurrences exists in nature, in our world, in our life.
Mathematics helps make sense of these patterns and occurrences.

WHAT ROLE DOES MATHEMATICS PLAY IN OUR WORLD?

• Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in our world.
• Mathematics helps predict the behavior of nature and phenomena in the world.
• Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our own ends.
• Mathematics has numerous applications in the world making it indispensable.
PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE AND THE WORLD
Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world and
can also be seen in the universe.
Nature patterns which are not just to be admired, they are vital clues to the rules
that govern natural processes.
Check out examples of some of these patterns and you may be able to spot a few
the next time you go for a walk.
• Patterns can be observed even in stars which move in circles across the sky
each day.
• The weather season cycle each year. All snowflakes contains sixfold symmetry
which no two are exactly the same.

• Patterns can be seen in fish patterns like spotted trunkfish, spotted puffer, blue
spotted stingray, spotted moral eel, coral grouper, redlion fish, yellow boxfish and
angel fish. These animals and fish stripes and spots attest to mathematical
regularities in biological growth and form.

• Zebras, tigers, cats and snakes are covered in patterns of stripes; leopards and
hyenas are covered in pattern of spots and giraffes are covered in pattern of
blotches.

• Natural patterns like the intricate waves across the oceans; sand dunes on
deserts; formation of typhoon; water drop with ripple and others. These serves
as clues to the rules that govern the flow of water, sand and air.

• Other patterns in nature can also be seen in the ball of mackerel, the v-formation of
geese in the sky and the tornado formation of starlings.
PATTERNS AND REGULARITIES
Mathematics is all around us. As we discover more about our environment, we
can mathematically describe nature. The beauty of a flower, the majestic tree, even the
rock formation exhibits nature’s sense of symmetry.
Have you ever thought about how nature likes to arrange itself in patterns in
order to act efficiently? Nothing in nature happens without a reason, all of these patterns
have an important reason to exist and they also happen to be beautiful to watch.

TYPES OF PATTERNS
• SYMMETRY – a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion of balance or an
object is invariant to any various transformations (reflection, rotation or scaling.)
a.) Bilateral Symmetry: a symmetry in which the left and right sides of the organism
can be divided into approximately mirror image of each other along the midline.
Symmetry exists in living things such as in insects, animals, plants, flowers and
others. Animals have mainly bilateral or vertical symmetry, even leaves of plants and
some flowers such as orchids.

• Radial Symmetry ( or rotational symmetry ): a symmetry around a fixed point

known as the center and it can be classified as either cyclic or dihedral. Plants
often have radial or rotational symmetry, as to flowers and some group of animals. A
five-fold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, the group in which includes starfish
(dihedral-D5 symmetry), sea urchins and sea lilies. Radial symmetry suits organism
like sea anemones whose adults do not move and jellyfish(dihedral-D4 symmetry).
Radial symmetry is also evident in different kinds of flowers.

• FRACTALS – a curve or geometric figure, each part of which has the same
statistical character as the whole. A fractal is a never-ending pattern found in
nature. The exact same shape is replicated in a process called “self similarity.” The
pattern repeats itself over and over again at different scales. For example, a tree
grows by repetitive branching. This same kind of branching can be seen in lightning
bolts and the veins in your body. Examine a single fern or an aerial view of an entire
river system and you’ll see fractal patterns.
• SPIRALS - A logarithmic spiral or growth spiral is a self-similar spiral curve which
often appears in nature. It was first describe by Rene Descartes and was later
investigated by Jacob Bernoulli. A spiral is a curved pattern that focuses on a center
point and a series of circular shapes that revolve around it. Examples of spirals are
pine cones, pineapples, hurricanes. The reason for why plants use a spiral form is
because they are constantly trying to grow but stay secure.

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers where a number is found by
adding up the two numbers before it. Starting with 0 and 1, the sequence goes 0, 1, 1,
2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so forth. Written as a rule, the expression is

Named after Fibonacci, also known as Leonardo of Pisa or Leonardo Pisano,

Fibonacci numbers were first introduced in his Liber Abbaci (Book of Calculation) in
1202. The son of a Pisan merchant, Fibonacci traveled widely and traded extensively.
Mathematics was incredibly important to those in the trading industry, and his passion
for numbers was cultivated in his youth.

THE HABBIT RABBIT

One of the book’s exercises which is written like this “A man put a pair of rabbits
in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How many pairs of rabbits are produced
from that pair in a year, if it supposed that every month each pair produces a new pair,
which from the second month onwards becomes productive?” This is best understood in
this diagram:

GROWTH OF RABBIT COLONY

ADULT YOUNG
MONTHS TOTAL
PAIRS PAIRS
1 1 1 2
2 2 1 3
3 3 2 5
4 5 3 8
5 8 5 13
6 13 8 21
 7 21 13 34
8 34 21 55
9 55 34 89
10 89 55 144
11 144 89 233
12 233 144 377
The sequence encountered in the rabbit problem 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144,
233, 377, …. is called the Fibonacci sequence and its terms the Fibonacci numbers.
GOLDEN RECTANGLE
Leonardo of Pisa also known as Fibonacci discovered a sequence of numbers
that created an interesting numbers that created an interesting pattern the sequence 1,
1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34… each number is obtained by adding the last two numbers of
the sequence forms what is known as golden rectangle a perfect rectangle. A golden
rectangle can be broken down into squares the size of the next Fibonacci number down
and below. If we were to take a golden rectangle, break it down to smaller squares
based from Fibonacci sequence and divide each with an arc, the pattern begin to take
shapes, we begin with Fibonacci spiral in which we can see in nature.

FIBONACCI NUMBERS IN NATURE

Flower petals exhibit the Fibonacci number, white calla lily contains 1 petal,
euphorbia contains 2 petals, trillium contains 3 petals, columbine contains 5 petals,
bloodroot contains 8 petals, black-eyed susan contains 13 petals, shasta daisies 21
petals, field daisies contains 34 petals and other types of daisies contain 55 and 89
petals.

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE IN NATURE

The sunflower seed conveys the Fibonacci sequence. The pattern of two spirals
goes in opposing directions (clockwise and counter-clockwise ). The number of
clockwise spirals and counter clockwise spirals are consecutive Fibonacci numbers and
usually contains 34 and 55 seeds.
 The Fibonacci sequence can also be seen in the way tree branches form or split.
A main trunk will grow until it produces a branch, which creates two growth points. Then,
one of the new stems branches into two, while the other one lies dormant. This pattern
of branching is repeated for each of the new stems. A good example is the sneezewort.
Root systems and even algae exhibit this pattern.

GOLDEN RATIO
Fibonacci discovery of Fibonacci sequence happened to approach the ratio
asymptotically. He found the interesting and mysterious properties of the Fibonacci
sequence that the series has a deep relationship with the golden ratio.
The golden ratio was first called as the Divine Proportion in the early 1500s in
Leonardo da Vinci’s work which was explored by Luca Pacioli entitled “De Divina
Proportione” in 1509. This contains the drawings of the five platonic solids and it was
probably da Vinci who first called it “section aurea” which is Latin for Golden Secion.
In mathematics, two quantities are in the Golden ratio if their ratio is the same of
their sum to the larger of the two quantities. The Golden Ratio is the relationship
between numbers on the Fibonacci sequence where plotting the relationships on scales
results in a spiral shape. In simple terms, golden ratio is expressed as an equation,
where a is larger than b, (a+b) divided by a is equal to a divided by b, which is equal to
1.618033987…and represented by (phi).

b a a/b
2 3 1.5
3 5 1.666666666…
5 8 1.6
8 13 1.625
13 21 1.615384615...
21 34 1.61905
34 55 1.61765
. . .
. . .
144 233 1.618055556...
233 377 1.618025751...
GOLDEN TRIANGLE
Golden ratio can be deduced in an isosceles triangle. If we take the isosceles
triangle that has the two base angles of 72 degrees and we bisect one of the base
angles, we should see that we get another golden triangle that is similar to the golden
rectangle. If we apply the same manner as the golden rectangle, we should get a set of
whirling triangles. With these whirling triangles, we are able to draw a logarithmic spiral
that will converge at the intersection of the two lines. The spiral converges at the
intersection of the two lines and this ratio of the lengths of these two lines is in the
Golden Ratio.

GOLDEN RATIO IN NATURE

It is often said that math contains the answers to most of universe’s questions.
Math manifests itself everywhere. One such example is the Golden Ratio. This famous
Fibonacci sequence has fascinated mathematicians, scientist and artists for many
hundreds of years. The Golden Ratio manifests itself in many places across the
universe, including right here on Earth, it is part of Earth’s nature and it is part of us.

1. Flower petals
number of petals in a flower is often one of the following numbers: 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34 or
55. For example, the lily has three petals, buttercups have five of them, the chicory has
21 of them, the daisy has often 34 or 55 petals, etc.
2. Faces
Faces, both human and nonhuman, abound with examples of the Golden Ratio. The
mouth and nose are each positioned at golden sections of the distance between the
eyes and the bottom of the chin. Similar proportions can been seen from the side, and
even the eye and ear itself.
3. Body parts
The Golden Section is manifested in the structure of the human body. The human body
is based on Phi and the number 5.The number 5 appendages to the torso, in the arms,
leg and head. 5 appendages on each of these, in the fingers and toes and 5 openings
on the face. Animal bodies exhibit similar tendencies.
4. Seed heads
Typically, seeds are produced at the center, and then migrate towards the outside to fill
all the space. Sunflowers provide a great example of these spiraling patterns.
5. Fruits, Vegetables and Trees
Spiraling patterns can be found on pineapples and cauliflower. Fibonacci numbers are
seen in the branching of trees or the number of leaves on a floral stem; numbers like 4
are not. 3’s and 5’s, however, are abundant in nature.
6. Shells
Snail shells and nautilus shells follow the logarithmic spiral, as does the cochlea of the
inner ear. It can also be seen in the horns of certain goats, and the shape of certain
spider’s webs.
7. Spiral Galaxies
Spiral galaxies are the most common galaxy shape. The Milky Way has several spiral
arms, each of them a logarithmic spiral of about 12 degrees.
8. Hurricanes
It’s amazing how closely the powerful swirls of hurricane match the Fibonacci sequence.
GOLDEN RATIO IN ARTS
The golden ratio can be used to achieve beauty, balance and harmony in art,
architecture and design. It can be used as a tool in art and design to achieve balance in
the composition. Check out some examples of golden ratio in arts.
• The exterior dimension of the Pathernon in Athens, Greece embodies the golden
ratio.

• In “Timaeus” Plato describes five possible regular solids that relate to the golden
ratio which is now known as Platonic Solids. He also considers the golden ratio
to be the most bringing of all mathematical relationships.

• Euclid was the first to give definition of the golden ratio as “a dividing line in the
extreme and mean ratio” in his book the “Elements”. He proved the link of the
numbers to the construction of the pentagram, which is now known as golden
ratio. Each intersections to the other edges of a pentagram is a golden ratio. Also
the ratio of the length of the shorter segment to the segment bounded by the two
intersecting lines is a golden ratio.

• Leonardo da Vinci was into many interests such as invention, painting,

sculpting, architecture, science, music, mathematics, engineering, literature,
anatomy, geology, botany, writing, history and cartography. He used the golden
ratio to define the fundamental portions in his works. He incorporated the
golden ratio in his own paintings such as the Vitruvian Man, The Last Supper,
Monalisa and St. Jerome in the Wilderness.

• Michaelangelo di Lodovico Simon was considered the greatest living artists of

his time. He used golden ratio in his painting “The Creation of Adam” which can
be seen on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. His painting used the golden ratio
showing how God’s finger and Adam’s finger meet precisely at the golden ratio
point of the weight and the height of the area that contains them.
 • Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino or more popularly known as Raphael was also a
painter and architect from the Rennaisance. In his painting “The School of
Athens,”, the division between the figures in the painting and their proportions are
distributed using the golden ration. The golden triangle and pentagram can also
be found in Raphael’s painting “Crucifixion”.

• The golden ratio can also be found in the works of other renowned painters such
as
• Sandro Botticelli (Birth of Venus);
• George-Pierre Surat (“Bathers at Assinieres”, “Bridge of Courbevoie” and “A
Sunday on La Grande Jette”), and
• Salvador Dali (“The Sacrament of the Last Supper”).

GOLDEN RATIO IN ARCHITECTURE

Some of the architectural structures that exhibit the application of the Golden
ratio are the following:
• The Great Pyramid of Giza built 4700 BC in Ahmes Papyrus of Egypt is with
proportion according to a “Golden Ratio”. The length of each side of the base is
756 feet with a height of 481 feet. The ratio of the base to the height is roughly
1.5717, which is close to the Golden ratio.

• Notre Dame is a Gothic Cathedral in Paris, which was built in between 1163 and
1250. It appears to have a golden ratio in a number of its key proportions of
designs.

• The Taj Mahal in India used the golden ratio in its construction and was
completed in 1648. The order and proportion of the arches of the Taj Mahal on
the main structure keep reducing proportionately following the golden ratio.

• The Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartres in Paris , France also exhibits the
Golden ratio.

• In the United Nation Building, the window configuration reveal golden

 proportion.

• The Eiffel Tower in Paris, France, erected in 1889 is an iron lattice. The base is
broader while it narrows down the top, perfectly following the golden ratio.

• The CN Tower in Toronto, the tallest tower and freestanding structure in the
world, contains the golden ratio in its design. The ratio of observation deck at 342
meters to the total height of 553.33 is 0.618 or phi, the reciprocal of phi.

BEHAVIOR OF NATURE
Behavior of nature can be observed around us.
Natural regularities of nature:
Symmetry Fractals Spirals
Trees Meanders Waves
Foams Tessellations Cracks
Stripes Spots

Golden Ratio can be found in the beauty of nature, the growth patterns of
many plants, insects, and the universe.

• Honeycombs of the bees show specific regular repeating hexagons. It uses

the least amount of wax to store the honey giving a strong structure with
no gaps.
• Zebra’s coat, the alternating pattern of blacks and white are due to mathematical
rules that govern the pigmentation chemicals of its skin.

• Spider webs illustrate a beautiful pattern. The spider creates a structure by

performing innate steps.

• The nautilus shell has natural pattern which contains a spiral shape called
logarithmic spiral.

• Age of the trees can be determined by applying dendrochronology which is a

scientific method of dating based on the amount of rings found in the core of a
tree.

6. Turtles have growth rings called “scutes” which are hexagonal.

Scutes estimates the age of the turtle.
Smallest scute is in the center and is the oldest one, while the largest ones on the
outside are the newer ones.
7. Lightning during storms creates fractals. Foam bubbles formed by trapping pockets
of gas in a liquid or solid.

• Cracks can also be found on the barks of trees which show some sort of
weakness in the bark.
The meander is one of a series of regular sinuous curves, bends, loops, turns, or
windings in the channel of the body of water.

APPLICATIONS OF MATHEMATICS IN THE WORLD

In our daily life, we use mathematics directly or indirectly in various fields. The
application of mathematical methods in different fields such as science, engineering,
business, computer science and industry is a combination of mathematical science
and specialized knowledge. For example, statistics, combinatorics, and graph theory
are used by investigators to solve crimes.
Other applications of mathematics are in forensic science, medicine, engineering,
information technology, cryptography, archaeology, social sciences, political science
and other fields.
• In forensic, mathematics is applied specifically the differential and integral
calculus to clarify the blurred image to clear image. Another application of
calculus is optimization (maximize or minimize) surface areas, volumes, profit
and cost analysis, projectile motion, etc.
• In medical field, much of a function of a protein is determined by its shape and
how the pieces move. Many drugs are designed to change the shape or motions
of a protein by modeling using geometry and related areas. Mathematics is also
being applied in the development of medicine to cure diseases.

• In fluid dynamics, engineers use numerical analysis in phenomena involving

heat, electricity and magnetism, relativistic mechanics, quantum mechanics and
other theoretical constructs.

• In Information Technology, modern computer are invented through the help of

mathematics. An important area of applications of mathematics in the
development of formal mathematical theories related to the development of
computer science. Computer science development includes logic, relations,
functions, basic set theory, counting techniques, graph theory, combinatorics,
discrete probability, recursion, recurrence relations and number theory, computer-
oriented numerical analysis and Operation Research techniques.
• Cryptography is a combination of both mathematics and computer science and
is affiliated closely with information theory, computer security and engineering. It
is used in applications present in technologically advanced societies, examples
include the security of ATM cards, computer passwords and electronic
commerce.

• In archaeology, archaeologists use a variety of mathematical and statistical

techniques to present the data from archaeological surveys and try to find
patterns to shed on past human behavior an in carbon dating artifacts.

• In Social Sciences such as economics, sociology, psychology and linguistics all

now make extensive use of mathematical models, using the tools of calculus,
probability, game theory, and network theory.

• In Economics, mathematics such as matrices, probability and statistics are

used. The models may be stochastic or deterministic, linear or non-linear, static
or dynamic, continuous or discrete and all types of algebraic, differential,
difference and integral equations arise for the solution of these models.

• In political Science, political analysts study past election results to see changes
in voting patterns and the influence of various factors on voting behavior or
switching of votes among political parties and mathematical models for Conflict
Resolution using Game Theory and Statistics.

• In music and arts, the rhythm that we find in all music notes is the result of
innumerable permutations and combinations. Music theorists understand
musical structure and communicate new ways of hearing music by applying set
theory, abstract algebra, and number theory.