Gas Dynamics

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

B. Huyssen
 OBJECTIVES

 Appreciate the consequences of compressibility in gas

flows
 Understand why a nozzle must have a diverging
section to accelerate a gas to supersonic speeds
 Predict the occurrence of shocks and calculate
property changes across a shock wave
 Understand the effects of friction and heat transfer on
compressible flows
 OUTLINE

Stagnation properties
Chapter 7

Speed of Sound and Mach Number

Chapter 8

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow

Chapter 8
 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

 Incompressible flow assumes constant density

 Compressible flow assumes that changes in pressure

and temperature results in changes in density
 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
The amount by which a substance can be compresses is called compressibility τ.
Consider a section normal to the streamtubes. If υ is the specific volume(volume
per unit mass), for an increase of pressure dp we will have a decrease of specific
volume dv(negative quantity)
1 dν
τ =−
ν dp
1
ν=
ρ
dρ
dν = −
ρ2
dρ = ρτdp For a change of dp from one point to another, dρ can be large
The streamlines will diverge in order to get the mass flow past the midsection
The density is not consider constant anymore when M>0.3, Bernoulli equation needs
to be corrected to consider compressibility effect. For subsonic speed, v<a, the changes
in pressure that are generated by the airfoil in movement are smaller relative to the free
stream static pressure and compressibility effect are neglected. As Mach increases even
the flow is still subsonic, the density decreases as the pressure decreases and velocity
increases. The streamlines will diverge in order to get the mass flow past the midsection
of the airfoil. The perturbations(u,v) caused by the airfoil extends vertically to a greater
distance.
 STAGNATION PROPERTIES
Compressible flow combines fluid dynamics and thermodynamics. It
involves a significant change in density.
Recall definition of specific enthalpy defined by
unit of mass for calorically perfect gas
h = e + pυ h = c pT e and h are function
of T only
dh = de + pdυ + vdp e = cυ T
specific heat capacity at pressure and constant volume for air at standard conditions

which is the sum of specific internal energy e and

flow energy pυ. (if potential and kinetic energy are zero
Enthalpy is the total energy of the a fluid.)
Assume the flow adiabatic and body forces are zero.
For high-speed flows, since the kinetic energy is high,
the enthalpy and kinetic energy are combined into
stagnation enthalpy h0, that represents the total
energy of a flowing fluid stream per unit of mass.
V2
h+ = h0
2
 STAGNATION PROPERTIES
Consider a steady, adiabatic (q=0) inviscid quasi one dimension flow
through duct with no shaft/electrical work and no change in elevation and
potential energy
The energy eq for steady one dimensional flow is

Therefore, stagnation enthalpy remains constant along a streamline during

steady-flow process, and if all streamlines originate from a common uniform
freestream, than h0 is the same for each streamline!
 STAGNATION PROPERTIES

If a fluid were brought to a complete stop (V2 = 0)

Therefore, h0 represents the enthalpy of a fluid when it is

brought to rest adiabatically.
During a stagnation process, kinetic energy is converted to
enthalpy which results in increase in the fluid temperature
and pressure.
Properties at this point are called stagnation properties
(which are identified by subscript 0)
STAGNATION PROPERTIES
STAGNATION PROPERTIES
If the process is also reversible, the
stagnation state is called the isentropic
stagnation state and the entropy is
constant.

Stagnation enthalpy is the same for actual

(irreversible) and isentropic stagnation
states.
Actual stagnation pressure P0,act is lower
than P0 due to increase in entropy s as a
result of fluid friction.
Nonetheless, stagnation processes are
often approximated to be isentropic, and
isentropic properties are referred to as
stagnation properties
 ISENTROPIC PROCESS
For an isentropic process we can define the total density and total pressure in function
of static density and pressure. From the Second law of thermodynamics if the process
is reversible ∂q
Tds = ∂q
ds = + dsirrev 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = −𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
T
From the First Thermodynamic law 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜕𝜕𝑞𝑞 + 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝑞𝑞 = 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 − 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 Tds = de + pdυ
From definition of dh=de+pdv+vdp Tds = dh −νdp dh vdp
ds = −
T T
For an ideal gas pv=RT, dh = cpdT, dT dp
ds = c p −R
T T
cp γ
T2 p p2  T2  R p2  T2  γ −1
∆s = c p ln − R ln 2 =   =  
T1 p1 p1  T1  p1  T1 
Must be isentropic flow
cp
γ γ=
γ cv
Relates p, ρ, T p2  ρ 2   T2  γ −1
=   =  Ratio of specific heat capacity at
p1  ρ1   T1  pressure and constant volume for
air at standard conditions
TOTAL CONDITIONS
Define total temperature T0= value of
temperature of the fluid element after it
has been brought to rest adiabatically.
From the energy equation for steady,
adiabatic, inviscid flow the total
enthalpy is constant along a streamline:

V2
h+ = const = h0 h = c pT
2
Along a streamline the total temperature
is the sum of static temperature plus the
dynamic temperature all per unit of
mass.
1
c pT1 + V12 = c pT0
2
For a calorically perfect gas the total
temperature stays constant along a
streamline.
 TOTAL CONDITIONS
T0 represents the temperature an ideal gas obtained when it is brought to rest
adiabatically.
1 1 2
c pT1 + V12 = c pT0 T1 + V1 = T0
2 2c p

V2/2Cp corresponds to the temperature rise, and is called the dynamic

temperature
For ideal gas with constant specific heats, if the process is isentropic the
stagnation pressure and density can be expressed as

γ 1
p0  T0  γ −1 ρ 0  T0  γ −1
=   =  
p1  T1  ρ1  T1 
TABULATION OF ISENTROPIC FLOW PROPERTIES
 TOTAL CONDITIONS

When using stagnation enthalpies, there is no need to explicitly use

kinetic energy in the energy balance.

h0 = c pT0

Where h01 and h02 are stagnation enthalpies at states 1 and 2, q is the
heat transfer and w the work at states 1 and 2 per unit of mass.

If the fluid is an ideal gas with constant specific heats

 TOTAL CONDITIONS
From definition of total temperature we can express the temperature in function of
Mach
1 2 Requires adiabatic flow, but does
c pT1 + V1 = c pT0 not have to be isentropic
2 T0 γ −1 2
T0 V12 = 1+ M1
= 1+ T1 2
T1 2c pT1
Only Mach dictates the ratio of total to static temperature
a = γRT
2

2 If the flow goes through an isentropic compression to zero

a velocity
T= R is specific gas constant
γR cp p0  γ − 1 2 
γ
γ −1
γ= = 1 + M1 
cv p1  2 
1
Known M, T, p and ρ in a specific ρ0  γ − 1 2  γ −1

point we can get the total condition. = 1 + M1 

ρ1  2 
 TOTAL CONDITIONS
V2
T0 γ −1 2 h+ = const = h0
If the flow is adiabatic
= 1+ M1 2
T1 2 1 2
c pT + V = c pT0
2

From the stagnation properties if the flow is Isentropic (a process that is both adiabatic
and reversible)
γ
γ p0  γ − 1 2  γ −1
γ = 1 + M1 
p2  ρ 2   T2  γ −1 p1  2 
=   = 
p1  ρ1   T1 
1
ρ0  γ − 1 2  γ −1
= 1 + M1 
ρ1  2 

Flow properties depends only from

Mach number!
 EXAMPLE

GIVEN the isentropic flow over an airfoil. The free stream

conditions correspond to a standard altitude of 3000 m and M∞=0.82. At a
given point on the airfoil M=1.

FIND p and T at this point.

 SOLUTION

From the standard altitude tables T∞ = 268.67 K

p∞ = 7.0121 ⋅10 4 N / m 2

M ∞ = 0.82 M =1
po po
= 1.555 = 1.893
p∞ p
To
= 1.134 To
T∞ = 1.2
T
Since total pressure and total Temperature are constant

p po
p= p∞ = 5.76 • 10 4 N / m 2
p0 p∞
T To
T= T∞ = 253.89 K
T0 T∞
 SPEED OF SOUND
FUNCTION ONLY OF T
Important parameter in compressible flow is the speed of sound.
Speed at which infinitesimally small pressure wave travels. Consider a
sound wave propagating through a gas with a velocity a.

In b you hop on the wave and ride with it. The gas upstream is coming to you
with velocity a, behind you is receding away from you a relative velocity a+da.
The flow is adiabatic, no heat source. Flow trough sound wave is isentropic
too. Process is adiabatic and reversible.
 SPEED OF SOUND

Consider a duct with a moving piston at

a
constant increment of velocity dV
The piston creates an infinitesimal
disturbance, a sonic wave that propagates to
the right at speed a.
Fluid to left of wave front, moving at dV,
experiences incremental change in
properties
Fluid to right of wave front maintains
original properties
 SPEED OF SOUND
Construct Control Volume that encloses wave front and moves with it. If you
are riding the wave it seems that the fluid on the right is moving towards the
wave with a speed of a. The fluid on the left with speed of a-dV while the
observer is stationary.
1)Mass balance

m = ρAV
ρAa = (ρ + dρ )A(a − dV )

a a ρAa = A(ρa − dV + adρ − dρdV )

cancel Neglect
H.O.T.
adρ − ρdV = 0
1) adρ
dV =
ρ
 SPEED OF SOUND
2) Energy balance ein = eout
h+
a2
= h + dh +
(a − dV )
2

2 2
a2 a 2 − 2adV + dV 2
h+ = h + dh +
2 2
cancel Neglect
Cance l
H.O.T.
a a

dh − adV = 0 2) dh = adV
 SPEED OF SOUND
3) Conservation of Energy: first law of thermodynamics ∂q = de + pdv
∂q
Second law of thermodynamics ds = + dsirre
T
If the process is reversible ∂q 1
ds = Tds = de + pdv
T ν=
ρ

From the definition of enthalpy dh = de + pdv + vdp dp

Tds = dh − vdp = dh −
ρ
Since the sonic wave is adiabatic and nearly isentropic, using the thermodynamic
relations from first and second law:

dp dp
Tds = dh − dh = 3)
ρ ρ
 SPEED OF SOUND
adρ Combing this with mass and energy conservation gives
1) dV =
ρ dp adρ
=a
2) dh = adV ρ ρ
dp dp
3) dh = a2 =
ρ dρ  ∂p 
a 2 =  
 ∂ρ  S
For flow through the sound wave we have an isentropic process
 ∂p 
and assuming the gas is calorically perfect a 2 = γ  
 ∂ρ 
cp
γ= = 1.4 Ratio of specific heat capacity at pressure and constant volume for air
cv at standard conditions

For an ideal gas

R=cp-cv is specific gas constant

 ∂p   ∂ (ρRT ) 
a =   = γ 
2
 = γRT
 ∂ρ  S  ∂ρ  a = γRT
SPEED OF SOUND

a = γRT
Since
R is specific gas constant
Ratio of specific heat capacity γ
is only a function of T
Speed of sound is only a
function of temperature

It varies with the fluid too!

 DYNAMIC PRESSURE FOR COMPRESSIBLE
FLOWS

Dynamic pressure is defined as q = ½ρV2

For high speed flows, where Mach number is used frequently, it is

convenient to express q in terms of pressure p and Mach number, M, rather
than ρ and V
Derive an equation for q = q(p,M)
1 γ
V2 γ
q = ρV 2
2 q = p 2 = pM 2
1
q = ρV 2 =
1γ p γ ρ
ρV 2 = p V 2
2 a 2
2 2γ p 2  γp 
γ
a2 =
γp q∞ = p∞ M ∞2
ρ 2
 SONIC CONDITIONS

From the stagnation properties

γ
p0  γ − 1 2  γ −1
= 1 + M1 
p1  2  Flow properties depends only from
ρ0  γ − 1 2 
1
γ −1 Mach number!
= 1 + M1 
ρ1  2 

If at one point of the flow M =1 flow is in sonic condition at that point. We can get the
value of T*,p*,ρ* in function of total values:
γ T*
= 0.833
p0  γ + 1  γ −1
T0 γ + 1
+
T0
=  γ=1.4
=
*
p  2  p*
* = 0.528
T 2 1 p0
ρ0  γ + 1  γ −1
=  ρ*
= 0.634
ρ  2 
*
ρ0
 SONIC CONDITIONS

Note the ratio is inverted in this table compared to the book appendix!

γ = 1 .3 γ = 1.33 γ = 1 .4 γ = 1.667
 SONIC CONDITIONS

Energy eq for adiabatic flow γR γa 2 a2

For one dimensional flow cp = = =
γ − 1 γT (γ − 1) T (γ − 1)
1 2 1 2
cPT1 + u1 = cPT2 + u2 a = γRT 2
a1 1 a 1
2

2 2 + V12 = 2 + V22
γ −1 2 γ −1 2
If point 2 is stagnation point, a0 is stagnation ( or total) speed of sound
2 2 2
a 1 2 a02 a1 1 2 a2 1 2 a02
+ u = = const + u1 = + u2 = = const
γ −1 2 γ −1 γ −1 2 γ −1 2 γ −1

a and u are at given point in the flow and a0 is the stagnation speed of sound ASSOCIATED with
the same point. Valid for two points along the streamline.
If point 2 is at sonic condition u=a*
2 *2
a 1 2 a 1
+ u = + a *2 a2
2
1 γ +1
γ −1 2 γ −1 2 + u22 = a *2
γ −1 2 2(γ − 1)
γ + 1 *2 a02 a0 and a* are constant along a given streamline in a steady adiabatic
a =
2(γ − 1) γ −1 inviscid flow. If all streamlines emanate from the same uniform
freestream conditions than they are constants trough the entire field.
 SONIC CONDITIONS
2 Characteristic Mach number in function
a1 1 γ +1 of actual M for one dimensional flow.
+ u12 = a *2
γ −1 2 2(γ − 1) Divide for u12
2
a1 1 1 2 1 γ +1 2 1
+ u = a *
γ − 1 u12 2 u12 2(γ − 1)
1 2
Characteristic Mach number u1

* u Ratio of local velocity to the speed

M *2 =
(γ + 1)M 2

M = ∗ of sound at sonic condition not

2 + (γ − 1)M 2
a the actual local value M.
Characteristic Mach number is the Mach number attained by the fluid when the
throat section is hypothetically brought to sonic conditions.
M ∗ =1 M =1
M* is the local velocity nondimensionalized with the M ∗ <1 IF
respect to the sonic velocity (ex. at the throat)
M <1
M is the local velocity nondimensionalized with the
M ∗ >1
M >1
respect to the local sonic velocity. γ +1
M∗ → M →∞
γ −1
 EXAMPLE

GIVEN a point in an airflow where the local M=3.5, P=0.3atm,

T=180K.

FIND the local values of p0,T0,T*, a*, M* at this point.

 SOLUTION

Example 8.8

𝑝𝑝0 = 22.9𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑇𝑇0 = 621𝐾𝐾
T*=517 K
𝑎𝑎 ∗= 456𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑀𝑀 ∗= 2.06
QUASI ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
If the area varies moderately we can assume the variables of the flow field vary only
with x. For flow through nozzles, diffusers, and turbine blade passages, flow quantities
vary primarily in the flow direction. It can be approximated as 1D isentropic flow.
Need to introduce energy equation and isentropic relations. Let’s consider a moving
fluid element along a streamline. From the energy equation for steady,
adiabatic, inviscid flow the total enthalpy is constant:
Differentiate
h+
u2
= const = h0
dh + udu = 0
2

From second law of thermodynamics if there are no shock waves the flow is isentropic:
Tds = dh −νdp ν=
1
dh = νdp =
1
dp − udu =
1
dp
ρ ρ ρ
Specific volume
m = ρAu = const Consider the mass balance for a steady flow process.
Differentiate and divide by mass flow rate (ρAV)
dρ dA du dA 1 dρ
+ + =0 Combining with the other equations = 2 dP −
ρ A u A ρu ρ
QUASI ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
Variation
Variation ofof Fluid
Fluid Velocity
Velocity withwith
FlowFlow
Area Area

dA 1 dρ  ∂P 
= 2 dP − a 2 =  
A ρu ρ u2  ∂ρ  S

Using thermodynamic relations and rearranging

dA dP  u 2 
= 2 1 − 2 
A ρu  a 
dA dP
Area-velocity relation = 2 1− M 2
A ρu
( )
This is an important relationship that describes the M with variation of the area
For M < 1, (1 - M2) is positive ⇒ dA and dP have the same sign.
Pressure of fluid must increase as the flow area of the duct increases,
and must decrease as the flow area decreases
For M > 1, (1 - M2) is negative ⇒ dA and dP have opposite signs.
Pressure must increase as the flow area decreases, and must decrease as
QUASI ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
dA dP
(
= 2 1− M 2
A ρu
)
1
− udu = dP
A relationship between dA and du can be derived by substituting ρ
ρu = -dP/du from second law of thermodynamics for isentropic flow and
definition of total enthalpy

dA du
A
=−
u
(
1− M 2 ) This eq governs the shape of a nozzle or
a diffuser in subsonic or supersonic
isentropic flow
Since A and u are positive
For subsonic flow (M < 1) dA/du < 0 increase of velocity, du is associated with a
decrease in area, dA
For supersonic flow (M > 1) dA/du > 0 increase of velocity, du is associated with a
increase in area, dA
For sonic flow (M = 1) dA/du = 0 even dA=0 the du exists, that is the
minimum area
QUASI ONE-DIMENSIONAL
ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC
ISENTROPIC FLOW
FLOW

Comparison of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and diffusers

Max velocity is at sonic condition

If we want to converging If we want to

accelerate the flow
decelerate the flow

diverging