18/01/2023

APPLIED AERODYNAMICS
--------
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND
EQUATIONS

B. Huyssen

OUTLINE
Standard atmosphere
Reynolds and Mach number
Airfoil nomenclature
Forces and moments
Aerodynamic coefficients
Pressure distribution around an airfoil
Reference Centres
Boundary layer separation
Drag
Thin airfoil theory
Three dimensional flow

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STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

• For any type of aerodynamic analysis we need pressure,

temperature and density.

• •Sometimes we also need viscosity (for Reynolds number

calculations).

• •Standard atmosphere will be defined

• •All of them provide tables or equations for temperature, and

it is fairly easy to derive an equation for pressure using
temperature and Newton’s law of gravitation.

• •Density is easily calculated using the ideal gas law.

• •Viscosity needs its own equations – usually we use

Sutherland’s law

THE ATMOSPHERE
The troposphere and stratosphere represent
the lowermost layers of our atmosphere and
also the region in which most aircraft fly.
In the stratosphere the variation of
temperature with height is almost negligible
and may be regarded as constant.
International agreement modelled our
atmosphere as the International Standard
Atmosphere.
Properties of the standard atmosphere at sea
level are:
25 km
11 km
Th=0 = 288.15K
Ph=0 = 101325 Pa
ah=0 = 340.294 m/s gh=0= gravitational
gh=0 = 9.80665 m/s2 acceleration

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The Atmosphere
If we go higher in the atmosphere we will feel a drop of temperature.
Temperature is modelled using linear models through the various
atmospheric layers

The troposphere is an area where the temperature decreases linearly with

height. The Temperature decreases through the atmosphere at lapse rate of
about -6.5˚C for every 1000m.
dT
a
dh

The Atmosphere
Based on experimental evidence
For isothermal region, hydrostatic eq
dp  g 0 dh

p RT
p  g0
h  h 
 e RT 1
p1

For gradient region, dT

a=lapse rate a
dh
dp  g 0 dT
p

aRT
T  T1  a(h  h1)
 g0
p  T  aR
 
p1  T1 
Density comes from the eq of state
g 
 0 1 

p  RT  T   aR 
 
1  T1 

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Example
GIVEN At 12Km in the standard atmosphere the pressure, the
density and the temperature are 1.9399x104 N/m2,
3.1194x10-1Kg/m3, and 216.66 °K respectively.

Calculate the standard atmospheric values of pressure, the

density and the temperature at an altitude of 18Km and
check with the standard altitude table.

g varies with altitude but we assume constant.

a=-6.5/m in geopotential altitude

R=287J/kgK

Example
Calculate the standard atmosphere values of pressure and the
density at a geopotential altitude of 14 km.

a=-6.5/m in geopotential altitude

R=287J/kgK

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Example
GIVEN An aircraft is flying at some real altitude. The outside
pressure and the temperature are 2.65x104 N/m2,
and 220 °K respectively.

Calculate values of pressure and the density altitude.

Example
GIVEN At 12Km in the standard atmosphere the pressure and the
temperature are 4.72x104 N/m2 and 257 °K respectively.

Calculate the values of pressure, the density and the temperature

altitude.

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CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Steady Flow p, ρ, V don’t change in time for any point, and hence can be given as
p(x, y, z), ρ(x, y, z), V (x, y, z).
For a steady flow, we can define a streamline, which coincides with the path followed
by some chosen fluid element.
Reynolds number= Finertia/Fviscous μ is the dynamic viscosity
ν is the kinematic viscosity
Vc Vc
R 
  1< Re < 100 : laminar, strong Reynolds number dependence
103 < Re < 104 : transition to turbulence
104 < Re < 106 : turbulent, moderate Reynolds number dependence
Mach Number
M<1 Subsonic Flow disturbances in the flow propagate
both upstream and downstream.
V
M
a M=1 Transonic Flow flow is a mix of subsonic and
supersonic .

M>1 Supersonic Flow disturbances in the flow can not work

their way upstream.

Reynolds Number
The larger the Reynolds number is, the thinner the boundary layers are relative to the
size of the body, and the more the flow behaves as though it was inviscid. This has a
number of consequences of great practical significance:
1. Neglecting the viscous shear stress greatly simplifies the equations of fluid motion,
allowing them to me manipulated and solved much more easily. Simple solutions
then give better insight and understanding of aerodynamic behaviour of bodies such
as airfoils, wings, propellers, turbine blades, etc.
2. If the Reynolds number is large enough (i.e. viscosity is small enough), then its
effects on some aerodynamic forces and moments can be neglected.
For example, if Re > 106 or so, then it has almost no influence on the
aerodynamic lift and moment, which means that the general dependencies
for cl and cm simplify as follows.

cl = cl(α, M, Re) cl = cl(α , M)

cm = cm( α, M, Re) cm = cm(α , M)

Such a simplification is not appropriate for cd(α , M, Re), however.

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FORCES
The forces acting on the aircraft are
Lift
• Thrust
Thrust R
• Weight

• Lift (Component of R force

normal to the direction of flow) V Drag
• Drag (air resistance) Weight

Aerodynamic Forces
Aerodynamics is the study of forces and the resulting motion of
objects that move through the air.

STREAMLINES
Where is the flow going?
Curve whose tangent at any point is
the direction of the velocity vector
at that point.
The equation of the streamline is
dy v
ds V  0 
dx u

Pathline is the path that a fluid element

traces out in space. Consider an
unsteady flow and two infinitesimal
fluid elements moving through the flow
field and passing point 1 at different
time. Because the flow is unsteady the
velocity in 1 changes with time.

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ANGULAR VELOCITY, VORTICITY, STRAIN

The motion of a fluid element along a

streamline is a combination of translation
and rotation, even it can be distorted.

Angular velocity 

CIRCULATION

It is an important tool to calculate aerodynamic Lift. The circulation is a

property related to the net vorticity over a region of the flow.
The definition of circulation is

0
The minus sign is to get a positive Γ
for clockwise sense of Circulation

ds positive if it is counterclockwise

Consider a closed curve C in a flow field. V and ds are the velocity and directed line
segment at a point on C. The circulation is a kinematic property depending only on
the velocity field and the choice of the curve C.

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KELVIN'S CIRCULATION
THEOREM
If the external forces acting on an inviscid fluid are conservative and if the fluid
density is a function of the pressure only, then the circulation along a closed curve
which moves with the fluid does not change with time.

d
0
dt

If the flow starts from rest, the rotation in this region is zero.

BERNOULLI EQUATION
For a displacement ds along a streamline

1
p2  p1    (V22  V12 )
2

If V increases P decreases

1
p V 2  Const  PTOTAL
2

Along a streamline
Pstatic+qdynamic= Ptotal when the velocity increases the
pressure decreases.

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AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE
Before NACA series, airfoil design was rather arbitrary with nothing to guide
designer’s except experience with known shapes and experimentation with modified
shapes.

NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) precursor to NASA

Early NACA series, 4-, 5-, modified 4-/5-digit generated with analytical equations
Later families, including 6-Series, are more complicated shapes derived using
theoretical rather than geometrical methods
In the ‘Theory of wing sections’ by ABBOTT there are all the geometric and
functional characteristics of many NACA airfoils.

Airfoil characteristics

cl  cL (   L 0 )

ASSL0

Axis of zero lift

Chord

Symmetric airfoil Geometric Angle of Attack α between

angle of zero lift the chord line and the direction of flight.

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LIFT-DRAG

1
L W   V2 SC L
2

1
D  V2 SC D
2

NACA1408 AIRFOIL CHARACTERISTICS

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AIRCRAFT BODY AXIS

Fixed to aircraft, regardless of orientation

–Origin may differ sometimes

•Aircraft CG position (preferred)
•Aircraft neutral point
•Some fixed reference point (e.g. nominal CG)
–Not arbitrary orientation:
•Right handed
•x towards nose
•y towards right wing
•z towards bottom

–We like this system for flight mechanic

AIRCRAFT STABILITY AXIS SYSTEM

x-axis and z-axis are rotated about the y-axis with the
angle of attack α

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AERODYNAMICS FORCES
If one set of components is computed, the other set can then be obtained by a
simple axis transformation using the angle of attack α. L and D are obtained
from N and A as follows

AERODYNAMICS FORCES
The net effect of the p and  distributions integrated over the body surface
produces a resultant aerodynamic force R, and also a pitching moment M.

Convention
M>0

Stability Axes
R components are the drag D and the lift L,
parallel and perpendicular to V∞.

Body Axes
R components are the axial force A and
normal force N , parallel and perpendicular
to the airfoil chord line.

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AERODYNAMICS FORCES

If we can neglect the shear stress we can get the Lift and the
Momentum per unit span.

In the case of very small angle of attack, the Lift and the Moment
per unit span are

1 1
L W   V2 SC L M LE   V2 ScCm ,le
2 2

REFERENCE CENTRES

There are three important reference centres that we will use

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REFERENCE CENTRES

Wing aerodynamic centre:

–Point where pitching moment about wing is constant (not zero!)
–Typically at 25% wing mean aerodynamic chord

Centre of gravity (actually the centre of mass)

Tail aerodynamic centre:
–Same as for wing

Neutral point:
–An “effective aerodynamic centre”
–Point where entire aircraft pitching moment is independent of angle of attack
–Behind wing AC for an aircraft with a tail, in front of wing AC for an aircraft
with a canard

Centre of pressure:
–Point where the pitching moment is zero
–Dependent on angle of attack – not useful for analysis

THE AERODYNAMIC CENTRE

Center of Pressure: Point along the chord of an airfoil (or body) about
which the aerodynamic moment is zero
– Is not necessarily located inside the wing section
– Is normally behind the aerodynamic centre
• Symmetric Airfoil: c
xcp 
4 m0
xac    0.25
• Cambered Airfoil: Change with the angle of attack a0
Aerodynamic Center: Point along the chord of an airfoil (or body) about
which aerodynamic moment is independent of angle of attack, stays constant
regardless of CL
c
x A.C . 
4

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MOMENTS
Pitching moment
The moment – due to lift and drag – which attempts to turn the profile in the plane of
the wing section about a fixed point

a x
CM , x  CM ,a   CL cos   CD sin     
c c

NACA 0012 SYMMETRIC AIRFOIL

0Experimental
data
cl  2
dcl
LIFTslope   2
d
• NACA 0012 (12% thickness)
dcl/d = 2
• Thin airfoil theory lift slope:
dcl/da = 2p rad-1 = 0.11 deg-
1

• Compare with data

• At a = -4º: cl ~ -0.45
• At a = 6º: cl ~ 0.65
• dcl/da = 0.11 deg-1

Thin airfoil theory:

cm,c/4 = 0

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The cambered airfoil

Thin airfoil theory provides a means to predict
the angle of zero lift.
Geometric Angle of Attack α is the
angle between the airfoil chord line
and the direction of flight.
cl  cL (   L 0 )
Absolute angle of attack is the sum of the
geometric angle and the angle of zero lift Clmax
Axis of zero lift
Chord

Cd  cd 0  k1C L2

ASSL0
To get the Cl you have to
multiply this angle for Cl

The cambered airfoil

X varies with Cl. As α changes,

c   cp
xcp  1   A1  A2  xcp moves. As L approaches zero
4  cl  xcp moves to ∞

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Airfoil characteristics
A cambered airfoil generates
positive lift at zero 

If airfoil is symmetric dz/dx = 0

and L=0=0, it does not generate lift
at zero 

αL=0

CONTINUITY EQUATION

In a one dimensional flow the mass flow is constant in

each station. From the continuity equation
m  AV 1 A1V1   2 A2V2
Geometry influences the velocity, smaller Area gives faster flow!

constant constant

1 2

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VELOCITY AROUND AN AIRFOIL

The airfoil is designed to increase the velocity of the airflow on upper surface. Let’s
consider two streamtubes. In section 1 and in section 2 they have the same mass flow. In
2 section they split around the airfoil. Because of an angle of attack and the shape of the
airfoil, the streamtube on the upper side has an obstruction, it has been squashed while
the bottom side doesn’t.
For the conservation of mass flow, the velocity in 2a is higher than 2b.

2a

2b

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
Pressure is not evenly distributed. In a camber airfoil with the increase of
the angle of attack the center of pressure moves forward!

Suction α=4˚
effect

is greater than
the increase on
the lower surface

Xcp
V∞

Pushing
effect

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Pressure coefficient , cp
2
p  p p  p V 
cp<0 Symmetric airfoil Cp    1   
q 1  V 
 V2

Zero 2
0<cp<1 cp<0 Cp is close to angle of
1 Length of arrows is proportional to Cp, the
attack
direction indicate positive or negative Cp

Small V=0 Stagnation point, pressure is max cp=1.

angle of It moves further back on the lower surface with
attack the increase of incidence!

V<V∞ Pressure is higher than p∞ 0<cp<1

standard
angle of V=V∞ Pressure is equal p∞ cp=0
attack

cp<0 V>V∞ Pressure is lower than p∞ cp<0. It can

High angle reach -6 at angle of attack of 15˚
of attack The big contribution is given by the sucking effect
on the upper surface, a low pressure region.
cp>0

PRESSURE COEFFICIENT , CP
Pressure distribution in aerodynamic literature often given as cp
Easy to get pressure data in wind tunnel
2
p  p p  p V 
cp    1   
q 1  V 
 V2

V=0 Stagnation point, pressure is max cp=1

V<V∞ Pressure is higher of p∞ 0<cp<1
V=V∞ Pressure is equal p∞ cp=0
V>V∞ Pressure is lower of p∞ cp<0

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Adverse pressure gradient

The point of minimum pressure divides the airfoil into two. Forward of that point the
pressure gradient is helping to produce lift and, to a lesser degree, a pulling force
forward. that pressure decreases with distance. This decreasing pressure tends to
induce the flow to move along the surface, promoting the flow in the direction we
want. We call this favorable pressure gradient.Aft of that point we have what is called
the adverse pressure gradient. The pressure gradually increases after the lowest point
until the trailing edge where it reaches a value bigger than downstream. This region of
increasing pressure is called region of adverse pressure gradient dp/dx>0.
The pressure here contributes to drag and a separation of the air flowing over the wing

Flow separation
As the angle of attack increases the center
of pressure moves forward and the
adverse pressure gradient becomes longer
and steeper.
The real viscous flow can not handle high
adverse pressure gradient and it separates
from the top surface. Separation does not
affect the bottom surface for positive
angle of attack.

Consequences are:
•Stall
•High drag

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Flow separation

Behind this point

V reverse flow occurs.
B.L. enters region of adverse 0
pressure gradient. n

Relative motion between

fluid layers reduced.

Flow separation
High speed flow near upper edge of B.L. has enough speed to keep moving through
adverse pressure gradient. Since the fluid in the inner part of the boundary layer is
relatively slower, because it has been retarded by friction it is more greatly affected
by the increasing pressure gradient. For a large enough pressure increase, this fluid
may slow to zero velocity or even become reversed. When flow reversal occurs, the
flow is said to be separated from the surface.

Separation happens when the energy of the

participle ends:
u
u0 y
0
&
occur simultaneously.

Turbulent Boundary Layers are more resistance to

flow separation than laminar ones because of fuller
velocity profile, there is more energy that helps
participles to move. To help prevent flow separation
we desire a turbulent B.L.

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SEPARATION POINT
Angle of attack increases the stagnation point moves farther down on the
forward part of the airfoil-making a longer effective upper surface. the point of
minimum pressure moves forward and the size of the adverse pressure gradient
increases. Three things happen as a result:
The lift component of aerodynamic force increases, up to a point.
The drag component of aerodynamic force increases.
The turbulent flow area increases, encouraging separation of the boundary layer.
The separation point
progressively moves forward as
the angle of attack continue to
increase.

Flow separation-Maximum Lift

What happens when we increase the angle of attack?

Can we increase our angle of attack too much?

A practical limit to the angle of attack is the stalling point.

Dramatic loss of lift

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The Stall
The lift does not go to zero because there is still flow over the surface and at this angle of
attack is normally exerting positive pressure.
Lift or Lift Coefficient

The upper surface separation

causes a great loss of lift.

The result on an aircraft in

flight is a sudden loss of lift; it
will drop due to weight now
Angle of Attack,  being greater than lift.

STALL SPEED

1
L  q SC L   V2 SC L
2
2L
V 
  SC L
2W
Vstall 
  SC L ,max

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VISCOUS FLOW: REAL FLOW

The d’Alembert’s paradox states that the inviscid (frictionless) flow
around a body will result in zero drag! We need to include friction
(viscosity) in theory to be able to predict DRAG.

Within B.L. flow

Outside B.L. flow highly viscous(low Re)
Inviscid (high Re)

Wake

Reynolds number tells you when viscous forces are

important and when viscosity may be neglected

VISCOUS flow: REAL flow

Flow adheres to surface because of friction between gas and solid boundary.
At surface flow velocity is zero, called ‘No-Slip Condition’. The velocity grows until
reaches V∞. This thin region of retarded flow in vicinity of surface is called a
‘Boundary Layer’.

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VISCOUS FLOW: AIRFOIL DRAG

Viscosity has two effects:

Skin friction drag due to shear stress at wall
Pressure drag due to flow separation

Airfoil DRAG = Skin-Friction D +Pressure(Form)D

Drag due to Drag due to
skin friction separation

Less for laminar More for laminar

More for turbulent Less for turbulent

Skin Friction Drag

Assumptions: thinner airfoil ,
small angle of attack
low speed incompressible flow.

The total drag for the plate will be the contribution of the integration of the shear
stress from the top side plus the contribution from the bottom side.

D f ,total  D f ,bottom  D f ,top  2 D f ,top

cDfriction  f (cL , Re, shape, turbulence, roughness)

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Skin Friction Drag

The boundary layer thickness for incompressible
laminar flow over a flat plate at zero angle of
attack is

5.0 x  eV x
Re x Re x 

The distance x is measured from the LE. The thickness grows parabolically with
distance from the leading edge.
 x
The skin friction coefficient for laminar flow is:

D f ,top 1.328  V c

cf   Reynolds based on the chord length Re c 
q S 
Re c
The boundary layer thickness for incompressible turbulent flow

0.37 x D f ,top 0.074

 cf  
5 Re x q S Re1c/ 5

SKIN FRICTION Drag

Consider the velocity gradient at the wall

Laminar shear stress is less than

turbulent shear stress

Because the energy of the fluid elements close

to the surface is larger in a turbulent flow ,
turbulent flow does not separate from the
surface easily as for laminar flow.

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PRESSURE-FORM DRAG
The assumption that viscosity has negligible effects on lift and moment is valid only for
streamline bodies which gradually taper to a point or sharp edge, and are roughly
aligned with the free stream flow direction. Examples are slender bodies, airfoils. For
bluff bodies which have blunt rear faces, or for streamline bodies at large angles of
attack, viscosity always plays an important role for all the forces and moments. Such
flows exhibit flow separation , which is the sudden thickening or breakaway of the
boundary layer from the surface, resulting in a thick trailing wake. Dp defined as the
integrated pressure p − p∞ normal to the body.The reference length used to define cd is
arbitrary. Traditionally, for streamline bodies such as an airfoil we use the stream wise
length c High Re
separation
point moves
towards TE

VISCOUS FLOW: AIRFOIL DRAG

Blunt body drag has bigger

pressure drag compared to a
streamline body with same
reference length!

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SHAPES WITH CD INDEPENDENT FROM RE

The point of flow separation is well defined by the

geometry and not dependant from Reynolds number.

Lift around and airfoil

How can potential flow be adapted to provide a theoretical model for
the flow around an airfoil that generate LIFT?

LIFT is always associated to CIRCULATION

CIRCULATION is associated to VORTEX intensity

INCREASING CIRCULATION effects the position of Stagnation

points on the surface

We will use vortices to create Circulation and Lift around an airfoil!

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Lifting airfoil

The difference in the upper and lower surface air

speeds is equivalent to adding a rotational
movement on the average motion at speed Vm

The Vortex Sheet

If we have an airfoil of arbitrary shape we can substitute it with a vortex sheet with
variable strength γ(s). We need to calculate the distribution of vorticity on the surface is
such that the surface body is a streamline.
The total circulation around a vortex sheet is Γ

   ds

The strengths of the vortices added together gives the total circulation Γ around the
airfoil. From Kutta-Joukowski Theorem the total lift is

L'   V  A vortex sheet airfoil generates LIFT

The vortex sheet idea is not only a mathematical devise to model the flow. In the real
flow, over the surface of the body there is a boundary layer that is a high viscous region
with large velocity gradients that produce vorticity. Outside the boundary layer we can
assume a potential flow.

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The Vortex Sheet

If the airfoil becomes very thin such as the top and the bottom surface would most
coincide we could approximate it to a single vortex sheet distributed over the
camber line of the airfoil. In combination with the free stream the camber line
becomes a streamline of the flow.

Thin airfoil theory

If the airfoil is very thin and the angle of attack is small we can approximate it to the
sum of a symmetric velocity field (symmetric airfoil with thickness) + a vortex sheet on
the camber line(that produces lift).

THE KUTTA CONDITION

Let’s look at two different potential flows over

the same airfoil at the same angle of attack but
with two different value of Γ as we saw for the
rotating cylinder.
Both are solutions of the flow.
Flow (1) and Flow (2) satisfy all conditions for
potential flow theory, however Γ1 ≠ Γ2, so we
know that L1’ ≠ L2’ In reality we have only one
lift value at one angle of attack. We need to fix Γ
otherwise it will be a number of different flows.

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The Kutta condition

In the reality in the early moments of development
the flow tries to curl around the sharp trailing edge
from the bottom surface to the upper surface.
Because the radius of the sharp trailing edge is zero,
the speed of the air around the trailing edge should
be infinitely fast! Real fluids cannot move at infinite
speed, the stagnation point 2 moves to the trailing
edge. The viscous boundary layer remains attached
to the surface all the way to the TE.

Imposing Kutta condition provides a unique

way of choosing the circulation for an airfoil
and thereby determining lift.

The Kutta condition

Let’s fix Γ with the Kutta condition at the trailing edge that will allow the theoretical
flow to leave the top and the bottom surfaces of the airfoil smoothly

In a) the trailing edge has a finite angle, the two velocities should have two different
directions. It is no physically possible, the only solution is they are zero. From Bernoulli
the pressure in a is pa on the top and the bottom surface.
1 1
pa  V12  pa  V22 Point a is a
2 2 stagnation point.
V1  V2

In the case of cusped trailing edge we see that the two velocities leaving the top and the
bottom surfaces of the airfoil at the trailing edge are finite and equal in magnitude and
direction.

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The Kutta condition

If we apply Kutta condition
We realize that at TE the local  (TE )  V1  V2  0
sheet strength is zero

For a given airfoil at a given angle of attack, the value of Γ around the airfoil is
such that the flow leaves the trailing edge smoothly.

If the trailing edge angle is finite the trailing edge is a stagnation point.

cusped the velocities leaving top and bottom are

finite and equal in magnitude and direction.

Nature enforces the Kutta condition by means of friction!

KELVIN’ CIRCULATION THEOREM

Inviscid, incompressible flow with
no body forces.

D For the same fluid

0 elements
Dt

Let’s consider an airfoil in a fluid at rest, if at beginning of the motion the circulation is
zero how can the circulation be created? If the fluid is initially at rest it is also
irrotational, Γ=0. Neglecting the effect of viscosity, if the flow is initially irrotational it
must remain irrotational, Helmholtz’s third theorem.

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THE STARTING VORTEX

How nature creates circulation?
The role played by the viscosity of a real fluid

As soon the flow starts moving around the airfoil, the flow will tend to curl around the
trailing edge. The very fast airspeed around the trailing edge causes strong viscous
forces to act on the air adjacent to the trailing edge of the airfoil and the result is that a
strong vortex accumulates on the topside of the airfoil, near the trailing edge. This high
vorticity region is fixed to the same fluid elements, it is flushed downstream as the
airfoil begins to move. This vortex is known as the starting vortex. Since the circulation
along a curve that includes both the vortex and the airfoil must still be zero,
Helmholtz’s third theorem, this leads to a counterclockwise circulation around the
profile.

THE STARTING VORTEX

Instant of starting flow around the airfoil. High velocity gradients at the sharp TE
creates intense vorticity that rolls up downstream the TE forming the starting vortex.

г3

Once the starting vortex is far downstream, the

equal and opposite clockwise circulation around the
airfoil becomes enough strong to force the Kutta
condition at trailing edge .

 (TE )  V1  V2  0

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Airfoil versus wing

Upper surface (upper side of wing): low pressure

Lower surface (underside of wing): high pressure

Weak Tornadoes
W=Downwas W=Downwash
h

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TRAILING VORTEX SYSTEM

The flow over a finite wing is three dimensional,

because of the difference of low and high
pressure on the wing there is a component of
flow in the spanwise direction. Flow always
desires to go from high pressure to low pressure
that causes a flow ‘wraps’ around wing tips and
the formation of trailing vortex, at each wing tip.
By the figure it is expecting the formation at the
trailing edge along the span of a series of vortices
that will induce a downwash velocity w.
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

+++++ +++++

DOWNWASH EFFECTS
Wing tip vortices induce a small downward component of air velocity near wing by
dragging surrounding air with them called downwash, w.
W+V∞=Local relative wind Induced Drag, Di

 eff  
Angle of attack is reduced by αi
αeff= α- αi

α effective: what the airfoil ‘sees’ locally

α geometric: what you see (is the angle between the airfoil chord line and the
velocity. )
α induced: angle induced by the tridimensional effect.

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DOWNWASH EFFECTS
SECOND EFFECT
Lift vector is tilted back. L acts in direction normal to incoming relative wind. Creates
an induced drag Di, drag due to local lift vector.

Di  L sin  i
Di  L i
Finite Wing Infinite Wing
The downwash depends on the wing
circulation and therefore changes with
flight conditions. It is caused by a
tridimensional effect not by a viscous effect!

The characteristics of a finite wing are not identical to

the characteristics of its airfoil sections. C L  cl
D  Di  Dairfoil C D  cd

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BOUND VORTEX
It is a hypothetical arrangement of vortices that we use to replace the physical
wing, neglecting the thickness as in thin airfoil theory.
Develop the equivalent bound vortex system
that simulate the properties, effects,
WING THEORY disturbances and forces from the real wing.

How the wing parameters as span, twist

planform influence the flow?

LIFT DISTRIBUTION ALONG THE SPAN

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Prandtl’s lifting line theory

A vortex filament of strength Γ will experience a force L’=ρ∞V∞Γ from Kutta-Joukowski

theorem.
Let’s replace finite wing (span=b) with bound vortex filament extending from y=b/2 to
y = b/2 and origin located at center of bound vortex (center of wing).
For Helmholtz’s vorticity theorem, a vortex filament cannot end in a fluid so the
filament continues as two free vortices trailing from wing tips to infinity. This is called a
‘Horseshoe Vortex’.

Prandtl’s lifting line theory

Instead of Γ=constant
we need a way to let
Γ=Γ(y).

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Prandtl’s lifting line theory

d1

d2
d3

Prandtl’s lifting line theory

d1

d2
d3

We represented the wing by superimposing a large number of horseshoe vortices, each

with different length of bound vortex, but with all bound vortices coincident along a
single line the Lifting Line.
Circulation, Γ, varies along line of bound vortices. Also have a series of trailing vortices
distributed over span.
Example shown here uses 3 horseshoe vortices consider infinite number
of horseshoe vortices superimposed on lifting line.

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Prandtl’s lifting line theory

Infinite number of horseshoe vortices

superimposed along lifting line. Now we have a
continuous distribution such that Γ = Γ(y), at
origin Γ = Γ0.
Trailing vortices are now a continuous vortex
sheet (parallel to V∞).Total strength integrated
across sheet of wing is zero because it consists
of pair of trailing vortices of equal strength but
in opposite direction.

Prandtl’s lifting line theory

Total velocity w induced at y0 by entire trailing vortex sheet can be found by

integrating from –b/2 to b/2:

 d  Equation gives value of downwash

b
2
  at y0 due to all trailing vortices.
w y0   
1  dy  dy
4 
b  y0  y 
(theory not valid for swept wing)

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SUMMARY
We’ve done a lot of theory so far, what have we accomplished?

We have replaced a finite wing with a mathematical model

 We did same thing with a 2-D airfoil

 Mathematical model is called a Lifting Line
 Circulation Γ(y) varies continuously along lifting line
 Obtained an expression for downwash, w, below the lifting line

What we want is an expression so we can calculate Γ(y) for finite wing

(WHY?)

Calculate Lift, L (Kutta-Joukowski theorem)

Calculate CL
Calculate αeff
Calculate Induced Drag, CD,i (drag due to lift)

Prandtl’s Lifting Line Equation

 d 
b  
  y0  1 2
 dy  dy
  y0     L  0  y0   
V c y0  4V b y0  y
2

Fundamental Equation of Prandtl’s Lifting Line Theory

In Words: Geometric angle of attack is equal to sum of effective angle of
attack plus induced angle of attack
Mathematically: α = αeff + αi

Only unknown is Γ(y)

• V∞, c, α, αL=0 are known for a finite wing of given design at a given α
• Solution gives Γ(y0), where –b/2 ≤ y0 ≤ b/2 along span

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AR
High AR

Aspect Ratio
b: wingspan
S: wing area

b2
AR  Low AR
S
b

DOWNWASH DISTRIBUTION ACROSS

DIFFERENT WING PLANFORMS

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PLANFORM

Elliptic wing are very expensive to

manufacture. Rectangular wing does not
generate an optimal Lift distribution.
Compromise is the tapered wing!
Taper ratio C
 t
Cr
To make Γ vary elliptically, change in
geometric twist (varying (α-αL=o)) or airfoil
section can give the same result.

Elliptical Lift Distribution

For a wing with same airfoil shape across span and no twist, an elliptical lift
distribution is characteristic of an elliptical wing planform

CL
i 
AR
C L2
C D ,i 
AR

British Spitfire World War II

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GENERAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION

C L2 Prandtl was the first to realize the connection between

C Di  Induced drag and coefficient of lift and aspect ratio.
e AR CD,i inversely proportional to AR and proportional to
Wing efficiency the square of CL
The induced drag is the price for the generation of lift.

Desire high AR to reduce induced

drag.
Compromise between structures
and aerodynamics.
AR important tool as designer
(more control than span efficiency,
e).

6>AR<8

Aspect Ratio & Taper ratio effect

INDUCED DRAG FACTOR, δ
1
e
1 

C L2
C D ,i 
eAR

Ideal region

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PARASITE DRAG

Drag that is produced by viscosity

INCREASES WITH SPEED

DForm DSkin Friction D Interference

DRAG OF A COMPLETE AIRPLANE

D Total  D parasite  Dinduced  Dwave

RAeS Lanchester Lecture> Rossow (Manchester 2009)

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DRAG POLAR- SUBSONIC AIRPLANE

Relation between CD and CL

D Total  D parasite  Dinduced C D  c D ,e 

C L2
1   
AR
C L2
C D  cD ,e, 0  k1C L2  1   
AR
Oswald’ efficiency factor
1 1
e 
1    k1AR kAR

C L2
C D  cD , 0 
eAR

C D  cD ,0  k C L2

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