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Design preliminaries &

Calculation of design
parameters in LSD

Prepared by
Chandrasekar M. K.

Competencies & Simple beam loaded at third points

attributes • With lighter loads, no crack develop at elastic stage
• Concept clarification
and problem-solving
skills.
• Being conversant
with units
Learning outcomes:
• To acquaint with • But with a little increase in load, even during elastic loading, concrete could crack.
code information on
LSD of flexural
members
• To derive the design
parameters of beam
design
• To independently
design different types
of beams

• The behavior of the cracked section is elastic at low loads and changes to plastic at
higher loads.

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• The effective section resisting moment at a cracked Characteristic strength of materials:

position is shown in figure • Concrete: Concrete’s strength is expressed by its
compression load carrying capacity, in stress units
MPa or N/mm2 (1 MPa = 1 N/mm2).
• The compressive strength of a concrete vary from
one location to another in the same member, due to
differences in extent of compaction, time of
placement, batch of concrete etc.
• Likewise, the strength of different specimens
(cube/cylinder) can also vary from one another.
• To assess the strength of one mix proportion of
• At low loads, the concrete stress in compression and concrete, codes specify the use of characteristic
the steel stress in tension are in the elastic range. compressive strength values.
• At collapse the stresses are at ultimate values. • Characteristic compressive strength of concrete is
defined as that strength below which 5% of all
• Concrete section in tension zone is ineffective to
possible strength measurements may be expected to
carry tensile stresses.
fall.

• It means that the characteristic strength has 95% Conversion factors for strength
reliability or there is only 5% probability of actual Size and type of specimen Conversion factor
strength being less than the characteristic strength.
Cube (200mm) 1.05
• Thus, concrete is graded in terms of its characteristic
compressive cube strength like C30, C35, etc. where Cylinder (150 mm diameter, 300 mm height) 1.25

the numbers 30, 35, etc. represents the cube

strength in MPa. Reinforcing steel:
• The characteristic strength of concrete fcu is the 28- • Steel’s strength is expressed by its tension load
day cube strength. carrying capacity.
• Compressive strength of concrete is determined • As there is permanent deformation exhibited by the
from tests on 150 mm cubes at the age of 28 days. steel reinforcement beyond the elastic limit, or yield
point, the yield stress or proof stress is considered
• Cylindrical or cubical specimens of other sizes may
as the characteristic strength of steel fy.
also be used with conversion factors determined
from a comprehensive series of tests. • There are two types of reinforcing steels specified in
the code having the value of fy as stated below.
• In the absence of such tests, the conversion factors
given in table below may be applied to obtain the  Hot rolled mild steel fy = 250 N/mm2
equivalent characteristic strength based on 150 mm  High yield steel,
cubes. hot rolled or cold worked fy = 500 N/mm2

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Design strength of materials Concrete cover to the reinforcement

Resistance of sections to applied stresses is based on Nominal cover
the design strength which is defined as • It is the design depth of concrete cover to all steel
reinforcement, including links.
Characteristic strength ÷ partial safety factor for
• It is the dimension used in design and indicated on
materials = fk/ γm
the drawings.
Values of γm for ultimate limit state Nominal cover should:
Reinforcement 1.15 (a) be in accordance with the recommendations for
Concrete in flexure or axial load 1.5 bar size and aggregate size;
Shear strength without shear reinforcement 1.25 (b) Protect steel against corrosion
Bond strength 1.4 (c) Protect steel against fire
Others, e.g. bearing strength ≥ 1.5 (d) allow for surface treatments such as bush
hammering.
The factor γm takes account of
1. uncertainties in the strength of materials in the
Hence cover depends
structure
1. Bar size, 2. Aggregate size, 3. Exposure condition &
2. uncertainties in the accuracy of the method used
4. Fire resistance
to predict the behaviour of members
3. variations in member sizes and building dimensions

Types of exposure conditions: Nominal cover based on fire resistance

Minimum dimensions for fire resistance

Nominal cover values for different grades of concrete
under different exposure conditions

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Bar sizes: Minimum area of steal

Bars are available with diameters in mm,
6, 8,10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32 and 40

In the standard method of detailing, bar types are

specified by letters.
R - mild steel bars, T - high yield strength bars
Bars are designated on drawings as, for example, 4T25,
i.e., four 25mm diameter bars of grade 460. This system
will be used to specify bars in figures.

Areas of group of bars

Maximum area of both tension and compression The above spacing criteria ensure that the concrete can
reinforcements in beams should not exceed 4% of the be properly compacted around the reinforcement.
gross cross-sectional area of the concrete. Spacing of top bars of beams should also permit the
Minimum spacing of bars insertion of a vibrator.
Rules with respect to minimum spacing requirements of
longitudinal bars in beam:
The horizontal distance between bars should not be less
than hagg+5mm;
Where there are two or more rows
The gap between corresponding bars in each row Minimum spacing of bars
should be vertically in line and
Design stress-strain relationship for concrete
The vertical distance between bars should not be less
• The stress-strain curve is modified from the actual
than 2hagg /3
curve, for the design purpose.
where hagg is the maximum size of course aggregate. • It consists of a parabolic part at the initial stages of
The clause also states that if the bar size exceeds loading and a straight-line part after the maximum
hagg+5mm the spacing should not be less than the bar design stress has reached.
size.

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Design stress-strain relationship for concrete • Hence the maximum stress value given as design
strength of concrete is expressed as,
0.67fcu
𝒇𝒄𝒅 =
𝜸𝒎

• The value 0.67 has been arrived by two stages of

reduction
• From tests it is established that the member size is
not exactly cube, hence a value reduction by 0.8.
• As an additional safety towards type of failure,
further reduced to 0.67.
• Value of strain when maximum stress occurs for the
first time is given by the function of design
• In general, design strength = compressive strength
characteristic strength ÷ Partial safety factor for str. • Value of initial tangent modulus is shown in the
curve, which is also a function of design compressive
• Yet, as per LSD procedure in BS 8110, the
strength
characteristic cube strength of concrete is reduced
by a factor 0.67. • Concrete fails at a strain value of 0.0035.

Design stress-strain relationship for steel Analysis of singly reinforced rectangular section
Assumptions:
• Plane sections remain plane after deformation
• The stress block of concrete in compression are
derived using either
(a) the design stress-strain curve with γm=1.5
or
(b) the simplified rectangular stress block
where the depth of the stress block is 0.9
of the depth to the neutral axis
• Note that in both cases the strain in the concrete at
• For γm = 1.15, Design strength of steel = failure is 0.0035
fy/1.15 = 0.87fy • The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored
• The strain when the maximum stress has reached for • The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from
the first time is given as 0.002. the design stress-strain curve where γm=1.15
• The strain at failure is 0.0035
• Youngs modulus of steel Es = 200 GPa or 2*105 MPa

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Rectangular-parabolic stress block Simplified rectangular stress block

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Moment of resistance of simplified stress block

Concrete stress is,

Steel stress is,

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From the stress diagram, MRS

Area of steel = As =
compressive force C = 0.45 * fcu* 0.9x * b 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒. 𝒇𝒚 . 𝒅
= 0.45 * fcu* 0.9(0.5d) * b MRS = MRC = 0.674 As fy d = 0.156fcu b d2
= 0.201fcu b d 𝑨𝒔 0.156fcu
Steel ratio = =
Force in steel in tension T = 0.87 fy As 𝒃𝒅 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒𝒇𝒚
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟓𝒇𝒄𝒖/𝒇𝒚
For the internal forces to be in equilibrium, C = T, Percentage steel ratio p =
Lever arm z = d – (0.5 (0.9x)) 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑨𝒔
= 𝟐𝟑. 𝟏𝟓𝒇𝒄𝒖/𝒇𝒚
= d – (0.5 * 0.9 * (0.5d)) 𝒃𝒅
= 0.775d Types of failure and beam section classification
Moment of resistance with respect to concrete MRC Balanced section: when concrete fails and steel yields
Cz = 0.201fcu b d * 0.775d = 0.156fcu b d2 simultaneously.
εc = 0.0035
𝒙 (𝒅 − 𝒙)
M = K fcu b d2 where K = 0.156 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐 x
Moment of resistance with respect to steel MRS d

Tz = 0.87 fy As * 0.775d = 0.674 As fy d x = 0.64 d. (d – x)

εs = 0.002

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Under reinforced beam – Analytical solution

If steel provided is less, steel yields first before concrete
crushes. Such a section is called under reinforced
section.

If steel provided is more – concrete crushes first before

steel yields, the section is called over reinforced.

εc ≤ 0.0035 εc = 0.0035

x
Force in concrete in compression C = 0.45 * fcu* 0.9x * b
x = 0.402 fcu b x
d d
(d – x)
(d – x) Lever arm z = d – 0.45x
εs ≥ 0.002 εs < 0.002 M = Applied moment = Cz
x < 0.64d x > 0.64d = 0.402 fcu b x (d – 0.45x )
Under reinforced section Over reinforced section
= 0.402 fcu b d x – 0.181 fcu b x2
= fcu b [0.402 d x – 0.181 x2]
M/fcu b = 0.402 d x – 0.181 x2

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x2 – 2.221 d x + 5.524 M/fcu b = 0 Control over depth of neutral axis when redistribution
Roots of the quadratic: of moments is permitted.
x = [- b ± (b2 – 4.a.c)0.5 ] / 2a When redistribution of moment is carried out in the
analysis, neutral axis depth ‘x’ should be checked to see
= {+2.221d ± [(2.221 d)2 – 4 (5.524 M/fcu b)]0.5 } / 2
that it is not greater than (βb – 0.4) d.
= 1.11d – [1.233 d2 – 5.524 M/fcu b] 0.5 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Where βb = ≤1
Lever arm z = d – 0.45 x 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

= d – 0.45 {1.11d – [1.233 d2 – 5.524 M/fcu b] 0.5 } Hence limiting value of ‘x’ when
= d – 0.45 {1.11d – [1.233 d2 – 5.524 Kd2] 0.5 } No redistribution is carried out: (1 – 0.4) d = 0.6d
= d – 0.5 d + 0.45 [1.233 d2 – 5.524 Kd2] 0.5 10% redistribution is permitted: (0.9 – 0.4) d = 0.5d
= d – 0.5 d + [0.452 (1.233 d2) – 0.452 (5.524 Kd2)] 0.5 20% redistribution is permitted: (0.8 – 0.4) d = 0.4d
= d – 0.5 d + [0.25 d2 – Kd2/0.9] 0.5 30% redistribution is permitted: (0.7 – 0.4) d = 0.3d
= d [0.5 + (0.25 – K/0.9)0.5] Resistance moment at any section should be at least
Where K = M/fcd b d2; 70% of moments at that section obtained from an
elastic analysis maximum bending moment diagram.
According to the code, the lever arm ‘z’ is not to exceed
0.95d. Redistribution of moments is limited to 10% in
structures over four storeys where structural frame
As = Area of tension steel = M/0.87 fy z provides lateral stability.
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Hence code suggests that any section shall be designed

as under reinforced section because, depth of neutral
axis for balanced section is 0.64d > limiting depth for no
redistribution i.e., 0.6d.
E.g. 1. Determine the depth of neutral axis for the
section shown in figure. C25 concrete and high strength
steel having fy = 460 Mpa are used. Find also the
moment capacity of the section.
200 mm

400
mm
3T20

50 mm

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Over reinforced section (0.402 fcu b x)x = 0.0035 (d – x). Es As

If As is large, concrete fails before steel yields by . ∗ b𝑥
. x. + x – d = 0
reaching its design yield value. The section is called . .
over reinforced section.
. ∗ b𝑥
Here, fs < 0.87fy; from similar triangles of strain . x. + x – d = 0
. .
distribution diagram,
εc = 0.0035
Where p = steel ratio = As/bd; As = pbd
ε𝒔 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓 . ∗
= . x2. + xd – d2 = 0
(𝒅 − 𝒙) 𝒙 . .
x
d ‘x’ can be determined by the above equation.
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓(𝒅 − 𝒙) (d – x) Moment capacity = Mu = 0.402 fcu b x (d – 0.45x)
ε𝒔 =
𝒙 εs < 0.002

𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓(𝒅 𝒙) x > 0.64d

𝒇𝒔 = 𝑬𝒔. ε𝒔 = . Es Over reinforced section
𝒙

For equilibrium, C = T i.e.,

0.402 fcu b x = fs. As = 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓(𝒅 𝒙)
. Es. As
𝒙

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E.g.2: In the e.g. 1, if the reinforcements provided are 3

numbers of 25mm diameter rods, find the depth of
neutral axis and the moment carrying capacity of the
section. 200 mm

400
mm
3T25

50 mm

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E.g. 3: A singly reinforced RC beam of 250 mm * 400 mm

overall dimensions has to be designed to resist an
ultimate moment of 60 kNm. The concrete used is of fcu
= 25 MPa and steel has fy = 460 MPa. Check whether
the section can be designed as singly reinforced-under
reinforced section and calculate the area of steel
required. Assume 12 mm diameter main bars and 8 mm
diameter stirrups are used under mild exposure
condition. Fire resistance required in hours is 1.5.
Solution:
Cover to reinforcement:
Main diameter – stirrup diameter = 12 – 8 = 4 mm
Aggregate size = 20 mm
Cover based on exposure = 25 mm
Cover based on fire resistance = 20 mm
Hence nominal cover to be provided is highest of all the
above = 25 mm.

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E.g. 4: A singly reinforced beam of 30 grade concrete

has to resist an ultimate moment of 100 kNm.
Determine the limiting depth of section based on 10 %
redistribution of moments and reinforcement, if the %
reinforcement is 0.9% with 460 grade steel. Consider b
= 250mm.

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