ETHICS

MODULE 1A: ETHICS AND ITS KEY

CONCEPTS

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

• Two Greek words PHILO (“love” or “friendship”)

+ SOPHIA (“wisdom”)
• Thus, philosophy means “love of wisdom.”
• if philosophy means love of wisdom, HISTORICAL CONCEPT OF THE ‘HUMAN PERSON’ IN
to philosophize, therefore, is to be in quest, or DIFFERENT PHILOSOPHICAL ERAS
to have a desire towards loving and living the
❖ COSMOCENTRISM - ANCIENT PHILOSOPHICAL
truth (Babor, 2007)
ERA
Technical Definition: • Men’s constant search for TRUTH and
MEANINGS can be provided by the COSMOS=
• “scientia rerum per causas primas sub lumine
UNIVERSE
rationis naturalis”
• All the creatures have to follow the natural law
• “the science of beings in their
or the law of the nature including a human
ultimate reasons, causes, and principles
person. He too has to live accordingly. He has
acquired by the aid of human reason
to follow the law of nature for his survival.
alone (Bittle, 1984).”
• Here, we see he is not the master of all creation
❖ Φ is a science
rather he is a part of it. Thus, human person can
❖ Φ is a science of beings
be known in relation to the whole universe.
❖ Φ searches for the ultimate reasons, causes and
principles of beings
❖ THEOCENTRISM - MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY
❖ Φ uses the power or natural light of reason
• Men’s constant search for TRUTH and
What Φ is NOT MEANINGS can be provided by a
GOD/Supreme Being.
1. Φ does not make real progress like the sciences.
• Human person is being studied or understood
2. Φ is not just stating your personal opinion.
in reference to God. Here, human person is
3. Φ is one’s view in life or other matters. considered to be the image of God. He is being
4. Φ is light reading, something you relax with created by God, in His own image and likeness
in the evening, after all the serious work of the as it is mentioned in the first chapter of the
day is done. book of Genesis in the Bible.
• In this period philosophers, church fathers
and scholastics studied human person as God’s
creature. Thus, human person has to follow
God’s law to live a proper life in the society
with others.
 ❖ ANTHROPOCENTRISM - MODERN PHILOSOPHY Ethics (Montemayor, 1994)
“COGITO ERGO SUM” – Rene Descartes
1. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of
“Discourse on the Method” (1637)
human actions.
• Men’s constant search for TRUTH and
2. Ethics is the science of human acts with
MEANINGS can be provided by MAN HIMSELF.
reference to right and wrong.
• Human person himself is the point of the
3. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles
departure. He himself becomes the basis and
of morality.
object of the study matter.
4. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human
• “PHILOSOPHY OF MEN”
conduct.
5. Ethics is the human conduct from the
THALES (of Miletus) - EARLIEST
standpoint of morality.
KNOWN PHILOSOPHER, MATHEMATICIAN.
6. Ethics is the science which lays down the
SCIENTIST (625 B.C)
principles of right living.
7. Ethics is the practical science that guides us in
our actions that we may live rightly and well.
PHILOSOPHY OF MEN 8. Ethics is normative and practical science, based
❖ is an inquiry into the what-who-and why of on reason, which studies human conduct and
man, i.e: provides norm for its natural integrity
• of human nature which pertains to the and honesty.
characteristics that distinguish human 9. According to Socrates, ethics is the investigation
from non-human nature of life.
• of human person which refers to the Keypoints from its definition
characteristics that entitle an entity to
be considered a person, and 1. Science-systematic study or a system of
• of human life which consists of the scientific conclusions clearly demonstrated,
philosophical purpose or goal of being derived from clearly established principles and
human and of an ideal human existence duly coordinated.
2. Morality – the quality of human acts as right,
ETHICS AND ITS IMPORTANCE wrong or indifferent, moral immoral or amoral.
3. Human acts –acts done with knowledge,
freedom and free will or consent.

Importance of Ethics

1. Ethics means right living and good moral

character and it is in good moral character that
man finds his true worth and perfection. The
supreme purpose of human living lies in the
development of the moral qualities which lift
man far above brute creation.
2. Education is the harmonious development of
the whole man-of all ma’s faculties: the moral,
intellectual, and physical powers in man. Now
then highest of man’s power are his reason and
will. Hence, the primary objective of education
is the moral development of the will.
 Module 1B: Ethics and Its Key Concepts

Moral vs. Non-Moral Standards

Why Distinguish?

• different cultures have different

moral standards.
• the danger here is that one culture may impose
its own cultural standard on others, which may
result in a clash in cultural values and beliefs.
RULES
When this happens, as we may already know,
❖ refer to explicit or understood regulations or violence and crime may ensue, such as religious
principles governing conduct within a specific violence and ethnic cleansing.
activity or sphere. • we will be able to avoid running the risk of
❖ Rules tell us what is or is not allowed in a falling into the pit of cultural reductionism (that
particular context or situation. is, taking complex cultural issues as simple and
❖ In many ways, rules serve as a foundation for homogenous ones) and the unnecessary
any healthy society. Without rules, society imposition of one’s own cultural standard
would like fall into anarchy. on others.

NOTE:
Rules and Its Importance to Social Beings
❖ The point here is that if such standards are non-
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior moral (that is, a matter of taste), then we don’t
have the right to impose them on others. But if
• Limits human behavior. such standards are moral ones, such as not
• Impose consequence on those who violate killing or harming people, then we may have the
them. right to force others to act accordingly. In this
• Avoidance of negative consequence way, we may be able to find a common
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain right and moral ground, such as agreeing not to steal, lie,
freedom. cheat, kill, harm, and deception.

• Laws and constitution

• Thomas Hobbes’ Social Contract theory MORAL STANDARDS

3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings. • are norms that individuals or groups have about
the kinds of actions believed to be morally right
• To prevent exploitation and domination. or wrong, as well as the values placed on what
• generate a stable system that provides justice, we believed to be morally good or morally bad.
in which even the richest and the most • Moral standards normally promote “the good”,
powerful have limitations on what they can do. that is, the welfare and well-being of humans as
well as animals and the environment.
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system.
• Moral standards, therefore, prescribe what
• Prevent monopolies and strengthen the humans ought to do in terms of rights
competitiveness of the economy. and obligations.
• ensure product safety, employee’s safety and • Moral standards= norms + values
product quality.
Characteristics of Moral Standards Ethical/Moral Dilemma

1. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant ❖ are situation in which a difficult choice has to be
benefit. made between two courses of action, either of
which entails transgressing a moral principle. At
• Can seriously injure, impact or benefit human the very least, a moral dilemma involves
beings. conflicts between moral requirements.
2. Moral standards are not established or changed by ❖ Key Features:
the decisions of authoritative individuals or bodies. 1. the agent is required to do each of two (or
more) actions;
• Can not be created, changed, nullified by 2. the agent can do each of the actions; but the
decisions of particular authority. agent cannot do both (or all ) of the actions. In a
• Legal but not moral; Moral but not legal moral dilemma, the agent thus
seems condemned to moral failure no matter
3. Moral standards are ought to be preferred to other
what he does, he will do something wrong, or
values.
fail to do something that he ought to do.
• They have overriding character or hegemonic 3. neither of the conflicting moral requirements is
authority. overridden.
4. Moral standards the trait of universality.

• Applies to all who are relevantly situated. Levels of Moral Dilemma

5. Moral standards are based on impartial consideration 1. Personal Dilemma

2. Organizational Dilemma
• Impartiality - being free of bias or prejudice,
3. Structural Dilemma
requiring us to give and adequate consideration
to the interest of all concerned parties. “Only Human Beings can be ethical.”

6. Moral standards are associated with special emotions Basic tenet in ethics:
and vocabulary.
1. Only Human beings are rational, self-conscious
• Prescriptive: practical/ action guiding nature and autonomous.
• Retroactive: evaluate behavior, assign praise 2. Only Human beings can act morally or
and blame or produce feelings of satisfaction or immorally.
guilt. 3. Only Human beings are part of moral
community.
Non-Moral Standards
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY – FREEDOM
• Non-moral standards refer to standards by
which we judge what is good or bad and right or MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS IN MORALITY
wrong in a non-moral way. As we can see, non-
moral standards are matters of taste or
preference. Hence, a scrupulous observance of
these types of standards does not make one a
moral person. Violation of said standards also
does not pose any threat to human well-being.

Examples:

• Etiquette
• Aesthetic standards
• Game and house rules
• Laws in general (except mala in se)
MODULE 2: THE MORAL AGENT THOMAS HOBBES

JOHN LOCKE

“Only Human Beings can be ethical.”

Basic tenet in ethics: Culture in Moral Behaviour

1. Only Human beings are rational, self-conscious

and autonomous.
2. Only Human beings can act morally or
immorally.
3. Only Human beings are part of moral
community.
CULTURE Moral Standards as Social Conventions and the
Social Conditioning Theory.
• cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience,
beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies,
religions, notion of time, roles, spatial relations,
Social Convention Theory
concepts of the universe, and material objects
and possessions… • By convention, they mean those things agreed
• acquired by a group of people in the course upon by people like through their authorities.
of generations through individual and group Convention also refer to the usual or customary
striving. ways through which things are done within
• products of action. a group.
• sum total of the learned behaviour of a group of • Moral standards are merely human inventions
people… transmitted from generation to • As a theory, moral law is a social convention
generation. which human beings had just made up for
• symbolic communication. themselves and might have been different had
• TOTALITY OF PEOPLE’S WAY OF LIFE they liked.

Social Conditioning Theory

• Moral conscience or the feeling that we are

obliged to at morally is nothing but an outcome
of social conditioning
• ACTS→ society disapproves→aware of the
weight of reproof→dissatisfaction→develop
into a habit→ function as a CONSCIENCE
• C.S Lewis explains why morality is not just a
social convention
• It is the intellect (REASON) which can be molded
or socially conditioned, not the sense of moral
nor the so called conscience per se.

The Challenges of Cultural Relativism

Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory