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/ 24
B.Tech.
SEMESTER EXAMINATIO!
COMPUTER NETWORK
(es.602)
Time : 3 Hours} {Total Marks - 100
Q. 1. Attempt any four parts of the following: Sx4 = 20
Q. 1. (a) What is the number of cable links required for n devices connected in
mesh, ring, bus and star topology ?
Ans, The number of cables for each type of network is:
a. Mesh: (n= D/2
4. Bus: one backbone and n drop lines
Q. 1. (b) List the various layers of OSI model. Briefly explain the working of each
of them.
‘Ans. The OSI model (minus the physical medium) is shown in Fig. 1-20. This model is
based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (1S0) as a first step
toward international standardization vf the protocols used in the various layers (Day and
Zimmermann, 1983}. It was revised in 1995 (Day, 1998).
‘The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because
it deals with connecting open systems-that is, systems that are open for communication with
other systems. We will just call it the OSI model for short.
‘The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follews:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed,
2. Each layer should perform aw ll-defined funetion.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized 37 protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should de chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.
Below we will discuss each layer of the model in turn, starting at the bottom layer. Note
that the OSI model itself is not a network architecture because it does not specify the exact
services and protocols to be used in each layer. It just tells what each layer should do. However,
ISO has also produced standards for sll the layers, although these are not part of the reference
‘model itself. Bach one has been published as a separate international standard, Name af writ
‘exchanged
‘Application protoco!
7 [ Appticaion ‘ADU!
wert Presettion pts
6 [ Peesenation Presentation | PROU
i Seo t
[session f#--— Session | SPDU.
ines Tanspan pow ft
4 [Tratpon 1" Conmancaion saber nay [Tras] 00
T a ae T
» [Reno la afef enon af anoa felon] Pate
ee rans +—of to} [Data] rae
i
1 [Pips eghts[ Pict po Posi {of Pins] a
Rowe —_“Rower er
Host
L_— Nerwork layer hos-rouer protocot
‘— Daa ink ayer host-outer protocol
Physical layer host-rouer protocol
‘The OSt reference mode
‘The Physical Layer : The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over &
‘communication channel. The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side
sends a 1 bit, itis received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Typical questions here are
how many volts should be used te represent a 1 and how many for a 0, how many nanoseconds 4
bit lasts, whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions, how the initial
connection is established and how it is torn down when both sides are finished, and how many
pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for. The design issues here largely
eal with mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces, and the physical transmission medium,
which lies below the physical layer.
‘The Data Link Layer : The main task of the date link layer is to transform a raw
transmission facility into a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors to the
network layer. It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input data into data
frames (typically a few hunczed or a {ew thousand bytes) and transmits the frames sequentially
If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of exch frame by sending back an
ackr.vwledgement frame.
‘The Network Layer : The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key
design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static tables that are “wired into" the network and rarely changed. They can also be
determined at the start of each conversation, for example, a terminal session (e.g. a login to @
remote machine), Finally, they can be highly dynamic, being determined anew for each packet,
to reflect the current network load. if too many packets are present in the subnet at the same
time, they will gt in one another's wy, forming bottlenecks. The control of such congestion also
belongs to the network layer. More generally, the quality of service provided (delay, transit time,
Jitter, ete. is also a network layer issue.
‘The Transport Layer : The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from
above, split it up into smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that
the pieces all arrive correetly at the other end, The transport layer also determines what type of
service to provide to the session layer, and, ultimately, to the users of the network. The most
popular type of transport connection is an error-free point-to-point channel that delivers messages
‘or bytes in the order in which they were sent. However, other possible kinds of transport service
are the transporting of isolated messazes, with no guarantee about the order of delivery, and the
broadcasting of messages to multiple destinations. The type of service is determined when the
connection is established.
‘The Session Layer : The session layer allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them. Sessions offer various services, including dialog control (keeping track of
‘whose turn it is to transmit), token management (preventing two parties from attempting the
same critical operation at the same time), and synchronization (checkpointing long transmissions
toallow them to continue from where they were ater a crash)
The Presentation Layer : Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics
of the information transmitted. In order to make it possible for computers with different data
representations to communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an
abstract way, along with a standard excoding to be used “on the wire.” The presentation layer
manages these abstract data structures and allows higher-level data structures (e.g., banking
records), to be defined and exchanged.
‘The Application Layer : The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are
commonly needed by users. One widely-used application protocol is HTTP (HyperText Transfer
Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web. When a browser wants a Web page, it sends
the name of the page it wants to the server using HITTP. The server then sends the page back.
Other application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news,
@-1.(c). Explain the different uses of computer networks.
Ans. 1. Business Applications : For smaller companies, all the computers are likely to be
in a single office or perhaps a single building, but for larger ones, the computers and employees
may be scattered over dozens of offices and plants in many countries. Nevertheless, a sales person
in New York might sometimes need access to a product inventory database in Singapore. in other
‘words, the mere fact that a user happen: to be 15,000 km away (rom his data should not prevent
him from using the data as though they were local, This goal may be summarized by saying that
it is an attempt to end the "tyranny of geography."
‘Annetwork with two clients and one server ‘The client-server model involves requests and replies
Chant maching ‘Sorver machoa
SSS
Rony
‘hent process ‘Server process
2. ticme Applies
as follows:
1, Access to remote information.
2, Person-to-person communication,
3. Interactive entertainment.
4. Electronic commerce,
‘2 » BA a7
Lf fe “a
‘Some of the more popular uses of the Internet for home users are
‘Some forms of e-commerce Tog. Fall name Example
Bac [Business-tmconsumer [Ordering books on-line
BoB [Business-to-consumer [Car manufacturer ordering tires from supplier
leac IGovernment-to-consumer [Government distributing tax forms electronically
leac (Consumer-to-consurrer Auctioning second-hand products online
Po Peer-to-peer ite sharing
3 Mobile Users : Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and personal digital
assistants (PDAS), are one of the fastest growing segments of the computer industry. Many
owners of these computers have desktop machines back at the office and want to be connected to
their home base even when away frem home or en route. Since having a wired connection is
impossible in cars and airplanes, there isa lot of interest in wireless networks
Combinations of wireless networks and mobile computing.
Wireless Mobile jestlons
No No Desktop computers in offices
No ‘Yes “i | A notebook computer used in « hotel room
Yes No ‘Networks in older, unwired buildings
Yee Yes Portable office; PDA for store inventory
@ 1. (d) What is the total delay (latency) for a frame size of 10 million bits that is
being set up on link with’15 routers each having a queuing time of 2 ys. and a
processing time of 1 ? The length of link is 3000 km. The speed of light inside the
link is 2x 10° mvs. The link has bandwith of 6 Mbps.
‘Ans. Frame size = 10 million bits
15 router are used, having a queuing time of 2 ys. and a processing time of 1 ys.
Length of the link is 3000 Km = 9x 10° m
Speed of light inside the link = 2 10° m/s.
Link has bandwidth = 6 mbps = 6 x 1024 1024 bps
i 108 x 3x 10° « 3x 10° x 2x 108
Total delay time 6x 1024 x 1024 « 15x 15x 10
= 34805% 200 973
15x10
‘Total delay time = 1.9078 seconds.
Q. 1. (e) Two networks each provide reliable connection-oriented service. One of
‘them offers a relisble byte stream and other reliable message stream. Are these
identical ? justify your answer.
‘Ans. Message and byte streams arg differont, In a message stream, the network keeps
track of message boundaries, In a by:e stream, it does not. For example, suppose a process
writes 1024 bytes to a connection and then a little later writes another 1024 bytes. The
Feceiver then does a read for 2048 bytes. With a message stream, the receiver will get two messages, of 1024 bytes each. With a byte stream, the message boundaries do not count and
the receiver will get the full 2048 bytes as a single unit, The fact that there were originally
two distinct messages is lost.
Q.. 1 ( How long does it take to transmit an 8 inch by 10 inch image by facsimile
over an ISDN B channel ? The facimile digitizes the image into 300 pixel per inich and
assiga 4 bit per pixel. -
‘Ans. 8 inch « 10 inch image is given -
speed of ISDN-B channel = 64 Kbit/sec
#64 x 1024 hitlsee
‘The image is digitized into 300 pixel/inch & assign 4bit/pixel
8.10% 900%4
so ths total time taken = 810% 300% 4
wo 4s 1028
_3000__ 3600
Beto 024
total time taken to transmit = 14648 seconds
@ 2, Attemp any four parts of the following : 10x2 = 20
2. (a) What is hamming code? Explain its working by suitable example.
Ans, A Harnming code is «linear error-correcting code, Hamming codes can detect up to
‘bwo simultaneous bit errors, ard correct single-bit errors; thus, reliable communication is
possible when the Hamming distance between the transmitted and received bit patterns is less
than or equal to one. By contrast, the simple parity code cannot correct errors, and can only
Gieteet an odd number of errors.
Parity adds a single bit tht indicates whether the number of 1 bits in the preceding data
‘was even or odd. If an odd number of bits is changed ia transmission, the message will change
parity and the error can be detecced at this point. (Note that the bit that changed may have been
the parity bit itsel®) The most common eonvention is that a parity value of 1 indicates that there
is an odd number of ones in the data, and e parity value of 0 indicates that there is an even
‘number of ones in the data. In other words: The data and the parity bit together should contain
an evan number of I.
‘The key to the Hamming Code is the use of extra parity bits to allow the identification of a
single error, Create the code wore as follows:
1. Maric all bit positions that are powers of two as parity bits, (positions 1, 2. 4, 8, 16, 32,
64, etc.)
2. All other bit positions ere for the data to be encoded. (positions 9, 5, 6. 7,9, 10, 11, 12,
18, 14, 15, 17, ete)
3, Each parity bit calculates the parity for some of the bits in the code word. The posit
of the parity bit determines the sequence of bits that it alternately checks and skips.
Position 1: check 1 bit, skip 1 bit, check 1 bit, skip 1 bit, ec. ,8.5,7,9,11,13,18,..)
Position 2: check 2 bits, skip 2bits, check 2 bits, skip 2 bits, ete. (2,8,6,7,10,11,14,36,..1
Position 4 check 4 bits, skip 4 bits, check 4 bits, skip 4 bits, ete
(4,5,6,7,12,18,14,18,20,21,22,23,..)
Position &: check 8 bits, skip 8 bits, check 8 bits, skip 8 bits, ete. (8-16,24-81,40-47,..)
Position 16: check 15 bits, skip 16 bits, check 16 bits, skip 16 bits, ete
(16-91.48- 68.80.98...) Position 32: check 92 bits, skip 32 bits, check $2 bits, skip 82 bits, ete.
(8263,96-127,160-191,..) ete.
4 Set a parity bit to 2 if the total number of ones in the positions it checks is odd. Set a
Rt Bt 0 the total numberof ones in the positions it cheeks seven,
Abyte of deta: 10012010
Create the data word, leaving spa2es for the parity bits: __1_001_1010
Calculate the parity for each parity bit (a ? represents the bit position being set);
© Position 1 checks bits 1,3,6,7.9,41:
7 _1_001_ 10.10. Bven parity 20 set position 1toa0:0_1_001_1010
2 hed bits 2,8.6.7,10,11
071_001_ 1010. Odd parity s0 set position 2 toa 1:011_001_1010
© Position 4 checks bits 456,212:
0.127001, 1010, Odd parity so set position 4 toal:0111001_1010
Position 8 checks bits 8,9,10,12,12-
0121002122010, Even parity so set position 8 toa 0:011100101010
‘© Code word: 011100102010.
@.2.(b) a channel bas a bit rate of 4Kbps and propogation delay of 20 msec. what
will be the size of frame range so that stop & wait give an efficiency of at least 50
percent ?
‘Ans. Efficiency will be 50% wher: the time to transmit the frame equals the roundtrip
Propagation detay. At ¢ tranem:ssion rate of 4 bits/ms, 160 bits takes 40 ms.
For frame sizes above 160 bits, stop-and-wait is reasonably efficient.
@. 2 (©) How FDDI ring can be used as a back bone to connect LANs &
‘computers? Also discuss the FDDI cabling in brief.
‘Ans. The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a high speed local area network
which has been defined as a standard by an American National Standards Institute committee,
ANSI X3T9.5 and by ISO.
FDDI is a 100 Mbps, token-passing, single or dual ring interface that can be implemented
with Fiber Optic or Unshielded Twisted:Pair (UTP) media. A Timed Token Protocol (TTP) is
used to control when a station can transmit data to the network. A station can transmit 9
‘message on the network only after it has received a token. Upon receiving the token, a station
begins transmitting data. The station can transmit until the message is transmitted or until the
‘TIP timer expires. This allows all stations fair access to the ring. Once the message is sent or
the timer expires, the station generates # ew token and releases it on the ring. Any downstream
station with data to send can capture the tokten and repeat the timed-transmission cycle.
‘A dval ring configuration for the network media provides a secondary backup ring in case
of a fault on the primary ring. It is typically implemented as a campus backbone or within
buildings where a failure in the primary -ing would have serious consequences. A break in the
primary ring causes the two stations on each side of the fault to automatically wrap the data to
the secondary ring. Stations in a single riag configuration can only attach to the primary ring.
‘There is no secondary backup path in the event of a failure, FDDI- all stations functioning DOC a stan
. 2. /d) Compare the delay of pure ALOHA to slotted ALOHA at low load.
‘Ans. PURE ALOHA.
A. station
can trnnamit 2 9
whenever it has 2 ©
Sloted ALOHA: = G¢
data to send. £009
Tf a frame 2
suffers collision, °°}
sender waits a B
random amount of i at
time and sends =
again. a as 10 is 20 x0
Throughput (aes pee packet time)
maximized when all
frames have the same length.
Maximum 3
throughput = 0.184
Slotted ALOHA,
Time divided into
slots, slot length equals
frame transmission time.
G (ettermpts per packet time) When frame ready for transmission, wait until start of next slot,
Maximum throughput = 0.968.
Q. 2. (0 Explain the following protocols:
(D Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol
‘The stations are organized as the leaves of a binary tree.
In slot 0, node 0 is searched (all stations under node 0 are permitted to try to acquire
the channel) -
Ia collision occurs in a slot, search the node's lot and right children.
If the slot is idle or only ene station transmits in the slet, stop the search of the node.
Adaptive Tree Walk Algorithm
+ Boch node at ievel Ihas N. 2-1 station under it.
+ @ ready stations -uniform:y distributed at level T2-1Q
© level at which search begins
-21Qs1
viz log2Q
Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol
Example
Slot 0: C*, E*, F*, H* (all nodes under node 0 can 0
try), conflict a NN
slot 1: C* (all nodes under node 1 can try), C n 4,
sends
slot 2: E*, F*, H*(all nodes under node 2 can try), / \ / \
conflict
enti 222 BP el odes ender cde 8 cant J\ /\ /\ /\
slot 4: B* (all nodea under E can try), E sends
slot 5: F* (all nodes under F ean try), F sends
slot 6: H* (all nodes under node 6 can try), H sends.
‘The number of stations perraitted to transmit can be dynamically adjusted, depending
‘upon traffic.
o Ifhigh traffic start the search at a higher level in the tree.
o Iflow traffic, start the search at a lower level in the tree.
(iv Binary exponeritial back off algorithms
Exponential backoff is an algorithm that uses feedback to multiplicatively decrease the
rate of some process, in order to gradually find an acceptable rate. It is often used in network
congestion avoidance to help determine the correct sending rate,
‘An example of an exponential backoff algorithm
This example is from the Ethernet protccol, where a sending host is able to know when a
collision has occurred (that is, another host has tried to transmit), when it is sending a frame. If
both hosts attempted to retransmit as soon as a collision occurred, there would be yet another
collision - and the pattern would continue forever. The hosts must choose @ random value within fan acceptable range to ensure that this situation doesn't happen. An exponential backoff
algorithm is therefore used. ‘The figure 51.275 has been given here as an example, However,
51.275 eould be replaced by any positive value, in practice.
1. When a collision first occurs, send 2 ‘Jamming signal’ to prevent further date being
sent,
Resend a frame after either 0 seeonds or 51 2us, chosen at random.
If that fails, resend the frame after either Os, 51.2u, 102.4ns, or 153.6us,
If that still doesn't work, resend the frame after k.512us , where k is a random
number between 0 and 2 ~1.
5. In general, after the nth failed attempt, resend the frame afler k.51.2us . where kis a
random number between 9 and 2" ~1.
In & variety of computer retworks, binary exponential backoff or truncated binary
exponential backoff refers to an algcrithm used to space out repeated retransmissions of the same
block of data
Examples are the retransmission of frames in carrier sense multiple access with collision
avoidance (CSMAICA) and carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD)
networks, where this algorithm is rart of the channel access method used to send data on these
network. In Ethernet networks, the algorithm is commonly used to schedule retransmissions after
collisions. The retransmission is delayed by an amount of time derived from the slot time and the
umber of attempts to retransmit.
After i collisions, a random number of slot times between 0 and 2i ? 1 is chosen. For the
first collision, each sender might wait 0 or 1 slot times. After the second collision, the senders
might wait 0, 1. 2, of 3 slot times, and so forth. As the number of retransmission attempts
increases, the number of possibilities for delay increases.
‘The ‘truncated’ simply means that after a certain number of increases, the exponentiation
stops: ie, the retransmission timeout reaches a ceiling, and thereafter does not increase any
further. For example, if the ceiling is set st i=10, then the maximum delay is 1023 slot times.
Because these delays cause other stations who are sending to collide as well, there is a
possibility that, on a busy network, hundreds of people may be caught in a single collision set,
Because of this possibility, after 16 artempts at transmission, the process is aborted.
Q. 3. Attempt any two parts of the following : 0x2 = 20
Q.3. (a). (i) Differentiate between adaptive & non adaptive routing algorithms.
‘Ans. Non-Adaptive Routing Algorithms
‘Non-adaptive routing algorithms do not base their routing decisions on the current state
of the network
‘This Procedure is sometimes called static routing
ddo not base their routing decisions on measurements or estimates of the current traffic
and topology. Instead, the choice of the route to use to get from I to J (for all I and J) is computed
in advance, off-line, and downloaded to the routers when the network is booted. This procedure is
sometimes called static routing
Flooding
Shortest Path Routing.
Problems non-adaptive Algorithms
Problems with non-adaptive algorithms
If traffic levels in different parts of the subnet change dramatically and often, non
adaptive routing algorithms are unable to cope with these changes Lots of computer traffic is bursty, but non-edeptive routing algorithms are usually based
‘on average traffic conditions
‘Adaptive routing algorithms can deal with these situations.
Adaptive algorithms, in contrast, change their routing decisions to reflect changes in
the topology, anid usually the traffic as well. Adaptive algorithms differ in where they get their
information to.g., locally, from adjacent routers, or from all rosters), when they change the
routes (eg. every 77 see, when the load changes or when the topology changes), and what metric
is used for optimization (eg., distance, number of hops, or estimated transit time). In the
following sections we will diseuss a veriety of routing algorithms, both static and dynamic,
Q.3. (a), (ii) What are the limitations of leaky bucket algorithm? How these are
overcomed ?
Ans. The Token Bucket Algorithm :
‘The leaky bucket algorithm enforces a rigid
‘output pattern at the average rate, no matter Hos Hos
hhow bursty the traffic is. For many applications, ompoter compu
it is better to allow the output to speed up
‘somewhat when large bursts arrive, so a more One token [o
flexible algorithm is needed, preferably one that is added Fre bucket
never loses data, One such algorithm is the token‘ packet ‘CI holds lo
every IS ig
tokens,
bucket holds tokens, generated by a clock at the
rate of one token every 27 sec. In Fig, 5-340) we
see a bucket holding three tokens, with five
packets waiting to be transmitted. For a packet
to be transmitted, it must capture and destroy
‘one token. [n Fig. 5-34(b) we see that three of the
five packets have gotten through, but the other
two are stuck waiting for two more tokens te be Networks ‘Networks
generated a ()
‘The token bucket algorithm provides a Fig. Thetoken bucket algorithm (a) Before (b) After
different kind of traffic shaping then that of the
Yeaky bucket algorithm. The leaky bucket algorithm does not allow idle hosts to save up
permission to send large burats later. The token bucket algorithm does allow saving, up to the
‘maximum size of the bucket, n. This property means that bursts of up ton packets can be sent at
‘once, allowing some burstiness in the output stream and giving faster response to sudden bursts
of input.
‘Another difference between the two algorithms is that the token bucket algorithm throws
away tokens (ie., transmission capacity) when the bucket fills up but never discards packets. In
contrast, the leaky bucket algorithm discards packets when the bucket fills up.
Here, too, « minor variant is possible, in which each token represents the right to send not,
‘one packet, but k bytes. A packet can only be transmitted if enough tokens are available to cover
its Tenth in bytes. Fractional tokens are kopt for future use.
‘The leaky bucket and token bucket algorithms can also be used to smooth traffie between
routers, as well as to regulate host output as in our examples. However, one clear
difference is that a token bucket regulating a host can make the host stop sending when the rules
say it must. Telling a router to stop sending while its input keeps pouring in may result in lost
data
bucket algorithm. In this algorithm, the leaky ‘> .
A] @..3. (b). (#) what do you understand by internetworking ? Discuss the parameters
‘on which the networks differs.
‘Ans. We believe that a variety of different networks (and thus protocols) will always be
‘round, for the following reasons, Firat of all, the installed base of different networks is large.
Nearly all 317 personal computers run TCP/IP. Many lenge businesses have mainframes running
IBM's SNA. A substantial number of telephone companies operate ATM networks Some personal
computer LANs still use Novell NCP/IPX or AppleTalk. Finally, wireless is an up-and-coming area
with a variety of protocols. Th's trend will continue for years due to legacy problems, new
technology, and the fact that not all vendors perceive it in their interest for their customers to be
able to easily migrate to another vendor's system.
A collection of interconnected networks.
The purpose of
interconnecting all these
networks is to allow users
on any of them to
communicate ‘ith users on
all the other ones and also
to allow users on any of
them to access data on any
af ther, Acoumplishing this
{goal means sending packets Comecion
fom 0m oxen wl Gs tan
Some of the many ways networks can differ.
C Item Some Possibilities |
[Service afered [Connection oriented versus connectionlese
Protocols lip, IPX, SNA, ATM, MPLS, Apple Talk, ete
Addcessing Fiat (602) versus hierarchical (IP)
Multicasting Present or absent (alse brosdeasting)
Packet size Every network has its own maximum
quality of service Present or absent; many diffaretn kinds
Error handling Roliable, ordered, end unodered delivery
Flow control Sliding window, rate control, other, or none
Congestion Contrat Leaky bucket, token bueke, RED, choke packets, ete,
Security [P-ivacy rules, encryption, ote
Parameters Different timeouts, flow specifications, ete.
[Accounting By connect time, by packet, by byte, or not at all Q 3, (b). Ui) If fragmentation needed in concatenated virtual circuit internets, or
only in datagram systems ? Explain.
‘Ans. Fragmentation is needed in both: Even in a concatenated virtual-cireuit network,
some networks along the path might accept 1024-byte packets, and others might only secept
48-byte packets, Fragmentation is still needed.
Issue Datagram subnet Virtual-cireuit subnet
[Circuit Not needed uired
Addressing IRach packet contains the full|Each packet contains a short VC|
source and dustination address |number
[State inormation [Routers do not hold state|Each VC requires router table space per
{information about connections [connection
Routing {Each packet is routed|Route chosen when VC is set up: all
lindependently ts follow it
Effect of router failures|None, except for packets lost{All VCs that passed through the failed|
lduring the erash router are erminated
Quality of service [Difficult JEasy if enough resources can be|
Jallocated in advance for each YC
[Congestion control {Difficutt lasy if enough resources can be|
allocated in advance for each VC.
@.3.(cl. What are the defecioncies of IPv4 ? How IPv6 was modified to overcome
these defeciencies ? What are the advantages of using IPva ?
‘Ans. IPv6
ts major goals were.
4. Support billions of hosts, even with inefficient address space allocation.
2. Reduce the size ofthe routing tables.
3. Simplify the protocol, to allow routers to process packets faster.
4. Brovide better security (authentication and privacy) than current IP.
5. Pay more attention to type of rervice, particularly for real-time data.
6. Aid multicasting by allowing ssopes to be specified.
7. Make it possible for a host to roam without changing its address.
8. Allow the protocol to evolve in the future.
2, Permit the old and new protoccls to coexist for years.
IPv6 maintains the good features of IP, discards or deemphasizes the bad ones, and adds,
new ones where needed. In general, TPv6 is not competible with IPv4, but it is compatible with
the other auxiliary Internet protocols, including TCP, UDP, ICMP,
IGMP, OSPF, BGP, and DNS, sometimes with small modifications being required (mostly
todeal with longer addresses). The miain features of IPv6 are discussed below.
First anid foremost, IPV6 hes lorger addresses than IPv4. They are 16 bytes long, which
solves the problem that IPvé eet out to solve: provide an effectively unlimited supply of Internet
addresses, We will have more to say abcut addresses shortly. ‘The second major improvement of IPV6 is the simplification of the header. It contains only
seven fields (versus 13 in IPv4', This change allows routers to process packets faster and thus
improve throughput and delay. We will discuss the header shortly, too.
‘The third major improvement was better support for options. This change was essential
with the new header because ficlds that previously were required are now optional. In addition,
the way options are represented is different, making it simple for routers to skip over options not
intended for them, This feature speeds up packet processing time.
‘A fourth area in which IPV6 represents a big advance is in security. IETF had its fill of
newspaper stories about precocious 12-year-olds using their personal computers to break:
into banks and military bases ail over the Internet. There was a strong fecling that something
had to be done to improve security. Authentication and privacy are key features of the new IP.
‘These were later retrofitted to IPv4, however, so in the area of security the differences are not so
sreat any more.
Finally, more attention has been paid to quality of service. Various half-hearted efforts
hhave been made in the past, but now with the growth of multimedia on the Internet, the sense of
vrgeney is greater.
Q. 4. Attempt any two parts of the following :
10x2 = 20
@. 4. (a) Discuss the transport service primitives. What do you understand by the
term : “three way handshake’? Explain the problem which is solved by this three way
hand shake.
Ans. Transport Service Primitives
‘To allow users to access che transport service, the transport layer must provide some
sto application programs, that is, a transport service interface, Bach transport se
‘The transport service is similar to the network service, but there are also some important
differences. The main difference is that the network sérvice is intended to model the service
‘offered by real networks, warts ard all. Real networks can lose packets, so the network service is
generally unreliable,
‘The (eonnection-oriented) transport service, in contrast, is reliable. Of course, real
networks are not error-free, but that is precisely the purpose of the transport layer-to provide a
roliable service on top of an unreliable network.
‘As an example, consider two processes connected by pipes in UNIX. They assume the
connection between them is perfect. They do not want to know about acknowledgements, lost
packets, congestion, or anything {:ke that, What they want is a 100 percent reliable connection,
Process A puts data into one end of the pipe, and process B takes it out of the other. This is what
the connestion-oriented transport service is all about-hiding the imperfections of the network
service so that user processes can j ist assume the existence of an error-free bit stream.
imitive Packet sent Meaning
STEN. none) tock untill some process tries to connect
lconngct CONNGETION REQ. [Actively attemp to establisha conncetion
[sen _ Data Send information
[RECEIVE Icnone) Block until a DATA packet arrives
DISCONNECT [DISCONNECTION REQ. [This side wants to release the connection ‘To see how these primitives might be used, consider an application with a server and a
number of remote clients, To start with, the server executes a LISTEN primitive, typically by
calling a libraty procedure that makes a system call to block the server until a client turns up.
‘When a client wants to talk to the server, it executes a CONNECT primitive. The transport
entity carties out this primitive by blocking the caller and sending a packet to the server.
Encapsulated in the payload of thie packet is a transport layer message for the server's transport
entity.
‘Three-way handshake
the throe-way handshake works in the presence of delayed duplicate control TPDUs. In
Fig, the first TPDU is a delayed duplicate CONNECTION REQUEST from an old connection
‘This TPDU arrives at host 2 without host 1's knowledge. Host 2 reacts to this TPDU by sending
host 1 an ACK TPDU, in effect asking for verification that host 1 was indeed trying to set up a
new connection. When host 1 rejec:s host 2's attempt to establish a connection, host 2 realizes
‘that it was tricked by a delayed duplicate and abandons the connection, In this way, a delayed
duplieate does no damage.
‘The worst case is when both @ delayed CONNECTION REQUEST and an ACK are
oating arvund in the subnet. This case is shown in Fig. (e). As in the previous example, host 2
gets a delayed CONNECTION REQUEST and replies to it. At this point itis crucial to realize
that host 2 has proposed using y as the initial sequence number for host 2 to host 1 traffic,
knowing full well that no TPDUs containing sequence number y or acknowledgements to y are
still in existence. When the second delayed TPDU arrives at host 2, the fact that 2 has been
acknowledged rather than y tells host 2 that this, too, is an old duplicate. The important thing to
realize here is that there is no combination of old TPDUs that can cause the protocol to fail
‘and have a connection set up ty accident when no one wants it,
Host Host? Host 1 Host? Host 1 Host?
014 opti REL |
MeReciny | ‘Old duplicate
2 ACK
— Time
Time
acess
© C} ‘1
@. 4 (b) Explain the TCP segment header. Also discuss the TCP connection
management,
‘Ang. The TCP Segment Header : Figure 6-29 shows the layout of a TCP segment. Every
segment begins with a fixed-format, 2¢-byte header. The fixed header may be follewed by header options. ARer the 2 it
options, ifany, up to
65,595 - 20 = 20 = —
65.495. data byten Source por Destination pot
may follow, where
the first 20 refer to ‘Sequence number
the IP header and
the second to the
‘TCP header,
Segments without | pewuer
ny data are legal | Ieegth
and are commonly
used ‘or
acknowlodgements
and antral
ressages
Let us
dissect. the TCP.
header field by Feld.
‘The Source port and Fig. The TCP header
Destination. port
fields identify the local end points of the connection. A port plus its host's IP address forms a
48-bit unique end point. The source and destination end points together identify the connection.
The Sequence number and Acknowledgement number fields perform their usual functions
‘Note that the latter specifies the next byte expected, not the last byte correetly received, Both
are 32 bits long because every byte of data is numbered in a TCP stream.
‘The TCP header length tells how many 32-bit words are contained in the TCP header.
This information is needed because the Options field is of variable length, so the header is, too.
Next comes a 6-bit field thats not used. The fact that this fleld has survived intact for
over a quarter ofa century is testimony to how well tought out TCP is, Lesser protocols would
have needed it to fix bugs in the original design.
Now come sit I-bit flags. URS is act to 1 ifthe Urgent pointer is in use, The Urgent
pointer is used to indfcate a byte offset from the current sequence number at which urgent data,
are to be found. This facility is in lieu of interrupt messages. As we mentioned above, this facility
is a bare-bones way of allowing the sender to signal the receiver without getting TCP itself
involved in the reason forthe interrupt.
‘Tho ACK biti st to 1 to indiate that the Acknowledgement number is valid. IFACK is ,
the segment does not contain an acknowledgement so the Acknowledgement number field is
ignored,
‘The PSH bit indicates PUSHed data. The receiver is hereby kindly requested to deliver
the data to the application upon arrival and not buffer it until a full buffer has been received
(orhich it might otherwise do for efficiency)
‘The RST bit is used to reset @ connection that has become confused due to a host crash or
some other reason. It is also used to reject an invalid segment or refuse an attempt to open a
i
Acknowledgement number
Options (0 0 more 32-bit words
‘Data optinal conneetion. In general, if you get a vegment with the RST bit on, you have a problem on your
hands.
‘The SYN bit is used to establish connections. The connection request has SYN = 1 and
ACK = 0 to indicate that the piggyback acknowledgement field is not in use. The connection
reply does beur an acknowledgement, so it has SYN = 1 and ACK = 1. Ir, evsence the SYN bit is
used to denote CONNECTION REQUEST and CONNECTION ACCEPTED, with the ACK bit
used to distinguish between those two possibilities.
‘The FIN bit is used to release a connection. It specifies that the sender has nu more data
to transmit. However, after closing a connection, the closing process inay continue to receive data
indefinitely. Both SYN and FIN segments have sequence numbers and are thus guaranteed to be
processed in the correct order.
Flow control in TCP is handled using a variable-sized sliding window. The Window size
field tetls how many bytes may be sen: starting at the byte acknowledged. A Window cize field of
O is legal and says that the bytes up to and including Acknowledgement number - 1 have been
received, but that the receiver is currently badly in need of a rest and would like no more data
for the moment, thank you. The receiver can later grant permission to send by transmitting a
segment with the same Acknowledgement number and e nonzero Window size field
A Checksum is also provided for extra reliability. It checksums the header, the data, and
the conceptual pseudoheader. When performing this computation, the TCP
Checksum field is set to zero anc! the data field is padded out with an additional zero byte
if ts length is an odd number. The checksum algorithm is simply to add up all the 16-bit words
in one’s complement and then to take the one's complement of the sum. As a consequence, when
the receiver performs the calculation cn the entire segment, including the Checksum field, the
result should be 0.
TCP Connection Managemen: Modeling
Stave Description
CLOSED [No connection is aetive or pending
LISTEN |The server is waiting for an ineming call
ISN ROvD, |A connection request has arrived; wait for ACK
|SYN SENT [The application has started to open a connection
ESTABLISHED [The normal data transfer state
FIN WAIT [The application has said it is finished
FIN WAIT 2 [The other side has said itis finished
[TIMED WAIT Wait for all packets to die off
IcLosinG. [Both sides have tried to close simultaneously
[CLose WAIT The other side has initiated a release
LAS ACK Wait for all packets to die off TCP connection management finite state machine, The
heavy solid line is the normal path for a clieut. The heavy dashed tine
is the normal path for a server. The light lines are unusual events.
Each transition is labeled by the event causing it and the action
resulting from it, separated by a slash,
(ste)
[= ,eONNECTISYN Step 1 olin Sway handsnaKa]
| cuoseo
Q4. (©. (4) Explain the protocol of transport layer designed for multimedia
application
‘Ans. We are interested in a class of distributed multimedia applications called
‘Chuster-to-Cluster (C-te-C) applications. In a C-to-C application, a collection of computing and
‘communication devices communizates with a remote collection of computing and communication
devieus. Evaipoints in the same ¢ uster share a common gateway node known as the Aggregation
Point (API, While few application ows share the same end-to-end path, all ows share a common
intermediary path between clusters. Figure 1 illustrates this model, C-to-C applications share
several key characteristics. Independent, but semantically related ows of data. An application may prioritize streams
in a particular way, or divide complex media objects into multiple streams with speti_c temporal
‘oF spatial relationships. Transport-level heterogeneity. UDP- or RTP-based protocols, for example,
‘might be used for streaming media while TCP is used to reliably transport control dala.
Changing network conditions along the shared data path, While networks within a eluster
can be provisioned to comfortably support an application's requirements, the forwaraing path
between clusters is shared with other Internet ows and typically cannot be provisioned
end-to-end. Henee, itis the primary so ace of network lateney and packet loss.
‘One example of 2 C-to-C application is office of the Future, conceived by Fuchs et 2.18] In
this immersive application, « set of video cameras and microphones are used to eapture an office
environment in otder to conséruet a remote virtual environment using various computing and
display devices. Complex spatial relationships exist between media streams, and the relative
priority of these streams changes constantly as the user moves their region of interest.
‘A fundamental problem in the C-to-C application context is that of ow coordination,
Application sireams share a common intermediary path bowwcen clusters, and yet employ
transport protocols that operate in isolation from one another. As a result, ows may compete with
one another when network resourees become limited instead of cooperating to use avcilale
bandwidth in application-controlled ways.
‘COORDINATION PROTOCOL : Our solution tothe problem of ow coordination in C-e-C
applications is called the Coordination Protocol, or CP. Cooperates between the network layer (IP)
and transport layer (TOP, UDP, etc.), making it transparent to IP routers on the C-to-C
forwarding path and preserving the sersanties of end-to-end transport-level protocols. Application
endpoints insert a CP header into each data packet before sending the packet to an endpoint on
the remote cluster. The packet receives special handling at its local AP, and then is forwarded
toward the remote cluster. After traversing the clusterto-cluster date path using standard IP
forwarding, the remote AP applies special handling to the packet before forwarding it to the
destination endpoint, Endpoints use information in CP packet headers to make send rate
adjustments that react application cvordination strategies. As a packet originates from an
application endpoint, its CP header contains a cluster ID tolling the AP to associate it with a
particular C-to-C application. A ow ID likewise identifies the packet with a particular application
ow. The AP keeps a table of bandwith usage statistics on ows in the same C-to- C application,
also tracking the number of ows and aggregate bandwidth usage by the C-to-C application as @
whole. Network probing works by using the CP header in each C- to-C data packet to piggyback
probe information on the shared data path between APs. Each AP modifies the CP header from
packets originating et its local eluster to add timestamp and sequence number information. As
‘additional probe information from the remote AP is returned along the reverse cluster-to- cluster
data path, the AP is able to obtain measurements of round trip time and loss rates across all
aggregate C-to-C tra_c. Using round trip time, loss rate, and packet size information, 2 bandwidth
availability estimate can be made at each AP using a throughput modeling equation. Our work
has made use of the TFRC [2] equatim, giving a throughput estimate that is both gradually
responsive to network congestion and TOP- compatible, In addition, we have developed
techniques to extend single-ow modeling equations to multiple owshares, thus allowing m C-to-C
‘application ows to receive the equivatens of m TCP-compatible owshares.
Q. 4. (c. (ii) What is the procedure for compressing data using ranlength
encoding?
‘Ans. Ran-length encoding (RLE) isa very simple form of data compression in which runs of
data (that is, sequences in which the same data value occurs in many consecutive data elements)
are stored ax a single data value and count, rather than as the original run. This is most useful on data that contains many such runs: for example, relatively simple graphie images such os ieons,
line drawings, and animations. It is not useful with files that don't have many runs os it eould
potentially double the filesize.
For example, consider a screen containing plain black text on n solid white background.
‘There will be many long runs of white pixels in the blank space, end many short runs of black
pixels within the text, Let us take a hypothetical single scan line, with B representing a black
pixel and W representing white:
NWI WWW RWW HWW WW WWEBBWW WW Www WW wWWA WW
WWW WWW
It we apply the rundensth encoding (RLE) data compression algorithm to the above
hypothetical sean Tine, we get the following:
1: WIBI2WaB24WIBIsW
Intecprct this as twelve W's, one B, twelve Wa, three B's, ete
‘The run-length code represents the original 67 characters in only 18. OF course, the actuat
format used for the storage of inages is generally binary rather than ASCII characters tike this,
but the prineiple remains the same. Even binary data files can be compressed with this method:
file format specifications often dictate repeated bytes in files as padding space. However, newer
compression methods such as DEFLATE often use LZ77-based algorithms, # generalization of
run-length encoding that can tke advantage of runs of strings of characters (such as
BW BWWEWWBWW),
Applications
Run-length encoding performs lossless data compression and is well suited to palette-based
iconic images. It does not work well at all on continuous-tone images such as photographs,
although JPEG uses it quite effectively on the coefficients that remain after transforming and
quantizing image blocks. Common formats for run-length encoded data include True vision TOA,
PackPits. POX and ILBMRun-length encoding is used in fax machines (combined with other
(echriques into Modified Huffman coding). It is relatively efficient because most faxed documents
are montly white space, with aceasional interruptions of black. Data that have long sequentia!
runs ef bytes (such as lower-qustity sound samples) can be REE compressed after applying a
predictive Alter such as delta enco ting,
Q.5. Attempt any two parts.
Q. 5. (a) Explain Simple Network Management Protocol. List its various
components and briefly discuss each of them.
‘Ans. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a UDP-based network protocol. It is
used mostly in network management systems to monitor network-attached devices for conditions
that warrant administrative attentiva. SNMP is a component of the Internet Protocol Suite as
defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). It consists of 9 set of standards for
networke management, including aa application layer protocol, a database schema, and a set of
data objects.
‘SNMP exposes management data in the form of variables on the managed systems, which
describe the system configuration. These variables can then be queried (and sometimes set) by
managing applications.
Min bpicel SNMP uae one or more edministrative computers have the task of monitoring o
‘managing a group of hosts or dovieos on a computer network. Each managed system (also called
Slave) exeeutes, at all times, a software component called an agent (see below) which reports
information via SNMP to the managing systems (elso called Masters). The variebles nctessible
via SNMP are organized in hierarchies. These hierarchies, and other metadata (such as type and
{description of the variable), are described by Management Information Bases (MIBs). An SNMP-managed network consists of three key components:
Managed device « Slave device
Agent software which runs on Slave device
Network management system (NMS) » software which runs on Master
‘A managed device is a network node that implements an SNMP interface that allows
uunidireotional (read-only) or bidirectional access to node-specific information. Managed devices
exchange node-specifie information with the NMSs, Sometimes called network elements, the
managed devices can be any type of device, including, but not limited to, routers, access servers,
switches, bridges, hubs, IP telephones, computer hosts, and printers.
‘An agent is @ network-management software module that resides on a maneged device. An
agent has local knowledge of management information an translates that information to or from
an SNMP specific form.
‘A network management system (NMS) executes applications that moniter and euntrol
managed devices. NMSs provide the bulk of the processing and memory resources required for
network management. One or more NMSs may exist on any managed network
.5. (b). (i) When the web pages are sent out, they are prefixed by MIME headers.
Why?
‘Ans. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an Internet standard that extends
‘he format of e-mait to support:
‘© Text in character sets other than’ASGI
‘© Non-text attachments
(¢ Message bodies with multirte parts
‘© Header information in non-ASCII character sets
‘MIME's use, however, has grown beyond describing the content of e-mail to describing
content type in general, including for the web.
Virtually all human-written Internet e-mail and a fairly large proportion of automated
‘e-mail is transmitted via SMTP in MIME format, Internet e-mail is so clasely associated with the
SMTP and MIME standards that itis sometimes called SMTP/MIME e-mail.
The content types defined by MIME standards are also of importance outside of e-mail,
such es in communication protocols like HTTP for the World Wide Web. RTP requires that data
be transmitted in the context of e-mail-like messages, although the data most often is not actually
e-mail,
‘MIME defines mechanisms for sending other kinds of information in e-mail. These include
text in languages other than English using character encodings other than ASCII, and 8-bit
binary eontent such as files containing images, sounds, movies, and computer programs. MIME is
also a fundamental component of communication protocols such as HTTP, which requires that
data be transmitted in the context of e-mail-like messages even though the data might not (and
usually doese’t) actually have anyth:ng to do with e-mail. Mapping messages into and out of
MIME format is typically done automatically by an e-mail client or by mail servers when sending
or receiving Internet (SMTP/MIME) e-mail, The goals of the MIME definition included requiring
ro changes to existent e-mail servers and allowing plain text e-mail to funetion in both directions
with existing clients.
@.5. (b). Gi) Explain the working of digital signature.
‘Ans. One approach to digitsl signatures is to have a central authority that knows everything
‘and whom everyone trusts, say Big Brother (BB). Bach user then chooses a secret key and carries it
by hand to BB's office. Thus, only Alice and BB know Alice's secret key, KA, and 60 on, AK (B Ra TP)
Alice
ae
(AL Ry. TP, yg (At PD
Public-key eryptography can make an important contribution in this area. Let us assume
that the public hey encryption anc decryption algorithms have the property that BUDP)) = P in
addition, of course, to the usual property that D/E(P)) = P. (RSA has this property, so the
assumption is not unreasonable.) Assuming that this is the case, Alice ean send a signed plaintext,
message, P, to Bob by transmitting EB(DA‘P). Note carefully that Alice knows her own (private)
key, Ds, a3 well as Bob's public key, EB, 20 constructing this message is something Alice can do,
When Bab ceceives the message, h transforms it using his private key, as usual, yielding DA'P),
fas shown in Fig. He stores this text in a safe place and then applies EA ta. get the unginal
plaintext,
‘ Transmission tine
Alice's compu er i
bee | ae ours |
public key. * | private key, ‘public key.
| |
ee eee
Bob's computer
DyP) EqtD, iP) DytP)
Q.5. (©). Write short notes on any two
Q.5.(0) i, DNS
Ang. The essence of DNS is the invention of a hierarchical, domain-based naming scheme
and a distributed database system for implementing this naming scheme. It is primarily used for
mapping host names and e-mail destinations to IP addresses but can also be used for other
purposes. DNS is defined in RFCs 1034 and 1035.
‘The DNS Name Space
F-— Counties
each | domain
overs many it cum
hosts. Bach |
domain is san
partitioned into |
sub domains, and
these are further ne es Keio
partitioned, and /* Jack jill |
80 on. Ail’ these \
domains can be
represented by i
robot tree, as shown in Fig, . The leaves of the tree represent domains that have no sub domains (but do
contain machines, of course), A Ivaf domain may contain a single host, or it may represent a
‘company and contain thousands of hosts.
‘A portion of the Internet dormain name space
‘The top-level domains coms in two Mavors: generic and countries. The original generic
domains were com
