SECOND YEAR COMPILED BY

DR ANUM

BOTANY NOTES SIDDIQUI

 CHAPTER NO 1
HOMEOSTASIS

Definition
Home means same and stasis means state. So the regulatory mechanism which maintained
the internal environment of an organism is called homeostasis.

Important Aspects of Homeostasis

There are three important aspects of homeostasis.
• Osmoregulation
• Thermoregulation
• Excretion
Osmoregulation in Plant
Osmoregulation
The regulatory mechanism which maintains the balance between water and solute context
of a cell is called Osmoregulation.
Due to the availability of water there are four groups of plant.
• Hydrophytes
• Halophytes
• Xerophytes
• Mesophytes

Hydrophytes
The group of plant which grows in fresh water like ponds lakes called hygrophyte. Their
complete body is found in water or some in some plants lower part remains in water and
upper parts such as leaves are above in water.
Characteristic of Hydrophytes
• The plant do not have layer of cuticle.
• The leave have stomata in the upper surface with take part in transpiration.
• The roots are either absent or poorly developed.
• The hydrophytes which are in water contains hydathodes.
Example
Hydrilla, Lotus, Lily plant

Halophytes
The group of plant which is grow in marshy soil or salty soil are called halophyte.
Characteristic of Halophyte
• These plants absorb water from such a soil, which is higher salt concentration and
low water potential. Their roots always have higher solute potential to absorb water.
• In the leaves of plants salt glands are present which helps in the removal of salt and
water from the body.
• Some halophytes absorb humidity by leave.
Example
Glass wort, Cord grass

Mesophyte
Mesophytes are those plants which require moderate and continuous supply of water.
Characteristics of Mesophyte
• Their roots are well developed.
• Their body is covered by a layer called cuticle.
• They contain stomata for evaporation of extra water.
• At night excrete water in droplet form, this process is called guttation.
Example
mango , rose.
Xerophytes
The groups of plant which grow in dry places such as desert are called Xerophytes.
Characteristic of Xerophytes
• Some plants do not face dry condition and produce seed are called ephemeral plant.
During raining season seeds germinate.
• Their roots are well develop which go deep into the soil to absorb water.
• Some plant have horizontal root on the surface to absorb rain water rapidly.
• Some plant leaves are modified into spine to prevent transpiration.
• Stem and leave covered by cuticle.
• Some plant store water in cell (succulent)
Example
Cactus, Euphorbia.

Excretion in Plant
The removal of harmful substance produce in the metabolic process from the body is called
Excretion. In plant rate of catabolic process is very slow and waste product is produce in
fewer amounts. They are used again in their anabolic process.

Waste Substance of Plant

The substances which are produce in excess amount are
• Water
• CO2 and O2
• Ions

Removal of Water
Extra water is removed from the body of plant by two methods.
Transpiration
The extra amount of water removed in the form of vapor through stomata is called
transpiration.
Guttation
When water is removed from plant in the form of drop this process is called Guttation.
Guttation occur special opening called hydathods. Guttation takes place in those plants
which grow in tropical rain forest.

Release of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide

• In day time plant used CO2 for photosynthesis process and released O2.
• In night time plant released CO2 and inhale O2 gas.
Ions
Excess amount of ions are deposit into dead cell of plant body such as bark.
Thermoregulation
The maintained the temperature of the body with in a range is called thermoregulation.

Thermoregulation in Plant
The normal range of temperature in plant is 10 oC to 35oC. The adaption of plant to low and
high temperature are as follows.
Low Temperature
• At low temperature the nature of plasma membrane is changed and produces
crystalline structure due to which transport of solute is slow.
• To control this condition plant cell produce unsaturated.
• At freezing point ice crystal are formed in the cell. But the plant of cold region
changes the composition of solute of cell so ice crystals are not formed in cytoplasm they
form in cell wall. This condition is known as freezing tolerance.
High Temperature
High temperature has more harmful than low temperature for plant.
• Due to high temperature all enzyme are denature and metabolic process stop. So
plant increase rate of transpiration and cool the body.
• At above 40°C plant produce heat shock protein. They protect the enzyme from
destroying.
• In some plant shiny cuticle is present which protest them from high temperature.
• In some plant leaves are reduce in size.
 PRACTICE WORK
1. Fill in the blanks.
i) The capacity of living system to lose water is water potential.
ii) The net movement of molecules remain in equilibrium when a cell is placed in isotonic
solution.
iv) Plant cells, when constantly placed in hypotonic solution does not burst because of the
presence of cell wall.
v) Plant gets rid of surplus water by losing it in vapors form by process called Transpiration.
vi) Enzymes are protected at high temperature by heat shock protein.
vii) Any change in any substance of internal environment take place, it is detected, usually
by special organs called receptors.
ix) The cytoplasm with its plasma membrane shrinks from the cell wall. This condition is
called plasmolysis.
xii) Homeostasis is a set of regulatory mechanisms, which are involved in maintaining
organism’s internal environment with a suitable limit.
Xiii) The check and balance system of homeostasis is called feed back system.
xiv) Maintenance of water and solute concentration of cell is called Osmoregulation.
xv) The water potential of cell sap is termed as solute potential.
xvi) A fully extended cell is called a Turgid cell. True.
xvii) Lenticels are present on the epidermis of leaves. False.
xviii) Cell wall is permeable.
Xix) A fully distended cell is known as plasmolysed.
xx) The potential energy of water molecule is termed water potential.
xxi) The loss of water in the liquid form is called guttation.
xxii) Plants growing in shades are termed as Sciophytes.
xxiii) Cell becomes flaccid in this solution Hypertonic.

2- Write detailed answer of the following questions

i) Discuss categorization of plants based on Osmoregulation.
ii) Discuss excretion in plants.
iii) What is Osmoregulation? Describe various types of plants on the basis of
Osmoregulation?
3- Write short answer of the following questions.
i) Why plant cell does not burst even if placed constantly in hypotonic solution?
ii) Why hydrophytes do not have cuticle on stem or leaves?
iii) Define positive and negative feed back with examples?
iv) Define various aspect of homeostasis.
v) Why excretion does not pose problem in plants?
vi) What are the adaptations developed in xerophytes to conserve water.
4-Define the following terms
i) Water potential ii) Osmotic pressure iii) Hydathods.
iv) Halophytes v) Ectotherms vi) Osmoregulation. Vii) Plasmolysis.
 CHAPTER NO 2
SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT

Support in plants
Young stem has special type of anatomical arrangement, which also helps in supporting
plant. The outer most layers of thin walled cells are called epidermis . The regions beneath
epidermis are generally called cortex and the central portion called stele, which may consist
of vascular tissue and some soft tissues. This type of stem depends for its mechanical
support on following tissues called Mechanical tissues.

1) Thin walled parenchyma having turgidity.

2) Thick walled living tissues like collenchymas and dead tissue like sclerenchyma.
3) Stele as cylindrical core of vascular bundles.

Parenchyma
1) It is a type of simple tissue found in epidermis, cortex, pith and mesophyll regions of
leaves. In lower plants (Bryophyte) whole plant body is composed of parenchyma.
2) These cells usually have thin primary walls but no secondary walls. They have a large
central vacuole. Chloroplasts may also be present in many parts.
3) Parenchyma cells take in water by endosmosis and become turgid and exert internal
pressure called Turgor Pressure.
4) In case of water loss from parenchyma cells, turgidity is lost, resulting in wilting in
herbaceous stems and leaves. Thus turgid parenchyma cells are important for support and
shape of soft parts of a plant.
2-Collenchyma
1) These are living cells, structurally similar to parenchyma, except that their walls are
irregularly thickened.
2) They function as an important supporting tissue in young plants and in leaves.
3) It provides mechanical support to the plants organ.
4) These tissues are found in dicot stems

3-Sclerenchyma
i) These are dead cells that have uniformly thick, heavily lignified secondary walls.
ii) These thick walls give strength to the plant body. Often these walls are so thick that
the lumen of cell nearly becomes vanished.
iii) Sclerenchyma cells are of two types: a) Fibers b) Sclerids.

4-Vascular Tissues
Xylem and phloem are vascular tissues. Tracheids and vessels are dead cells of xylem that
not only help in water conduction but also give support to plants.
a) Tracheids: These are elongated, heavily, lignified dead cells having large hollow
cavities. They have oblique transverse walls making Tracheids spindle shaped.
b) Vessels: These are like Tracheids but have no transverse walls and placed end to
ends forming a structure like open water pipe line.

Secondary growth
It may be defined as increase in diameter of stem and root due to activity of lateral
meristem. It occurs 7n all gymnosperms. Many dicot angiosperms undergo secondary
growth but vary few monocot plants.
Secondary Tissues
Secondary tissues are those which are formed by the activity of lateral meristem or
cambium. Vascular cambium and cork cambium are the types of cambium. Secondary xylem,
secondary phloem and secondary cortex are secondary tissues.
Vascular Cambium
This type of cambium first appears between primary xylem and primary phloem is called
fusiform initial (Fascicular cambium). Then few cells of each medullary ray, lying in line with
fusiform initials become meristematic to form INTERFASCICULAR CAMBIUM. These two
cambium combine to form a ring of vascular cambium. Vascular cambium cuts off new cells
inside as well as outside. The cells formed inside give rise to SECONDARY XYLUM.The cells
formed outside give rise to SECONDARY PHLOEM.

Heart wood and sap wood

In older trees, central rings of xylem become blocked due to deposition of resin, tannis and
gums. This non –conducting part of xylem appears darker in color and is called Heat wood.
Outer rings of xylem appevessars lighter in color. They remain patent and participate in
conduction of water and dissolved materials hence are called sap wood.

Annual Rings
1) The plants of temperate region accumulate secondary xylem in the form of concentric
layers every year is called annual rings.
2) Each annual ring consists of two zones, the inner zone offspring wood having larger
vessels and outer zone of Summer wood or autumn wood having smaller vessels.
3) A fairly accurate estimate of age of an old tree can be made by counting annual rings.
2- Cork Cambium
Layer of hypodermal cells may regain the power of division to form a ring of meristematic
tissue called Cork cambium or Phellogen. The cork cambium cut off new cells inside as well
as outside. The cell formed inside is called Secondary Cortex. The cells formed outside are
rectangular and arranged in radial rows. They have waxy deposits of Suberin and become
dead and are called Cork tissue or Phellem.
Newly formed secondary cortex and cork tissue increase the diameter of stem. (Secondary
growth). Cork tissue also functions as barrier and protect stem from physical damage and
pathogens. It prevents water loss also.

Lenticels
Part of cork tissue have unsupervised, loosely arranged cells with intracellular spaces. These
masses of loss cells, through which gases and water vapors readily pass out, are known as
Lenticels.
Significant of Secondary tissues
i) Secondary growth meets the needs of more water, minerals food conduction for
growing plants.
ii) It also provides firm support to plant by producing new conducting and mechanical
tissues.

Plant Movement
Plant perform their movement in response to their stimuli, Their protoplasm influenced by
its environment, it can feel any type of change. This property is called irritability.
“Any action taken by plants to reduce irritability is called Plant movement.”

Types of movements
On the basis of stimuli, plant movements are of two types.
1-Autonomous movement:
2-Paratonic movement:

1-Autonomous movement
This movement takes place due to any change in the protoplasm. It occurs automatically in a
natural way and it is not influenced by an external environmental change, so it is termed as
automatic movement.
There are three types of autonomous movements.
a) Locomotory movement.
b) Growth curvature movement.
c) Turgor movement.

a) Locomotory movement
When the whole body or a part of body moves or internal material of cell moves from one
part to another by internal stimuli, it is called Locomotory movement.
Example:
Movement of chromosome during cell division.

b) Growth and Curvature movements

Change in form and shape of plant organs due to difference in ratio of growth of different
parts are called growth and curvature movement. It is of two types.
1) Nutation: The growth in apex of young stem takes place in zig zag manners due to
alternate change in growth rate on opposite side of apex; this type of movement is called
nutation.
2) Nastic movement: these movements occur due to difference in growth rate on two
opposite sides of a plant organ. Opening of petals of a flower or unfolding of folded leaf are
examples of nastic movement.

c) Turgor movement
Movement that occurs due to change in turgidity and size of cells as a result of loss or gain of
water is called Turgor movement.

2-Paratonic Movement
Movement that occur due to external stimuli are called Para tonic movement, They may be
tropic and Nastic:

a) Tropic movements: These are directional movements of a part of plant in response to

external stimuli which comes from one side only. These movements are growth movements
and take place in growing region of plants such as stem and roots.
On the basis of stimuli, tropic movements are of following types:

Type of Tropic Movement

The main type of tropic movement are as follow

* Phototropism
* Geotropism
* Chemotropism
* Hydrotropism
* Thigmotropism
Phototropism

Photo ------> Light Tropos ------> turn

The movement of part of plant in response to stimulus of light are called phototropism.
Example
* Positive phototropism in stem
* Negative phototropism in root

Geotropism
Geo ------> earth Tropos ------ turn
The movement of part of plant in response to force of gravity are called Geotropism.
Example
Root display positive Geotropism and shoots negative geotropism.

Chemotropism
Chemo ------> Chemical Tropos ------> turn
The movement in response to some chemicals is called Chemotropism.
Example
The hyphase of fungi show chemotropism.

Hydrotropism
Hydro ------> Water Tropism ------> turn
The movement of plant parts in response to stimulus of water is called hydrotropism.
Example
The growth of root toward water is due to positive hydrotropism and shoots negative
hydrotropism.

Thigmotropism
Thigmos ------> touch Tropos ------> turn
The movement of plant parts in response to stimulus of touch are called Thigmotropism.
Example
The movement in climber

b) Nastic movement: These are non directional movements of plant part in response to
external stimuli. The movement is independent of direction of stimulus; the stimulus comes
from any direction but the response will always be same.
There are five types of Nastic movements
• Photonastic: These are the Nastic movement caused by light e.g. flower of oxalis.
• Thermonastic movement: These are the nastic movement caused by change in
temperature.
• Nyctinastic movement: Bean and other leguminous plants lower their leaves in
evening and raise them to horizontal position in morning.
• Haptonastic movement: These are the Nastic movement caused by touch e.g.
movement shown by insectivore plants.
• Seismonastic movement: When the compound leaves of sensitive plant is touched,
it collapse its leaflets fold together as it undergone shock. It results from a rapid loss of
Turgor by cells of leaves.
 PRACTICE WORK
1-Fill in the blanks.
a) Movement in plant due to unequal growth on two sides of organs is Curvature movement.
b) Growth movement caused in response to gravitational stimulus Geotropism.
c) Phototropic curvature is due to light effect on the distribution of hormone Auxin.
D)The movement of plant organs in response to touch stimulus Thigmotropism.
e) Increase in diameter of plant due to activity of vascular cambium and cork cambium
secondary growth.
f) The secondary growth in stem is caused due to activity of cambium and Phellogen.
g) The group of cells which is capable of division is called meristematic.
h) Secondary growth in stem is caused due to activity of cambium.
i) The Sclerids cells are type of sclerenchyma.
j) The movement which occurs due to difference in the rate of growth on the two opposite
sides of a plant organ is called Nastic.
j) In plants the movements which occur due to internal stimuli are called spontaneous.
K) Movement in curvature of the whole organ towards or away from stimuli is the growth
movement. (F)
l) The flowers of Nicosia are closed in day and open at night. (T)
M)The movement of plant in response to touch stimuli is Thigmotropism.
n) Cacti plants are commonly found in desert. (T)
o) Intercalary meristem occurs at base of internodes and below the node.

2-Write detailed answers of the following questions.

a) How higher plants stand erect in air and their soft organs remain firm?
b) What is secondary growth and what is the significance of secondary growth?
c) How many types of movements are found in plants? Describe Para tonic movement in
detail.

3-Write short answers of the following questions

a) Why does wilting of leaves take place in hot summer days?
b) How does the exposed tissue of cortex become protected when primary epidermis
falls off in stem?
c) How girth of stem increases from year to year?
d) How young stem gives mechanical support to plant body?
e) Why leaves of touch me not closed down on touching?
f) Briefly describe nastic movement?
g) Write a note on Sclerenchyma and its type.
h) What is a meristem? Give its type.
i) What are secondary tissues in plants? Write their significance.
j) Write the role of Auxin in plants.
k) Write the significance of secondary growth?

4- Define the following terms

a) Turgor pressure b) Lenticels c)Cambium d) Photo nasty
e)Haptonasty f) Phototropism g) Geotropism h) Chemotropism
i)Hydrotropism j)Thigmotropism k) Annual rings
5- Distinguish between the following:
1-Vascular cambium and cork cambium.
2-Heart-wood and sap wood.
3-Thigmotropism and haptonasty.
 CHAPTER NO 3
CO-ORDINATION

Plant Hormones: (Phytohormone)

Certain chemical produced by plants have profound effect on their subsequent growth and
development. Such chemicals are called Plant Hormones or Phytohormone.
Phytohormones are synthesized by plants in minute concentration and exert their effect by
activating gene expression or inhibiting enzyme or changing properties of membrane.

Types of Phytohormone
There are five kinds of plant hormones
1. Auxins
2. Gibberellins
3. Cytokinins
4. Abscisic Acid
5. Ethene

AUXINS

Discovery
the first Auxin was discovered by Fret Went in 1926.

Chemical Nature
Indol Acetic Acid (I.A.A)
Indol Acetic Acid (I.B.A)
Nephthalene Acetic Acid (N.A.A)

Site of Synthesis
It is synthesize at the apices of stem and foot, young leaves and young embryo.

Role of Auxin

i. Cell division and cell enlargement

It stimulate the cell division and cell enlargement and plant in increase the length of plant.

ii. Initiation of Root

Auxins also initiates development of adventitious roots when applied at the cut base of
stem.

iii. Abscission
In mature leaves and fruits when Auxin production diminishes, a layer of thin walled cells is
formed at the base of petiole and stake of fruit. This layer is called Abscission layer and
causes fall of leaves and fruit with slight jerk.
iv. Growth of Fruit
Auxins produced in young embryo promotes the growth of fruit.

v. Parthenocarpy
Use of Auxin helps in producing parthenocarpic or seedless fruits.

vi. Apical Dominance

Besides growth promoting function on Auxin, also has inhibitory effect on growth. Growth of
apical bud inhibits growth of lateral buds beneath the stem. This phenomenon is termed as
apical dominance removal of apical buds initiates’ growth of lateral buds with more leaves
and axillary bud.

Vii. Weedicide
Auxins are selective weed killer 2-4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (-2-4-D) is used to kill
weeds.

GIBBERELLINS

Discovery
Gibberellins was discovered by T.Yabuta and I.Hayashu in a fungus called Gibberellins
funjikuroi. This fungus causes foolish seedling (Bakanae) disease in rice. In this disease the
infected rice seedling elongated and ultimately fall over without producing grains.

Chemical Nature
The chemical nature of Gibberellins is Gibberellins acid 70 types of gibberellins have been
discovered.

Role of Gibberellins

i. Cell division and cell enlargement

Like Auxins, Gibberellins also promotes cell division and elongation.

ii. Control of Dwarfism

Gibberellins can control genetic and physiological dwarfism plants.

iii. Seed Germination

They promote the synthesis of a-amylase enzyme is dormant seeds due to the production of
this enzyme, the seed starts germination.

iv. Parthenocarpy
These hormones help in the formation of seedless fruit which are called Parthenocarpic
fruits.

v. Increase of Crop Yield

The crop yield of sugar can be increased by the application of gibberellins about 50 tons/
acre.
vi. Formation of Flower and Growth of Pollen Tube
They stimulate flowering and the growth of pollen tubes during fertilization

CYTOKININS

Discovery
Cytokinins are discovered by Miller in coconut milk.

Chemical Nature
Chemically there are two types of Cytokinins.
Kinetin It is found in coconut milk etc.
Zeatin It is found in maize.

Role of Cytokinins
i. Cell Division
They initiate rapid cell division only in the presence of Auxin.

ii. Delay in Senescence

They also caused delayed senescence (old age).

iii. Breaking of Seed Dormancy

They break seed dormancy and promote fruit development some species.

ABSCISIC ACID (A.B.A)

In contrast to growth promoting hormones, Abscisic acid is growth inhibitor, produced by

plants during adverse environment conditions such as drought conditions.

Role of Abscisic Acid

• It increases dormancy in buds and seeds.
• It causes stomata to close.
• It turn leaf primordial into scale.

5. Ethene
It is a gas which also acts as a growth inhibitor.

Role of Ethene
• It triggers ripening of fruits.
• It contributes in leaf abscission and also breaks the dormancy of seeds and buds.
• It also initiates flowering in plants e.g. pineapple.

Responses to Environmental Stress

Changes in environmental conditions are the big threats for living organisms especially for
plants. These factors which change the normal condition of light, CO2, nutrients,
temperature etc. causes severe stresses on plants. The common environmental stresses for
plants are
1. Water Shortage (Drought condition)
2. Less Oxygen Supply
3. High Concentration of Salt in the Soil
4. High Temperature
5. Low / Cold Temperature
6. Herb ivory / Over Grazing

1. Water Shortage
• In dry condition, the guard cells of leaf become flaccid to close the stomata.
• In this way the transpiration is stopped.
• The dry condition also stimulates increased synthesis and release of Abscisic acid.
• This hormone help in keeping stomata close.
• These plants produce deeper root system.

2. Oxygen Deficiency
• Those plants which grow in wet habitat or marshes; they develop aerial roots to
absorb oxygen.
• Some plants developed air tubes that provide oxygen to submerged roots.

3. Salt Stress
Halophytes grow in soils where high concentrations of salt are present.to cope with
physiological dryness and salt stress they have salt glands on leaves.
Balloon like structures on leaves accumulate salts and eventually burst out reasing extra salt
absorbed by plant

4. Heat Stress
In plants there are two methods to tolerate the heat stress. Transpiration has a cooling effect
on the plant body. By this method the effects of heat are reduced. Above 40 oC plants cell
start synthesizing relatively large quantities of special protein called heat shock proteins.

5. Cold Stress

• Plants respond to cold stress by altering the lipid composition, changes in solute
composition is altered also by producing different polymers of pentose (Fructose) which
allow the crystals to super cool without compound formation.

6. Herbivory / Over Grazing

• Plants overcome excessive Herbivory by developing horns and production of

distasteful or toxic compounds.

Defense Against Pathogens

Diseases of plants may arise from infections by viruses, bacteria or fungi and other
pathogens in most cases. Against these diseases the plants produce immune system in their
body.

First Line Defense

The outer layer epidermis is a protective covering around the body of plant. This is the First
Line Defence.

Second Line Defense

When pathogens enter the body through stomata or any other way, then plants produce
certain chemicals to kill them. This is called Second Line Defence.

Phytoalexins
In infected plants an antibiotic Phytoalexins is produced which is effective to all micro-
organisms.

BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS
Definition
A control system is found in all living organisms which controls physiological and metabolic
and metabolic functions according to time is called Biological Clock.

Biological Rhythms OR Biorhythms

Definition
In living things the behavior activities occur at regular intervals which are called biological
rhythms OR biorhythms.

CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
Definition
[Circa => about; dies => day]
Biorhythms may occur, showing periodicity of about 24-Hours. These are called Circadian
Rhythm, which means about one day, so they are also called diurnal rhythms.
 PRACTICE WORK
A-Fill in the blanks.
1 Gibberellins was first found in fungus called Gibberella funjikuroi.
2. Plant hormones are also influenced by environmental factors.(T)
3. Plant hormone responsible for apical dominance is Auxin.
4. An example of growth inhibitor is Abscisic acid.
5. Tropism is the growth response which results in curvature of plant organs.
6. Chemical messengers are called hormones.
7Plant hormones are called Phytohormone.
8. The rhythmic movement of plant was also control by time measuring system called
biological clock.
9. Above 40C plant cells start synthesizing relatively large quantities of special proteins
called heat-shock-proteins.
10. During infection molecules of pathogen and injured plant tissues function as alarm
substances.

B. Write detailed answers of the following questions

1. Explain the responses of the plants environmental stress.

C. Write short answers of the following questions

1. What is Phytohormone? Describe in detail the role of five kinds of plants hormones.
2. Define Biological clock and circadian Rhythm.
3. Distinguish between Auxin and gibberellins.
4. What are the first and second lines of defence of plant against pathogens?
5. How plants respond to high salt stress?
6. Why high heat stressed the plant?
7. How plants cope with Herbivory stress?
8., Why ethene is considered as fruit ripening hormone?
9. How plants cope with cold stress?

D. Define the followings

1. Circadian Rhythm.
2. Phtoperiodism.
 CHAPTER NO 4
REPRODUCTION

Reproduction
The process through which organisms produce young ones of their own kind to maintain
their species are called as Reproduction.

Types of Reproduction
There are two types of reproduction.
1. Asexual Reproduction
2. Sexual Reproduction

1. Asexual Reproduction
Fusion of gametes does not take place, requires only a single parent and the
offspring produced are exact copies of their parents. This type of reproduction is called
Asexual Reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction of Plants

There are two methods of asexual reproduction in plants.
1. Natural Method of Asexual Reproduction
2. Artificial Method of Asexual Reproduction

1. Natural Method of Asexual Reproduction

In nature, plants reproduce asexually by following methods.
i. By Spores or Sporulation
ii. Vegetative Propagation
iii. Apomixis

i. By Spores or Sporulation
During alternation of generation plant produce haploid cell by meiosis called Spores. Each
spore can develop into new organism without fertilization. The process of formation of
unicellular spores is called Sporulation.
Example
Sporulation occurs in bacteria, protozoan, algae, fungi, mosses and fern as well as plants.

ii. Vegetative Propagation

Vegetative reproduction is any form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in which a
new plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant or a specialized reproductive
structure.

Methods of Vegetative Propagation

There are various method of propagation of plant by vegetative reproduction for improving
crops, orchads and ornamental plants are as follows
i. By Cutting
ii. By Grafting
i. By Cutting
In this method stem or branch is cut from the plant. At the cut end of the shoot a mass of
dividing undifferentiated cells called a callus forms and then adventitious roots develop
form the callus. If the shoot fragment includes a node, then adventitious root forms without
callus stage.
Example
Sugar cane, sweet potato and rose can be propagated by cutting. In raspberry and black
berries root cutting are also used for artificial vegetative propagation.

ii. By Grafting
This is a technique whereby a branch from a desired variety of plant is joined to another
plant with well established root system. The plant from which the branch is taken is called
Scion and the plant to which it is joined is called Stock. The two plants involved are normally
the different varieties of same species.
Example
Orange, lime and mango can be propagated by grafting.

iii. Apomixis
The modified form of asexual reproduction in which seeds are formed without fertilization
is called Apomixis.

Mechanism
In Apomixis, a diploid cell in the ovule gives rise to the embryo without any fertilization and
the ovules mature into the seeds.
Example
In Dandelions and other plants seed formation take place without fertilization.

2. Artificial Method of Asexual Reproduction

In plant vegetative reproduction is performed by artificial methods, which are as follows
i. Tissue Culture or Test Tube Cloning
ii. Protoplast Fusion Technique

i. Tissue Culture or Test Tube Cloning

Tissue culture or cloning is a special technique which is used to produce varieties of plants.
By this technique, a group of genetically identical offspring produced by asexual method
called Clones.
Procedure
In this method, pieces of tissues are cut from the parent plant or from a single
parenchymatous cell in a medium containing all the nutrients and hormones.
The culture cells divide and form an undifferentiated Callus.
The callus then produces root and shoot with fully differentiated cells.
The test tube plant can be transferred to soil where they continue their growth.
Application
In plants tissue culture is also used in genetic engineering. To introduce new genes in plant
body pieces of tissue or cells are used. By this technique, we produced a new variety of plant
by introducing new DNA molecule.
Example
By cloning many thousand plants are produced from one plant. This method is used in
Orchards and pinus trees to obtain wood.

Advantages of Tissue Culture

The main advantages of tissue culture are as follows
i. Development of Strong Plant: By this technique plants of Agriculture and horticulture are
produced. These plants are strong than other plants produced by seeds.
ii. Development of Similar Plant: By this technique plants of similar character are developed.
iii. Development of Defence System in Plant: These plants have developed defence
mechanism against any disease.
iv. Production of Useful Chemicals: By this technique, many useful chemicals are obtained
such as shikonin (a dye used in silk and in the treatment of injuries caused by burning.

Disadvantages of Tissue Culture

There are also some disadvantages of tissue culture where are as follows
i. Production of Sterile Plant: The plant produced by this technique may be genetically
sterile, do not reproduce by sexual method.
ii. Variation in Chromosome: This technique may cause change in the structure and number
of chromosome.
iii . Protoplast Fusion Technique
Another technique known as protoplast fusion technique is developed to produce new
varieties of plants.
Procedure
In this technique, outer cell wall is removed around the protoplast. After protoplasts of one
or more cells are fused together, then their protoplasts are for culture. These protoplasts
produce a wall around them, and then they are change into new plant. Protoplast of either
same or different species may used for this technique.
Example
In potato and wild night shade plant this technique is used.

2. Sexual Reproduction
The type of reproduction in which fusion of gametes (sperm and ova) take place and two
parents (male and female) are involved is termed as Sexual Reproduction.

TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANT

In plants sexual reproduction takes place by three methods.
i. Isogamy
ii. Oogamy
iii. Heterogamy

i. Isogamy
The simplest type of sexual reproduction in which two morphologically similar gametes take
part in fertilization to produced zygospore which then develop into new plant is called
Isogamy.
It is also known as conjugation which means marriages of equals.
Example
This process occurs in algae and lower plants.

ii. Oogamy
The type of sexual reproduction in which a flagellated motile sperm fertilizes with non
motile egg to produce a diploid zygote which then develops into new individual is called
Oogamy.
Example
Some species of algae undergoes Oogamy.

iii. Heterogamy
The type of sexual reproduction in which two different structure gametes fused i.e. non
flagellated large size female gamete fuses with small size flagellated male gamete to
produced zygote which then develop into new plant is called Heterogamy.
It is also known as anisogamy.
Example
In higher plants such as bryophyte, heterogamy is present.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS/ANGIOSPERM
Flower
Flower is highly modified form of a branch with four whorls of modified leaves separated by
very short internodes. These floral whorls are calyx, corolla, Androceium and Gynoceum.

Development of Male Gametophyte

With the micro sporangia of an anther, diploid cells called microspore mother cells under
goes meiosis, each forming four haploid micro spores. Each micro spore eventually divides
once by mitosis and produce two cells, a generative cell and a tube cell. The two cells
structure is encased in a thick, resistance wall. Together, two cells and their wall constitute a
pollen grain and immature male gametophyte.

Development of female gametophyte

The functional megaspore divides by three mitotic divisions to form 8 nuclei. Three of the
nuclei become located at the chalazal end. One of the four nuclei of each end migrates to
centre and fuse to form Secondary or Definite nucleus. Out of the three nuclei present at
micropyler end, one is large it is ovum while other two are small called synergids which
represent arch gonium. The three nuclei present at chalazal side are called antipodal and
represents female prothalus.

Development of female gametophyte/ovule

Pollination
Pollination is the transference of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of same flower
or of another flower of the same or allied species.
There are two types of Pollination:
a) Self Pollination.
b) Cross Pollination.

Self Pollination
It is the transference of the pollen grains from the anthers to stigma of same flower.e.g.pea
plant etc.It may be take place by two methods: Homogamy and Cleistogamy.

Cross Pollination: It is the transference of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of
another flower of the same or related species e.g. raised, apple.

Double Fertilization
As the pollen grain fall on the stigma they germinate and produce pollen tube the two male
gametes pass in embryo sac through pollen tube. One of the male gamete fuses with the egg
to form diploid zygote. The other male gamete fuses with the definite nucleus to form
triploid endospermic nucleus this is Double Fertilization.

Formation of Embryo
After fertilization the ovary matures and form fruit. The ovule forms seed and zygote forms
embryo. The seed germinated under favorable conditions and give rise to sporophyte plant.

Seed
Seed may be defined as “A ripened ovule or a part of a plant body in which embryo lives in
dormant condition is called Seed.”

Structure of Seed

The seed is covered from outside by a coat called Seed Coat.

The seed coat is formed by integuments. It is made up of two layers.
The outer thicker layer is called Testa.
The inner thin layer is called Tegmen
 GERMINATION

The process in which dormant or sleeping embryo awakes up renews its life and develops
into a seeding is called as Germination.
OR
The breaking of dormancy of seed to produce seedling is called Germination.

Kinds of Germination
Seed can germinate into three ways i.e.
1. Epigeal Germination
2. Hypogeal Germination
3. Viviparous Germination

1. Epigeal Germination
Epi => above, geo => earth
The kind of germination in which cotyledons came above the soil due to rapid growth of
hypocotyl is called Epigeal Germination.
Example
Caster oil seed, tomato, cotton etc.
2. Hypogeal Germination
Hypo => below, geo => earth
The kind of germination in which cotyledons remain under the soil due to rapid growth of
epicotyl is called Hypogeal Germination.
Example
Maize-grain, Pea-gram etc.

3. Viviparous Germination
The special of germination in which seed germinates within fruit is called Viviparous
Germination.
Process
The fruit is still attached to parent plant. Redicle comes out of the fruit which becomes
swollen and heavy due to increasing weight the seedling gets detached and falls vertically
into the soft mud gets embeded and starts growing.
Example
Rhizophora, coconut, date palm etc.

Parthenocarpy
The development of fruit without the process of pollination and fertilization in flowers is
called as Parthenocarpy. Parthenocarpy results in seedless fruits. These seedless fruit are
termed as parthenocarpic fruits. This phenomenon may occur naturally as in the banana. It
may also be induced artificially by the application of Auxin e.g. indole acetic acid (IAA) as in
the commercial tomato growing.

Vernalization
Statement
The process by which the flowering can be promoted by giving cold treatment to
germinating seed or young plant, is called vernalization.

Explanation
The flowering of plant is generally affected by temperature. There are many plants, like Pine,
in which seeds would not germinate if not exposed to cold temperatures. Experiments of
Lysenko, Garner and others have shown that flowering in some plants can be advanced by
cold treatment. The temperature applied is usually 0 to 5˚ C and the length of period of cold
treatment varies, depending on the location and the type of plant. The stimulus for flowering
is perceived by the embryo of seed or apex of young stem

PHOTOPERIODISM
“The relative length of day and night is called Photoperiod and a physiological response to
photoperiod is called Photoperiodism”.
Photoperiod has very marked influence on the behavior of plants, particularly on their
flowering period and development of seeds and fruit. On the basis of responses to
photoperiod, the plants are divided in to three categories.

Short Day Plants

These plants require short days and long nights for flowering. They produce flower only
when the light period is less than a certain critical length in 24 hour cycle.e.g.
Chrysanthemum, Soya bean etc.
Long day plants
The long day plants require long days and short nights for flowering. E.g. Radish, Spinach.
Day neutral Plants
Flowering in these plants is independent of the photoperiod and they can flower in all
seasons and at all photoperiods e.g. Cotton, and Tomato.
 PRACTICE WORK
A. Fill in the blanks.
1. Parthenogenesis is a type of reproduction which requires one gamete.
2. A clone exactly resembles with mother.
3. Female gametophytes of Pinus consist of 2-5 Archegonia.
4. Type of sexual reproduction in which fusing gametes are morphologically similar but
5. The embryo of grass seed is enclosed by a sheath consisting of coleorhizae which
convers the roots.
6. A kind of inflorescence in which flowers are sessile and unisexual but not covered by
spathe catkin.
7. Dioecious plants are analogous to the presence of testes and ovaries on separate
male and female animals.
8. Pollination occurs when pollen grains are released from anther and carried by wind
or animals on the sticky stigmas at the tips of carpals.
9. Reproduction is the process of continuity of a species, generation after generation.
10. Cloning is a recent but special type of asexual process of reproduction which is still
being worked upon.

B. Write detailed answers of the following questions.

1.How male and female gametophytes of angiospermic plant develop?
2.Give the structure and mode of germination of dicot and monocot seeds.
3. What is asexual reproduction? Give various method found in flowering plants.

C.Write short answer of the following questions

1. What is sporophyte?
2. What do you mean by gametophyte?
3. What do you mean by complete and incomplete flower?
4. What is the meaning of perfect and imperfect flower?
5. Explain the term monoceious and dioecious plant.
6. Explain double fertilization.
7. Explain the term hypocotyl and epicotyl.
8. Write short note on tissue culture.
9. What is germination? Explain its types.

D. Define the following

a) Heterogamy
b) Inflorescence
c) Photoperiodism
d) Vernalization.
e) Sexual reproduction.
 CHAPTER NO 5
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

In lower plants, the entire plant body is capable of growth, i.e growth in all directions but in
higher plants growth is confined to certain regions are called growth points. These regions
are called meristem. There are three types of meristem, found in plants which are
responsible for the growth:
a) Apical meristem.
b) Lateral meristem.
c) Intercalary meristem.

a) Apical meristem
These are found at the tips of roots and shoots and are responsible for primary growth. They
increase the length of plants through tips.

b) Intercalary meristem
They occur at the base of internodes in many grasses, below the node in some mints and at
the base of the leaves in many plants. These are parts of the apical meristem which have
become separated from the apex by the permanent tissue and left behind during the growth.

c) Lateral meristem
These are found in a cylinder towards the outside of root and stem. They are present in dicot
and gymnosperm. They help in the formation of secondary tissues .There are two type of
lateral meristem.
• Vascular cambium
• Cork cambium

PHASES OF GROWTH
In lower plants growth occur in diffuse form while in higher plants, growth involves three
phases which are as under:
1) Formative phase.
2) Elongation phase.
3) Maturation phase.
4) Formative phase
.
1-Formative phase
This phase is present at the tips of roots and shoots of the plants. The cells of this phase are
constantly divided, resulting an increase in their number. The cells of this region are closely
packed together. They have thin cellulose walls, dense cytoplasm and large nuclei.

2-Elongation phase
This phase is located just behind the formative region. The cells of this region does not
divide but increase in size in terms of turgidity and elongate and attain their maximum size.
During cell elongation, the for cell volume increase up to 150 fold due to uptake of water.

3-Maturation phase
This phase is located behind the elongation phase. Here the large and elongated cells are
modified in to permanent, so, this region is adopted to perform different functions. This
phase is also so called differentiation phase.
The cell of this region are become thick walled by the deposition of secondary metabolites
.Some of the cell wall become pitted.
Condition for growth
the growth comprises on cell division, elongation and maturation, which may be effected by
certain factors resulting increase or decrease of growth rate. These factors include:
• External factors
• Internal factors

External factors
There are few external factors that effect the growth rate either positively or negatively.

1-Temperature
Most of enzymes work optimally between 25 oC to 37 oC.Therefore, the metabolic functions
of cell, formation of new protoplasm and cell division rapidly take place in between the
range of this temperature.
.
2-Light
Light is an important condition for plant growth. It is required for the synthesis and action of
chlorophyll without which photosynthesis cannot take place. Usually it effects in three ways:

Light intensity: The increase intensity increasing the cell division in one side and on other
side high intensity may cause lyses of photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll resulting in
decrease in rate of photosynthesis

Light quality: Red light favors cell elongation. Blue light enhance cell division and retarted
cell elongation.

Light duration: It directly affects the vegetative and reproductive structures of plants. It
also helps in Photoperiodism.

Oxygen
Regular supply of oxygen is necessary for successful growth. Without oxygen, no metabolic
activity and no growth take place.

4-Carbon dioxide
It is necessary for photosynthesis and more food production .but higher concentration
retard the growth rate.

Internal factors
Hormones: certain plant hormone Auxin, gibbering and Cytokinins cause cell elongation.

Water: By absorbing water, the cell elongates and plant growth takes place.

Nutrition: Nutrition supply energy to plants, increase in nutrition cause increase in growth.
Vitamins: Deficiencies of vitamins cause decrease in growth.

GROWTH CORRELATIONS
Growth of plant organs is related with growth of other organs, which take place in different
directions. This relation of growth with each other is called growth correlations. Apical
dominance is most important correlation found in plants. It is observed that during the
growth of apical bud, growth of lower axillary bud is suppressed and if we remove the apical
bud, growth of axillary bud is initiated. It means that the active growth of apices control the
growth of lateral buds.
The Auxin which is produced in apical region is responsible for growth in apical region and
inhibits the growth in lateral region. Cytokinins are also play important role in apical
dominance.
 PRACTICE WORK
A. Fill in the blanks

1. In bryophytes growth takes place at through out the body.

2. Cells which are capable of cell division are meristematic cell.
3. Intercalary meristem may occur at base of internodes.
4. Secondary growth is caused due to activity of cambium and Phellogen of cork.
5. The process of growth occurs in the formative phase, elongation phase and the maturation
phase.
6. In formative phase, the division of cell is stopped. (F)
7. Growing region of plant is called meristem.
8. The part of apical meristem which becomes separated from apex by permanent tissues
called intercalary meristem.
9. The increase in thickness due to activity of lateral meristem is called secondary growth.
10. The increase in diameter of stems and roots due to activity of secondary meristem called
cambium.

B. Write detailed answers of the following questions

1. What is apical growth? Describe the phase of apical growth.
2. Describe the external factors which influence the rate of growth in plants?
3. What do you mean by growth correlation? Explain it with the help of examples.
4. Write short note on the phases of growth.

C. Write short answers of the following questions

1. How many ways light influences the rate of growth?
2. Do the cells beneath the formative phase differ from each other?
3. Why growth is different from development?

D.Define the following

1. Meristem.
2. Growth.
3. Secondary growth.
 CHAPTER NO 6
CHROMOSOME AND DNA

Chromosome are thread like structure present inside nucleus, consists of hereditary
characters in the form of genes. These genes are present in pair in an individual. The
number of chromosomes remains constant generation after generation. The number of
chromosomes varies from species to species.
• Each chromosome consists of very thin thread like Chromatids.
• Both Chromatids attach at a point called Centromere.
• At the region of Centromere a disc shaped protein structure is present called as
Kinetochore, through which spindle fibre is attached during cell division.
• Two Chromatids of same chromosome are called sister –Chromatids.
• Chromatids of two different chromosomes are called non-sister Chromatids.

Homologous Chromosomes
Chromosomes of an individual found in a pair or sets.

Autosomes
The chromosomes which are similar both in male and female are called autosomes.In human
22 pairs of chromosomes are autosomes.

Sex chromosomes
The chromosomes which are different in male and female are called sex chromosomes. In
male XY and female has XX sex chromosome.

Karyotype
The particular arrangement of chromosomes of an individual is called Karyotype. It is also
defined as “ Characteristics of the set of chromosomes of a cell or organisms.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CHROMOSOMES

Chemically chromosomes are composed of DNA(30-40%) and protein (50-65%) .The most
abundant chromosomal protein is histones; substantial amount of RNA (1-10%) is also
present in it.
Structure of DNA
DNA is a complex molecule made up of billion of units called nucleotides so, called Poly
nucleotide chains. A typical human chromosome contains 140 million nucleotides in its
DNA.

Each nucleotide is made up of three molecules which are:

• Phosphoric acid.
• Deoxyribose sugar
• Nitrogenous base.
During the synthesis of nucleotide first phosphoric acid and Deoxyribose sugar combine
together to form nucleoside, then addition of nitrogenous base result the formation of
nucleotide.

1-Phosphoric acid: It is inorganic part of nucleotide. It is directly attached with deoxy-

ribose sugar.
2-Deoxyribose sugar: It is simple carbohydrates and is monosaccharide. The empirical
formula is C5H10O4.It is pent use sugar.
3-Nitrogenous base: It is a complex ring structure composed of C, H and N. There are two
types of nitrogenous base:
a) Purine: These are double ring structure and are of two types i.e. Adenin and Guanine.
b) Pyramidine: These are single structures and are of two types: Cytosine and Thymine.
In case of RNA,Thymine base is replaced by Uracil.

CHROMOSOMAL Theory OF HEREDITY

Chromosomal Theory of heredity postulated by Walther Sutton in 1902. Their postulates are
as follow:

Postulates of chromosomal Theory

1-The union of haploid sperm and eggs (that contains single set of chromosomes) restablish
the double set of chromosomes (Zygote) for the new organism as in the parent organism.
2- During meiosis, the haploid number of chromosome segregates and received by the
gamete in the same manner as Mendel. That is only single gene of each pair is present in
gametes.
3- Each gamete has one copy of each pair of homologous chromosomes, but diploid
individual have two copies.
4- During meiosis, each pair of homologous chromosomes separate individually and
independently from the other.
The same fact postulated by Mendel in his second Law i.e. Law of Independent Assortment.

Conclusion
There was one problem with this theory. If the Mendelian characters are determined by
gene located on chromosomes and if the independent assortment of Mendelian traits
reflects the independent assortment of chromosomes in meiosis, why is that number of
factor greater than that of number of chromosomes pairs that organized processed? This
question led many early researchers to have serious reservation about this.

DNA AS A HEREDITARY MATERIAL

Genes, which are considered as hereditary units, located on DNA and comprises
macromolecules. The amount of DNA is remarkably constant in all diploid cells of an
organism.

Griffith Experiment
Fredrick Griffith (1928) a British microbiologist, provided first evidence of hereditary
material by performing experiments with pathogenic bacteria. He used two strains of
streptococcus pneumoniae ,R type , which is rough surface and non capsulated , non-
virulent, non pathogenic and other is S type , which is smooth surface, capsulated ,virulent
,and pathogenic may cause pneumonia. His observation and their result are as under:
1- He injected R-type strain in to laboratory mice and observed no ill effects on them.
2- He injected S-type strain in to mice that is fatal for mice and resulting mice died.
3- When S-type strain, heat killed bacteria injected in to mouse, no effects was observed.
4- If lived R-type strain (non-virulent) were injected in to mice and then additional
injection in the same mice were made of heat killed i.e. dead S-type bacteria. Surprisingly
high mortality of mice was observed .That shows R-type may be transformed S-type bacteria
and become fatal to mice.

Conclusion
Griffith concluded that R-type bacteria transformed in to S-type bacteria so, cause death of
organisms. But he has no satisfactory explanation for this result.

Experiment of Avery, Macleod and McCarty

In 1944, Avery, Macleod and McCarty discovered that the true identity of transforming
principle .They tested the reactions of heat killed bacteria for their transforming ability and
found that it was not due to RNA and proteins. But it was due to only DNA that possessed the
transforming ability. When the enzyme deoxy-ribonuclease that destroys the DNA was
added to the bacteria, resulting loss of transforming ability.
Conclusion: It was concluded that DNA is the only genetic material.

3-Hershey and Chase Experiments

In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase observed that ,if culture of bacteriophage are
labeled with radioactive phosphorus (P32 for labeling DNA) or with sulphur (S35 for labeling
protein coat) separately are labeled with radioactive phosphorus . These two viruses used to
attack bacterial cells. When bacteriophage rupture and release it’s DNA, was treated with
Deoxy-ribonuclease as a result of which DNA breaks up in to fragments in the solution. All
the P32 and S35 were made to infect bacteria and multiply. Then by the help of special
technique, all S35 labeled protein were removed. The new phage formed contained only P 32
indicating the presence of DNA molecules.
Conclusion
They concluded that DNA is a genetic material in phage that is transmitted generation to
generation, not the proteins or any other molecule.

WATSON AND CRICK MODEL OF DNA

Deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid. It is produced in a nucleus, found in genes
and acts as a genetic material. Each DNA molecule is composed of small components, called
nucleotides.
Each nucleotide consists of three compounds.
1. 5-carbon sugar (Pentose sugar), called Deoxyribose.
2. One phosphate group- Phosphoric acid (H3PO4).
3. Nitrogenous bases: These are nitrogen bases are of four types:
i) Adenine(A)
ii) Guanine(G)
iii) Cytosine(C)
iv) Thymine(T)
Purine: These are double ring structure and are of two types i.e. Adenin and Guanine.
Pyramidine: These are single structures and are of two types: Cytosine and Thymine
Watson and Crick studied the structure of DNA and proposed its double helix model.
According to Watson and Crick model the structure of DNA molecule is follows:
1. Each DNA molecule consists of two strands, which are coiled together to form a
double helix (Screw like).
2. On the two sides of helix sugar and phosphate groups are present.
3. In the middle region of helix nitrogen molecules of nucleotides are found. Each part
contains Purine with Pyramidine. Adenine is always attached to thymine and guanine is
always linked to cytosine.
4. Both strand of DNA are connected with weak hydrogen bonds. Two hydrogen bonds
are present between adenine and thymine and three hydrogen bonds between cytosine and
guanine.
5. On one side of helix nucleotides may be present in any arrangement, but if an
arrangement is completed, on other side the arrangement of nucleotides will be according to
previous arrangement. It can not be changed. Adenine is always linked to the Thymine and
guanine ha the attachment to the cytosine.

REPLICATION OF DNA
The process by which DNA molecule forms its copies (replicate) by separating its own
strands by breaking hydrogen bonds and linkage of new nucleotides forming two DNA
molecules is known as Replication.
Process of Replication
The Watson and Crick model of DNA suggested that DNA replication is complimentary and is
semi-conservative because after one round of replication, the original duplex is not
conserved, and each strand of duplex becomes a part of another duplex (daughter duplex)
Steps involved in Replication
1. Hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases are broken up or by one like a zip.
2. Fresh nucleotides approach towards the exposed nitrogen bases and get attached
accordingly.
3. After linkage of nitrogenous bases, sugar molecules get attached through the
phosphate molecules forming upright of the DNA.
4. The newly formed DNA molecule has one original and one new strand.
5. The newly formed DNA strands get spirally coiled. Forming two DNA molecules from
a single DNA molecule.

Replication is semi conservative (Meselson and Stahl Experiment)

The production of the Watson –Crick model was tested in 1958 by Mathew Meselson and
Frank Stahl of the California Institute of Technology.
a. They grew bacteria for several generations in a medium containing heavy isotope of
nitrogen N15, So the DNA of bacteria is denser than normal.
b. After that they transferred the growing cells to a new medium containing the lighter
isotope N14 and took DNA samples at different intervals.
c. First the density of DNA was all heavy.
d. As the new being formed incorporated with lighter nitrogen isotope, DNA density
was low.
e. After one round of DNA replication two cases of DNA densities were observed, one
was intermediate and the other was light. Additionally the DNA have none of the heavy
isotope was also observe.

Conclusion
On the basis of observation it was concluded that after one round of replication, each DNA
molecule contained one of the labeled heavy strands of thee parent molecules. When this
helix replicated, it again contributed one heavy strand from another hybrid and one strand
to form high duplex.
In this way it was confirmed that DNA replicates in semi-conservation manner.

GENE, A UNIT OF HEREDITARY INFORMATION

Gene: Every cell contains DNA. Each DNA contains specific segment called genes that
Control specific cellular functions, either by synthesizing enzymes, proteins or by regulating
the action of other gene.

In 1902, An English physician Sir Archibald Garrod noted that some diseases among his
patients are more common in their families.
Garrod found that some of the diseases are as a result of simple recessive alleles. He
concluded these disorders strictly follow Mendelian principle of hereditary and changes are
transmitted in an ancestor of affected families.

In one gene disorder alkaptonuria, the patients produce urine that contains
homogentistic acid. This substance is oxidized rapidly when exposed to air and urine turns
black. In normal individual, homogentistic acid is broken down in to simpler substances.
Garrod concluded that the patient with many alkaptonuria back the enzyme necessary to
catalyze this broken down. He guessed that many inherited diseases might also reflect the
enzyme deficiencies.
Genome: Full set of genes and full sets of chromosomes in each cell is called genome.

ONE GENE ONE ENZYME HYPOTHESIS

George Beadle and Edward Tatum proposed one gene one enzyme hypothesis during the
course of multiple experiments on bread mold Neurospora in 1941.
According to them single gene is encoded for the production of single enzyme.
Experiment on Neurospora
Beadle and Tatum selected Neurospora (red- bread mold) for their experiments.Neurospora
can grow artificially on a medium that contain single sugar, nitrogen compound
(ammonia),salts, few vitamins and water. From this medium, Neurospora is responsible to
produce all of amino acids need for protein synthesis and enzyme production.
Beadle and Tatum treated spores of Neurospora by X-rays, as a result of which spores, lost
some of their ability to grow on this medium. But after supplying some additional amino
acids and Vitamins to the medium, they started to grow. Beadle and Tatum conclude that X-
rays affected the enzyme producing genes in the spores.
When specific amino acid (e.g. Arginine) supplied to the minimal medium, germination
started and growth of Neurospora observed.

Conclusion
From this kind of multiple experiments they concluded that genes produce their effects by
specifying the structure of enzymes and that each gene encodes the structure of a single
enzyme, so they called tis relationship the one-gene-one enzyme hypothesis.

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF RNA

The composition of ribo nucleic acid is like DNA, but it has two differences
i) It has ribose sugar.
ii) It contains Uracil nitrogen base instead of thymine.
The structure of RNA consists of following parts:
1-A five carbon sugar (Pentose sugar), Ribose.
2-A phosphate group –Phosphoric acid (H3PO4).
3-Nitrogen bases, which are of four types
a) Adenine
b) Guanine
c) Cytosine
d) Uracil
RNA molecule is either single or double stranded but its two strands do not form a ladder
like structure. RNA found in some plants viruses. RNA takes a part in protein synthesis in the
cell. Three types of RNA are as follow:
1) Messenger RNA (mRNA)
2) Transfer RNA (tRNA)
3) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

GENETIC CODE
The coded message from DNA in the form of base triplet carried by RNA for protein
synthesis is known as genetic code.
There are four nitrogenous bases in DNA, Similarly, in RNA there are also for nitrogenous
bases. The genetic code was calculated by assuming different conditions from 4 nucleotide
for 20 basic amino acids.
Example
1- If one nucleotide serves as a code for one amino acid then only four amino acid will
be coded and rest will remain uncoded. So, it is not applicable.
2- If a sequence of two bases for an amino acid then there will be 16(4x4) possible
combinations of basis obtain that will be coded only 16 amino acids. This is also not enough
for 20 amino acids.
3- If a sequence of three bases coded for single amino acid then there will be 64(4x4x4)
possible combinations of bases results more than enough code for 20 amino acids.
From these 64 codes , one is starting code that signal start which is AUG code for
Methionine, and three codes include UAA,UAG and UGA are stop codes that signals ends of
proteins. The rest of 60 codes are used in encoding of amino acids and there may be single
amino acid specified by several codons.
Decoding
Messenger RNA contains genetic code in three nitrogen bases and t-RNA contains anticodon
triplet and it transfers amino acids to the ribosome, it anticodon triplet is attached to the
codon-triplet of m-RNA. This process is called decoding.

GENE EXPRESSION
RNA along with ribosome and certain enzymes have a gene expression. DNA which carries
information as a message translate to form proteins due to expression of genes. Gene
expression
Comprises in to two steps,
a) Transcription.
b) Translation.

Transcription
The synthesis of RNA from DNA is called Transcription .This process involves following
steps:
1- Transcription is initiated when RNA polymerase enzyme binds a particular
nucleotide sequence on one of the DNA strand.
2- RNA polymerase proceeds with complimentary nucleotides.
3- When enzymes arrive at special point, the stop signal at edge of the gene results the
termination of transcription.
4- Later on synthesized RNA modified to form either type of RNA i.e. mRNA, tRNA, and
rRNA.,

Translation
It is a second stage of gene expression in which polypeptide chain is formed. This process of
mRNA directed polypeptide synthesis by ribosome is called translation as nucleotide
sequence translated in to amino acid. This process involve following steps:
i) As the ribosome moves along the strand of mRNA from first single triplet codon to
second triplet codon.
ii) tRNA molecules move towards the amino acid pool to form tRNA-aminoacyl complex.
iii) This tRNA-aminoacyl complex move towards the mRNA where it decodes the codes
present on mRNA and release amino acid.
iv) Now this empty tRNA again moves towards amino acid pool.
v) Another amino acid along with tRNAbcomes to decode another code and translate
this code as amino acid.
vi) Now, both of these amino acids join together by peptide bond as ribosome move on
mRNA resulting the formation of polypeptide chain.
Sickle Cell Anemia
It is hereditary disease and produced due to mutation in gene which is responsible for the
formation of hemoglobin. By the activity of changed gene abnormal hemoglobin is formed,
and sickle cell disease is produced.

Phenylketonuria
It is inherited from parent to the new generation and is controlled by a recessive gene. The
effected persons are not able to break down an amino acid .Phenylalanine in to other
chemicals and it accumulate in blood .Due to which children are mentally retarded and they
may die before the age of 30yrs.

Control
If it is diagnosed in early age, it can be control by balanced diet.

PRACTICE WORK
A. Fill in the blanks.
1. Cells use to make protein RNA.
2. Base present in RNA but not in DNA Uracil.
3. The chromosome number in man is 23 pairs.
4. One complete turn of DNA contains 10 nucleotides.
5. To specify an amino acid genetic code uses three bases.
6. Type of chromosome when Centromere is located at the centre Metacentric.
7. Which triplet base sequence do not decode isoleucine amino acid AUG.
8. Transfer of segment of chromosome to non –homologous chromosome is the true
statement for translocation regarding chromosomal aberration.
9. Alanine occurs in place of glutamic acid is not true for sickle cell anemia.
10. DNA polymerase initiates transcription is not true for transcription during gene
expression.
11. There is 60% protein in a eukaryotic chromosome.
12. The chromosome which determines sex is called sex chromosome.
13. In Alkaptonuria the patients pass urine that rapidly turns black on exposure to air. (T).
14. Sickle cell anemia is an example of human genetical disorder. (T).
15. Beadle and Tatum suggested one gene one enzyme hypothesis.
16. The molecule which functions to bind and identify one specific amino acid is tRNA.
17. The reversal in the sequence of genes within the chromosome is called inversion.
18. In RNA base thymine is replaced by Uracil.
19. The human blood genetic disease in which the red blood cell becomes abnormal in shape
is called Sickle cell anemia.
20. Guanine always pairs with cytosine.
21. DNA is the abbreviation of Deoxyribose nucleic acid.
22. Mutaion is a sudden change in chromosomal DNA.
23. Genetic material is considered as DNA.
24. Protein synthesis takes place in endoplasmic reticulum. (F)
25. The number of pairs of chromosomes in frog is 15. (F)
26. The Phenylketonuria is a genetic disorder in human (T).
27. DNA is made up of billions of units called nucleotides.
28. The particular array of the chromosomes that an individual possesses is called
Karyotype.
29. The total genomic constitution of an individual is known as Genome.
30. Genetic material is considered as DNA.
31. One gene one enzyme hypothesis was suggested by Beadle and Tatum.

C.Write detailed answers of the following questions

1. What is chromosome? Give their chemical composition and ultra structure.
2. Prove with the help of experiment that DNA is the hereditary material.
3. Discuss Watson and Crick model of DNA and its replication.
4. What is chromosomal aberration? Describe its various kinds and also mention their
effects.
5. How did Griffith, Harshay and Chase prove that DNA is the genetical material?
6. By specifying your enzyme, DNA specifies you. Justify this statement with the help of
experiments on Neurospora.

C. Write short answers of the following questions

1. What do you mean by Karyotype?
2. What are autosomes and sex chromosome?
3. Define chromosome and its types.
4. What is chromosomal theory of heredity?
5. Name the components of nucleotides of hereditary material?
6. What is mutation?
7. What is transcription?
8. What do you mean by sickle cell anemia?
9. What is Phenylketonuria?
10. What are the reasons for the damage to DNA?
11. Describe the process of gene expression in a cell.
12. Write a note on genetic code.
13. Arrangement of chromosomes of an individual in a cell.
13. Define chromosome. Write down the number of chromosomes of the following species:
a) Frog b) Human c) Drosophila.

D. Define the following terms

1. Nucleosome.
2. Genome.
3. Transcription
4. Translocation.

E. Distinguish between
1. DNA and RNA. 2. Transcription and translocation.
 CHAPTER NO 7
CELL CYCLE
The process of cell reproduction, inheritance of all characters, all organelles and half of the
cytoplasm in to daughter cell also repeats the same process, and then each round cell
growth and cell division is called cell cycle. In cell cycle there are two main periods:
i) Inter phase(non division period)
ii) Division phase(Formation of two daughter cells)

Interphase
i) It is the initial phase of cell cycle. It is the period between two divisions. In this period
the cell grows, works normally and also prepares itself for next division. In this period the
DNA amount is increased by its duplication.
ii) In Interphase distinct nucleus is present. The nucleus contains one or more nuclei.
iii) Chromosomes are very thin and not clearly visible in this stage. They are in the form
of chromatin material.
Sub-stages of Interphase:
The Interphase is divided in to three sub-stages:
1) G1 –stage (Gap one stage)
2) S- stage (Synthesis stage)
3) G2- stage (Gap two stage)

G1 –stage
The phase is metabolically active phase in which cell normally grows in size. Some of the
specific enzymes are also synthesized and DNA nucleotide bases are gathered for the
synthesis of DNA.

S-stage
This phase is known as synthesis phase because of DNA synthesis taking place. Due to DNA
synthesis, chromosome number is double in this phase. It initiated the G2 phase.

G2-Stage
It is a time from DNA replication to the onset of cell division. In this period energy is stored
for the movement of chromosomes. Protein are synthesized which is needed for protein
synthesis. Microtubule subunits are also synthesized.

Cell division
When cell grows its maximum size and reach the maturity stage, then it splits in to two
daughter cells. This phenomenon is known as cell division.

Amitosis
A division without the formation of spindle is called Amitosis. In this division, the nucleus
develops a constriction in the middle that finally divides in to two daughter nuclei. Cytokines
is May or may not occur in the same pattern. There are two types of Amitosis.
a) Nuclear budding
b) Nuclear fragmentation.
Cell death
Cell death in an organism depends upon various extra cellular and intracellular signals that
regulate its controlled activities like cell division, Pattern of formation, differentiation, or
mortality or cell death. Each cell has programmed death and control by two methods.
Necrosis
It occurs due to damage or injury in which the typical cell swells and burst, releasing the
intercellular content which can damage neibouring cells and cause inflammation.

Apoptosis
It is internal programmed of events and sequence of morphological changes by which cell
commits suicide. During this the dying cells shrink and condense ultimately split up. Finally
release small membrane bound apoptotic bodies, which are generally phagosytosed by
other cells.

Mitosis
It is a type of cell division in which chromosome number in daughter cell remains constant
as in the mother cell. It is also known as somatic cell division. The process of mitosis is
similar in both plant and animals cell that taking place during embryonic development and
growth.
It may be divided in to two phases:
i) Karyokinesis.
ii) Cytokinesis.
Karyokinesis: It is the division of nucleus, which involves further four stages or phases.
1. Prophase.
2. Metaphase.
3. Anaphase.
4. Telophase.
1. Prophase
Prophase includes the following characters:
i) During early stages of cell cycle, Chromosomes are not clearly visibible even with
electron microscope in early prophase.
ii) As prophase proceeds, fine threads of chromosomes appeared, as network called as
chromatin.
iii) Later on chromosomes get condensed and become visible consisting of two
Chromatids attached at the point called Centromere.
iv) In late prophase, nuclear membrane starts disappear and nucleolus also disappear.
v) Finally all the nuclear material gets free in cytoplasm and mitotic apparatus starts to
originate.
Mitotic Apparatus: Aster and spindle are collectively known as mitotic apparatus. There are
three different types of fibers.
1. Continuous: The fiber which are running from pole to pole.
2. Discontinuous: The fiber which are running from pole to central.
3. Astral: The fibers which are short fibers radiating from centrioles and remain at poles.
2. Metaphase
i) In the begning of this stage, nuclear membrane is completely disappeared and
nuclear material arranged themselves in cytoplasm.
ii) In this phase, chromosomes become more prominent and the region of Centromere
known as Kinetochore appeared with special fibers known as Kinetochore fibers.
iii) The chromosomes arrange themselves on equatorial plane with spindle fiber
radiating from poles.
3. Anaphase
i) In this stage the Centromere divides in to two parts and Chromatids can’t remain
attach further.
ii) The spindle fibers contract and pull the two sets of Chromatids which migrate to the
opposite poles.
4. Telophase
i) When the two sets of chromosomes reach to opposite pole Telophase begins.
ii) The daughter chromosomes become thin and long.
iii) They coil with each other forming network again.
iv) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
v) Spindle fibers disappear.
vi) Hence two identical nuclei are formed in one cell with equal and identical number of
chromosomes.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis means division of cytoplasm.
i) In plant cell, a cell plate appears in the cytoplasm at the equatorial position and the
division of mother cell in to two daughter cells.
ii) In animal cell, constrictions appear at the equatorial position dividing the cell in to
two daughter cell.

Significance of Mitosis
As a result of mitosis, two daughter diploid cells arise from the division of diploid mother
cells. In this division chromosome number in daughter cell remain constant as in mother
cell.
1. In this division information of parents are transferred to the daughter cells because
there is no crossing over or recombination occurs. So, the continuity of transferring
information is definite from parent to offspring.
2. Mitosis is asexual cell division and help in regeneration, healing of wounds and
replacement of older cells in both plants and animal cells.
3. It also helped in development and growth of multicellular organisms.
4. It also involves in tissue culture and cloning.

Meiosis
The process of cell division leading to the production of daughter nuclei with half of the
genetic material to parent cell is called Meiosis. The cell that formed by meiosis give rise to
the formation of the haploid gametes. The fusion of gametes result the fertilization and
hence become diploid.

Phases of Meiosis
The phases of meiosis are:
a) First meiotic phase.
b) Second meiotic phase.
First Meiotic Phase: is further divided in to following stages
i) Prophase I
ii) Metaphase I
iii) Anaphase I
iv) Telophase I

Prophase I
The first phase is divided into following sub stages:
a) Leptotene.
b) Zygotene.
c) Pachytene.
d) Diplotene.
e) Diakinesis.

a) Leptotene
• Chromatin network separated in to diploid number of chromosomes.
• The chromosomes appear granulated or beaded longitudinally.

b) Zygotene
• The parental chromosomes come close together and become associated with each
other to form a bivalent.
• The pairing of homologous chromosomes is known as synapsis.
• Chromosomes are attached at the Centromere.

c) Pachytene
• The homologous chromosomes become thick and each member is now visible to
consists of two chromosomes.
• Each chromosomes of bivalent get replicated and tetrads are formed.

d) Diplotene
• At this stage, bivalent consists of four Chromatids which are uncoiled and separated.
• This separation is not completed because at certain points they are in contact which
is known as Chiasmata.
• Here exchange of genetic material that is exchange part of Chromatids takes place
between paired chromosomes by breaking and rejoining of weaker Chromatids at the point
e) Diakinesis
• The bivalent separated due to repulsive force between homologous chromosomes.
This is known as terminalization.
• The Chromatids become shorter and thicker.
• Nucleolus and nuclear membrane are both disappear.
• Spindle formation occurs.
The bivalent with their exchange parts get separated and moves towards the equatorial
plane. This is the end of Prophase I.

Metaphase I
• The spindle fibers get attached to the Centromere.
• The chromosomes are so arrange at equatorial region that their faces are towards
opposite poles.

Anaphase I
• At this stage, two diads of homologous chromosomes are pulled from each other and
moves to the opposite poles on the spindle fibers.
• Each Centromere is still undivided and Chromatids are attached together.
Telophase I
• As the Chromatids reach the opposite poles the Telophase stage begins.
• Spindle fibers disappear.
• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear thus two nuclei are reconstructed but
with haploid number of chromosomes.

Second Meiotic Division

• After a short time, each daughter cell enters in to next division which is like mitotic
division and similarly consists of following four stages.

Prophase II
• The centrioles duplicate and migrate to opposite poles.
• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
• Spindle fibers are again formed.

Metaphase II
• The spindle fibers get attached to the Centromere.
• The chromosomes arrange themselves at the equatorial position.
• The Chromatids are held together with Centromere.

Anaphase II
• The Centromere divides and Chromatids are separated from each other.
• Chromatids move to opposite poles on the spindle fibers.
• Each Chromatid is now called monad.

Telophase II
• When the Chromatids and monads reach the opposite poles the nucleus is
reconstructed by formation of nucleolus and nuclear membrane.
• Cytokinesis also occur which results in the formation of four haploid cells.

Significance of Meiosis
• Meiosis maintains the definite and constant number of chromosomes in an organism.
• Crossing over provides an opportunity which is a major tool of evolution.
• Four Chromatids of homologous chromosomes are passed to four different
combinations which brings genetical variations in daughter cells.

Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
1 Mitosis occurs in somatic 1. Meiosis occurs in gamete
cells. producing organs.
2 The daughter cells are added 2. The daughter cells do not cause
to bulk of body causes growth growth but capable of bringing
or replace worn out cells. about reproduction.
3. The prophase of mitosis 3. Meiosis is completed in two
complete in one phase. sequences division I and division
II.
4. Synapsis between maternal 4. Synapsis between maternal and
and paternal chromosomes paternal chromosomes occurs.
does not occur.
5. Mitosis is a mean of asexual 5. Meiosis is used in sexual
reproduction in single celled reproduction by multicellular
species. species.

Down syndrome
It is common condition of Aneuploidy and also known as trisomy. Syndrome in human
abnormality. It is an autosomal disorder and is commonly known as Mongolism. In this 21
chromosome pair fails to separate resulting gamete with 24 chromosomes. When this
gametes fertilized with normal gamete the new individual will have 47 (2n+1)
chromosomes.

Abnormalities of Down syndrome

Mental retardation and defective development of with low in 20-50 range, broad flat face,
eyes with folds, short hands with large tongue.

Klinefelter’s Syndromes
It is also a condition of trisomy with one extra sex chromosomes in males 47 (2n+1) or 44
autosome-Xxy.

Abnormalities
Tendency to tallness, Obesity frequent enlarge breast, Small testes with no sperms.

Tuner’s Syndrome
In human, a person with this syndrome has normal 44 autosomes +1 sex chromosome it is a
condition of monotony i.e. lacks of one chromosome (2n-1).

Abnormalities
The female have appearance with short stature, Folds of skin around neck and shoulders,
the female is sterile, mentally they are normal.
 PRACTICE WORK
A. FILL IN THE BLANKS.
1. At what stage of mitosis are chromosomes arranged along a plane at the midline of the
cell? metaphase
2. A diploid cell contains in its nucleus. One copy of each homologous.
3. Synthesis of new DNA occurs during prophase.
4. Interphase consists of following sub stages, the correct sequence is G1SG2.
5. Down syndrome is an example of trisomy.
6. A type of orderly or programmed cell death apoptosis.
7. Meiotic prophase-I sub stage where terminalization takes place Diakinesis.
8. Meiotic prophase-I sub stage where Chiasmata are formed Diplotene.
9. In animal the mitosis is am phi-astral.
10. Highly condensed portion of the chromatin are called heterochromatin.
11. Crossing over may occur at more than one point.(t)
12. During meiosis number of chromosome remain constant(f)
13. Mitotic apparatus is formed during prophase of the cell division.
14. A pair of morphologically similar chromosome is homologous chromosome.
15. Anaphase is the longest phase of mitotic division.(f)
16. The exchange of segments during meiosis is called crossing over.
17. In Klinefelter’s syndrome the number of chromosomes is 47(2n+1).
18. Centrioles and astral rays are present in plant cells. (F).
19. In Down’s syndrome disease the number of chromosomes is 47.
20. Karyokinesis is the division of nucleus.
21. Mitosis takes place in Somatic cell.
22. Another name of meiosis is reduction division.
23. The point of contact between two chromosomes is called chiasma.
24. Bivalent chromosomes appear in zygotene stage.(t)

C.Write detailed answers of the following questions

1. Describe and compare the process of mitosis in animal cells and compare it with plant
cells.
2. Draw and describe all the stages of meiotic division-I, Prophase-I and compare it with
prophase-II.
3. Draw the diagram and describe the Eukaryotic cell cycle. Name the various phases and
briefly describe the event that occurs during each.
4. Define Mitosis. Describe various stages of mitosis with labeled diagram.
5. How and when does meiotic error take place? Describe any one type of syndrome.
6. Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis.
7. Where do you find mitotic meiotic cell division in plant? Describe various stages of mitosis
with suitable diagram.
8. Identify and describe Meiotic division stage during which Synapsis takes place.
9. Explain when the exchange of characters takes place during meiosis.

C. Write short answer answers of the following questions

1. What is an Interphase stage during cell cycle?
2. What is G1 stage?
3. What is S-stage?
4. What is amitosis?
5. What is nuclear budding?
6. What do you mean by necrosis and apoptosis?
7. What is Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis?
8. What is nuclear spindle?
9. Significance of Meiosis and Mitosis.
 CHAPTER NO 8
VARIATION AND GENETICS

The process in which all the characteristics are transferred from parents to their offsping is
called heredity. A newly born baby resembles to his parents but he is not an exact their
copy. He may contain certain changes, it is known as variations.

Genetics
The branch of biology which deals with the facts and laws of heredity and inherited
variation is called Genetics.
The first scientific study on genetics was carried out by Gregor Mendel. Mendel was a monk
in the monastery of Brunn, Austria where he carried on his scientific investigations on
hybridization of plants. He selected for his work the common garden pea.

Genes
Genes are small bodies found on the chromosomes. These are the units of inheritance and
consist of a particular arrangement of DNA. The genes are present in a specific position on
the chromosome, called locus. Genes take part to transfer one or more characters from
parents to new generation, and responsible for biological expression i.e. appearance of
characters.

Alleles: The alternative form for the same gene is called allele.
Gene Pool
Gene pool is the total number of alleles in a population at one time.

Mendel’s Experiments
Mendel performed his experiments on hybridization of plants. He selected different varieties
of Pisum sativum. (Garden pea) having contrasting characters.
Reasons For The Selection Of Pea
i) These plants can be cultivated very easily.
ii) Their pure varieties can be obtained.
iii) Their generation can be produced with in short time.
iv) These plants produced large quantity of seeds.
v) They have prominent inherited characteristics.
vi) It’s easy to study their flower structure because they do not have very complicated
characters such as gene- interaction and incomplete dominance.

Law of Dominance
Statement
When two contrasting expressions of the same characters were crossed, one of the two
appeared completely in the offspring. While the second did not show itself.
Mendel concluded that the character that was completely expressed in the first generation is
called dominant and the contrasting character that was not expressed in this generation is
called recessive.
Example
Mendel crossed tall plants with dwarf pea plant. He obtained the seeds of first generation.
He then sows the seeds and the resulting plants were all tall. That shows the law of
dominance.
Parent P1 Tall X Dwarf
TT X tt
T t
Tt
F1 Generation all tall
Mendel then proceed further and sow the seeds of F1 generation i.e. hybrid and the resulting
plants were allowed to self pollinated to produced seeds of the second generation i.e. hybrid
and the resulting plants were allowed to self pollinated to produced seeds of the second
generation i.e.F2 (Filial 2 generation). He found that dominant and recessive character in the
ratio 3:1.
On the basis of his studies, Mendel’s generalized his conclusion and established two laws of
Inheritance, Law of Segregation and Law of Independence Assortment which are collectively
known as Mendelism.

Terminologies to understand genetics

Parental Plants
The original plants used in crossing.
Hybridization
It is a phenomenon by which two different characters are mixed.
Hybrid
The product of a cross between two individuals with contrasting traits of characters like tall
and dwarf.
Allelomorph
A pair of contrasting character like tall and dwarf stem.
Locus
The position of alleles on homologous chromosome.
Homozygous
When a diploid individual possesses two members of pain of identical genes e.g. TT (Gene
for tallness)
Heterozygous
When diploid individual possess two members of a pair of genes controlling different
characters e.g. Tt (Tall)
Phenotype
The physical and physiological appearance of an individual on the bases of inherent trait.
Genotype
The genetic makeup or genetic constitution of an individual.
Dominant
The allele which masks the appearance of other allele in heterozygous condition and express
itself in F1 generation.
Recessive
The allele which is unable to express in heterozygous condition is recessive.

Law of Segregation
As a result of monohybrid cross, Mendel formulated the Law of Segregation of gene.
This law stated that
“When a pair of alleles are present in an individual, these alleles of pair remain same
together without mixing and separate from each other at the time of gamete formation, i.e.
one gamete receives only one gene”.
Example:
When a pure (homozygous) tall pea plant TT crossed with a pure dwarf pea plant tt. The F1
had all hybrid (heterozygous) tall pea plantsTt.
When F1 individual self pollinated, the F2had tall and dwarf plants in to a ratio of
3:1(phenotypic ratio). Among these plants one was pure tall TT two were hybrid tall Tt and
one was pure dwarf tt. So, the genotypic ratio is 1:2:1. It is known as monohybrid cross. The
result obtained from monohybrid cross is known as Single Trait Inheritance.
Mendel’s law of inheritance also applicable in animals as well.
 Law of Independence Assortment
On the basis of dihybrid cross Mendel formulated a law of Independent Assortment.
This law stated as:
“In a cross of two contrasting pairs of characters, the alleles of one character segregate and
then assort during gamete formation independent of each other i.e. the distribution of the
alleles for one character in to the gametes does not affect the distribution of the allele for the
other characters.”

Test Cross
When plants of F1 generation are crossed with the plants having recessive characters, such
cross is called test cross. This cross is used to check the purity of any generation and to
determine the ratio of gametes in F2 generation.
As a result of test cross dominant and recessive characters appear in equal ratio (1:1).
Example
When tall plants of F1 generation (Tt) are crossed with pure dwarf recessive plants (tt), in
the next generation tall and dwarf plants are obtained in 1:1 ratio.
Plants of F1---------------Tt Tall X tt (Recessive)

Gametes------------------ T t X t

TT tt

Tall Dwarf

Result -Tall and Dwarf = 1 : 1

The tests cross helps to confirm the Mendel’s law of Segregation of genes.

Incomplete Dominance
The phenomenon in which neither of the contrasting character is dominant over each other
resulting the mixture or bend of two characters. This is also known as Blending Inheritance
or Partial Dominance.
Example:
When true breeding red flower and true breeding white flowers of four O’clock plants
(Mirabulus jalap) crossed, all the plants in F1 generation carry pink colored :1 i.e.
Phenotypic and Genotypic ratio is same.
P Red flowers White flowers

Gametes CRCR X CWCW

Gametes CR CW

F1 generation CRCW All pink flowered plants

Self cross C RCW X CRCW

Gametes CR CW
CR CRCR CRCW
CW CRCW CWCW
Result
Phenotypic Ratio =Genotypic ratio
1:2:1 = 1:2:1
Red flower = -1
Pin k Flower=-2
White flower =-1
Co- dominance
When the expression of both allele is not enough to form sufficient pigment to make the
flower red as two red alleles can do the flower red.

Experiment
The short horn cattle with homozygous genes with red and white skin color when crossed,
the offspring appears roan colored in heterozygous condition. A closer examination of the
skin of man colored animal shows, that the animal does not possess an intermediate shade
of skin color but it appears so because of a mixture of red hairs and white hairs. It is clear
that none of the two genes is dominant over the other such pair of genes are called co-
dominant and the phenomenon as co-dominance.
Result

Red bull White Cow

RR X rr

R r

Rr

Roan cattle

Gametes R R
R RR Rr
R Rr Rr
1=Red
2=Roan
1=White.

Polygenic Traits
One might conclude from Mendelian experiment that each trait arises from the expression of
a single gene pair. In some cases two gene pair co-operates to produce a phenotype that
neither can produce alone. Such traits are polygenic traits.
Example
In a certain types of wheat with colored kernels, for example there are two gene pairs. Each
with allele A and a thus the dominant alleles are written as A 1 and A2while the recessive are
written as a1 and a2.
With all dominant alleles A1`, A1, A2, A2 four doses of pigments are produced and the color
of kernel will deep dark red while recessive alleles i.e. a1a1, a2a2. No pigment is produced
and the color of kernel remains white. The intermediate number of dominant alleles yields
intermediate intensities of red color.

Multiple alleles
Usually a character is controlled by a single pair of genes. But sometimes more than two
alleles involved in controlling a character. However only two alleles are present at a time.
Such genes are called Multiple alleles. Multiple alleles are actually mutant gene.
Blood Group –ABO system
In 1901 Dr. Karl Landsteiner made an important discovery. He found that mixing of blood
from certain people result in clumping of RBC. He found that cause of this clumping is
different types of antigen present around RBC.

Antigens
An antigen usually a foreign substance that enters the body. Antibodies are protein that has
been formed in response to antigen. RBC has antigen and plasma has antibodies clumping
will occur when RBC of one person are mixed with the blood plasma of another person.
An individual contains only two alleles, therefore, the three alleles can have only four
possible combinations.

Blood Genotype Antigen Phenotype

Group
Group I AI A A A Homozygous
A
I Ai A A Heterozygous
Group IBIB B B Homozygous
B
IBi B B Heterozygous
Group O I AI B AB AB Heterozygous
ii No antigen O Homozygous

Rah Factor Blood Type

In 1941 Dr. Landsteiner and Weiner discovered another type of Rhesus antigen in Rhesus
monkey. The persons having Rhesus antigen on their RBC were called Rh +ve and those who
do not have this antigen were called Rh -ve.

Genes for Rh Factor

Rh blood Group is encoded by three genes C,D and E. These genes occupy two tightly linked
loci. D occupy one locus called locus D. The gene C and E alternatively occupy other loci. The
most important of these is D locus.

Erythroblasts Foetalis
Rh+is a dominant character while Rh - is a recessive character. If an Rh- woman becomes
pregnant by an Rh+ homozygous DD man, all of her children will be Rh +. During pregancy or
child birth, some of RBC of fetus may leak in to mother’s blood stream that is with Rh -. The
mother’s body will produce antibodies against Rh+ and will destroy it but immunity will
remain in her memory cells. If the woman becomes pregnant again and blood enters in fetus,
the memory cells produce antibodies against RBC in fetus and cause the RBC to swell
rupture and cells die, releasing hemoglobin and fetus dies. If woman is diagnosed before
birth, the woman can be treated by injections which prevent the formation of anti bodies.

Epistasis
Sometimes two genes (which are not member of an allelic pair) affect the same trait of an
organism. One gene mask the effect of the other gene, this effect is known as epitasis and the
gene whose expression is hidden is called hypostasis.
The example of epitasis is seen in fur color of mice in which more than one pair of alleles are
responsible for pigmentation of skin. The following fur color is seen in mice:
1) Grey color.
2) Black color.
3) White color.
Wild grey depends on the presence of dominant gene B. Black pigmentation depends on a
recessive allele bb; however the pigmentation at all grey and black a dominant allele C must
be present at separate locus. The recessive condition cc result in white animal regardless of
the gene of any color form present at the first locus.
Cross between Two Grey Mice:
Wild Grey X Wild Grey
BbCc X BbCc
Gametes BC Bc bC bc
BC BBCC(grey) BBCc (grey) BbCC (grey) BbCc
(grey)
Bc BBCc BBcc BbCc (grey) Bbcc
(grey) (white) (white)
Bc BbCC BbCc (grey) bbCC(black) bbCc
(grey) (black)
Bc BbCc Bbcc(white) bbCc(black) Bbcc
(grey) (white)

We obtained:
9 grey BC
3 black bbc
3 white Bcc
1 white bbcc

In this cross expression of genotype ratio 9:3:3:1 is modified to a ratio 9:3:4 . This is so
because genotype Bcc and bbcc can’t be distinguished from each other. Any pigment in hair
requires the presence of dominant allele C. I is as if the C locus can suppress the expression
of the pigment factors at the b locus.

Linkage
“The tendency of genes to remain together is called linkage.”
If two genes are located close together on the same chromosome, they generally will not
segregate independently. Such genes, which are usually inherited together, are called linked
genes.The strength of linkage depends upon the distance between the linked genes
chromosomes.

Exchange of genes occur between homologous chromosomes during crossing-over. It isthe

breakage and rejoining of chromosomes that results in the appearance of chiasmata—occurs
in prophase I of meiosis. But linked genes don’t gets separate during synapsis and crossing
over.

Example:
In Drosophila, the dominant gene V for normal wings and its recessive allele v for vestigial
wings and the dominant gene B for grey body color and b for black body color are located in
the same pair of chromosomes. They are linked and tend to inherited together i.e. V with B
and v with b.
When homozygous VVBB fly is crossed with a homozygous vvbb fly all offsprings would be
Vvbb i.e. normal winged, grey body color flies. When one of the heterozygous flies VvBb
(normal and grey) cross withh vvbb homozygous recessive (vestigial and black) genes
remain completely linked and no crossing over take place. The only two parents i.e. grey
bodied normal winged VvBb and black bodied vestigial winged vvbb.
Result:
40% -------Grey normal
40%--------Black vestigial
10%--------- Black normal
10%---------- Grey vestigial.

Sex Determination in Drosophila

The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has eight chromosomes in four pairs of homologous
chromosomes. This was first selected by T.H.Morgan and noticed different chromosomes in
males and females. He won noble prize for his work in 1933.
The Karyotype shows that there are three pairs of autosomes which are same in male, as
well as female fly, but the fourth pair is different in both , the females has both chromosomes
or a pair are rod shaped XX in 4th pair , while male one chromosomes of a pair is rod shaped
and other is hook-shaped XY. As both male and female possesses different chromosomes on
4th pair so called Sex-chromosomes.

Sex-linked inheritance in Drosophila

Experiments on Drosophila
In Drosophila the genes of eye color are present on sex chromosomes. This character is
inherited to the new generation by sex chromosome, so it is called sex-linked inheritance. In
Drosophila red eye color is a dominant character and white eye collogue is a recessive
character. In sex-linked inheritance the genes of character are located on the X –
chromosome and not on the Y-chromosome.

1- Cross between red eye female and white eye male

In the cross between red eye female and white eye male, all the male and female Drosophila
were obtained with red eyes.
Red eye female White eye male

XRXR X XrY

XRXR XRY XRXr XrY

F M F M

All with red eyes.

2- Cross between heterozygous red eye female and red eye male
In this cross the red eye and white eye color appeared in the ratio of 3:1

Red eye female of F1 Red eye male

XRXr X X RY

XRXR XRY XRXr XrY

Red eye Red eye Red eye White eye

Female male female male

Red eye female= 50%
Red eye male =- 25%
White eye male = 25%

3- Cross between red eye female and white eye male

In this cross red eye male and female appeared 50% and white eye male and female also
appeared 50% (both in equal ratio)

Sex chromosomes in Man

In mammals include in man the difference is not of one chromosomes. The male has 46
chromosomes and female has also 46 chromosomes. The pair which determines the sex
differs from each other. In males the 23 rd pair is non-homologous i.e. XX. So the female has
44 (autosomes) +XX (sex chromosomes and male has 44+XY.
The male is heterogametic and produces two types of sperms i.e. 22+X and 22+Y. The female
is homogametic and produces all egg with 22+X. The egg fertilized by X chromosomal sperm
will produce female 22+22, X+X =46 while egg fertilized with Y chromosome will produce
male 22+22, X+Y=46.

Sex- Linked inheritance in man

In human beings, male has XY sex chromosomes while female has XX chromosomes. There
are about 200 genes present on human X chromosome. There are two most popular sex
linked traits found in human beings.
The two sex linked inheritance are described as follows:
a) Color blindness
Person suffering from color blindness have difficulty in distinguishing red from green. It is a
rather common trait and more common in males. It is because Y chromosome is inert for
this trait. The possible results of cross are shown in the following chart:
Cross Between (N=Normal male eyed)
(n=color blind female)
Color blind X Normal Female
Male
XnY XNXN
Gametes X Y
n Vs XN XN

Sperm Ova

Gametes XN XN
Xn XNXn XNXn
Y XNY XNy
Result=
50% normal daughter
50% normal sons.
b) Hemophilia
It is a defect in which the blood fails to clot after an external or inter injury or it clot very
slowly. Person with extreme cases can bleed to death from even small cuts.

Cross between hemophilic man and normal woman

Hemophilic father Xh Y Vs Normal mother
XhY XNXN

Xh Y
Gametes
XN XNXh XNY
XN XNXh XhY
Result: Normal sons but carrier daughter.
PRACTICE WORK
A. Fill in the blanks.
1. Mendel perform his famous experiments of heredity on Garden pea.
2. Mendel in his experiments considered how many characters seven
3. In a cross, appearance of intermediate character is known as incomplete dominance.
4. If a cross both contrasting characters equally appear then it is called Co dominance.
5. Blood group which is also known as universal donor. O-.
6. Each human being possesses pairs of chromosomes….23pairs.
7. Which characteristic is not associated with diabetes mellitus Endocrine disorder.
8. Point out miss match Dominant epistasis 9:3:4.
9. The total aggregated of genes in a population at any one time is called Genome.
10. The multiple effects of a single gene or allele are termed as polygenic inheritance.
11. The diabetes type II usually occurs after the age of 40.
12. A gene for trait having g three or more allelic forms is called Multiple allele.
13. The blood group of a man with neither antigen is o group.
14. The allele which is unable to express itself in heterozygous condition is known as
recessive.
15. Antigens are found in red blood cells.
16. The gametes of YYRR will be YR.
17. This is the example of sex linked inheritance in human being….. Color blindness
18. Sex determination in Drosophila was discovered by T.H. Morgan.
19. John Mendel explained his law of Independent Assortment by two trait inheritance.
20. The tendency of gene in a chromosome to remain together is called linkage
21. Diabetes mellitus type I is insulin dependent. (T).
22. The color of eye in drosophila is a sex linked trait.
23. Which of the following may be considered a hereditary disease? Diabetes.
24 AB of blood group is universal acceptor.
25. In co-dominance the two contrasting characters blend with each other. (F)

C.Write detailed answers of the following questions

1. Define and explain the law of segregation taking an example from plant or animal.
2 Explain the phenomenon of incomplete dominance and co dominance with the help of
examples.
3. Explain multiple allele by taking the example of human’s blood group .Also write about
Rhesus factor and erythroblastosis.
4. Explain the phenomenon of continuously varying traits and pleiotropy with examples.
5. What do you mean by sex determination and sex linkage? Discuss sex-linked inheritance
in humans.
6. Write the genetic explanation of the inheritance of the following traits.
1) Albinism 2) Blood group in human. 4) Flower color in 4’o clock plant.
7. Describe the experiment conducted by T.H. Morgan in Drosophila.

C. Write short answers of the following questions

7. How would you explain the inheritance of the skin color in human beings or the color of
kernel in corn?
8. Write in detail the importance of inheritance of Rh factor in human being, particularly if
an Rh-woman marries an Rh+man.
10. What do you mean by Rh factor?
12. If Rh negative woman marries an Rh positive man, what would be the result?
14. A man with A type of blood group has a wife B type of blood group. They have a child
with O type blood group .Mention the genotype of all the three.
16. Define gene frequency.
17. As compared with a color blind man, a color blind woman is more liable to transmit color
blindness to her progeny. Give the scientific reason.
18. Why is hemophilia rare in woman as compared to man?
20. Would the results of the following two crosses be same? If not, give the reason.
a) Red eyed female drosophila Xwhite eyed male drosophila.
b) Red eyed male drosophila X white eyed female drosophila.
21. Describe different blood groups and blood types in human beings.

D.Define the following terms.

1) Monohybrid ratio 2. Epistasis 3.Autosomes 4. Hemophilia.
 CHAPTER NO 11
ECOSYSTEM

The study of relationship between living organisms and their environment is known as
ecology.
The word ecosystem was first used by Tensely in 1935.
Odum in 1971 defined ecosystem as a system in which living organisms and non living
things live together and they exchange materials between them. They affect each other.

Components of Ecosystem
Ecosystem consists of two components:
1) Abiotic components 2) Biotic components

1) Abiotic components
Abiotic components include non living materials of environment and fundamental
substances. The Abiotic components constitute three types of factors.
a) Climatic factors
These factors include water, light, temperature, atmosphere and wind.

i) Light:
It is the form or radiant energy and is essential for all green plants, photosynthetic
bacteria and all living organism. Only 3% of total sunlight utilized by plants.
It is also required for the formation of chlorophyll . in all ecosystem light is a source of
energy . the light affects in three ways:
1. Light intensity
2. Light duration
3. Light quality

Light intensity:
Light intensity is very important.it depends upon seasons , latitude, day time & angle of
incidence. Light is essential for chlorophyll development , but intense light may destroy it.
a/c to the requirement of light the plants are of two types
a) Heliophytes:they grow in light
b) Sciophytes : they grow in shady places
Light ia required for :
1. Developments of pigments.
2. Opening & closing of stomata
3. Permeability of cell wall
4. Height & surface of plants.

Light duration:
Its required for the development & growth of plants. Growth of plant a/c to the duration of
light is called photoperiodism. Due to the different periods of light in summer & winter
season the crops are also different.
In living organism many different activities are performed a/c to time duration , called
biological rhythms. They are regulated by period of light such as courtship display etc.

Light quality:
This is also an important quality. The visible light is only used by plants w/c ranges from
400 to 780 millimicron wavelength & it consist of seven colours. In photosynthesis only blue
& red light colours are used.
The ultraviolet rays of light are stopped by ozone layer around the earth. These rays are
dangerous for living organism , may cause skin cancer , sunburn & destruction of cells in
human beings.

ii) Temperature
In biosphere, life exists in the temperature regime 0 oC to 50oC. Temperature below
freezing point or above 50oC damages and kills the living cells.

iii) Water
It is the most important Abiotic component of an ecosystem. It is abundant in aquatic and
limiting factor in terrestrial ecosystem. It is universal solvent and acts as raw material for
photosynthesis and also takes a part in various metabolic activities.

iv) Atmosphere and wind

The major part of biosphere consists of atmosphere. The gaseous components of
atmosphere include nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide; water vapors etc. are linked with
biogeochemical cycles. These are vital for photosynthesis, respiration and other metabolic
activities.
The wind also influences the migration of flying birds. Wind generally moves from
poles to
Equator.

v) Fire
It may be caused by lightening, volcanic activity mutual friction between trees such as
bamboos and mostly by man. It recycles various nutrients and also stimulates new growth.
Fire also changes other environmental factors like, light, rainfall, and pH and nutrients
availability. Fire also favors the prothalus fungi.

b) Topographic factors: These are external soil factors.

i) Altitude: Higher altitudes are associated with low temperature and atmospheric
pressure, higher rain, radiation and increased wind velocity, resulting different vegetation at
different altitude levels.

ii) Slope: The steepness of slopes affect the amount of radiation falling on them steep is also
unable to retain much water due to faster drainage and hence it affects vegetation. If it is
steeper then vegetation is xerophytes.

iii) Exposure: At high altitudes exposure to sun and wind develops different types of
vegetations as compared to altitude which are not exposed or less exposed to sun and wind.
The areas which are more exposed have more animals as compared to areas with less
exposure.

c) Edaphic factors: These are internal soil factors.

1) Inorganic component which is formed by weathering of parent rock

2) Organic components are derived from decay of dead plants and animals.

The under decompose material is called litter where as decomposed material is called
humus.

1) Biotic components: Biotic components are living organisms of ecosystem. These

components can be divided in to three groups.

I) Producers
II) II) Consumers
III) III) Decomposers.

i) Producers:
Green plants or autotrophs are producers. They are living organisms which manufacture
their own food material in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll by the help of carbon
dioxide and water, Algae, grasses, small plants and trees take part in this process. The plants
prepare their own food, but it is also used by some consumers and decomposers.
Consumers:
This is a group of animals which can not prepare their own food material and use plants
directly or indirectly i.e. they take their food from producers. They are also called
heterotrophs. They can be divided in to following groups.
a) Primary Consumers:
They are herbivores includes man insects, mice, rabbits, grazing animals that are goat,
sheep, cow etc.
b) Secondary Consumers:
They are carnivores including frog, cat, dog, snake, foxes etc. They are also omnivores
include sparrow, hen, crow, human etc.
c) Tertiary Consumers:
They are predatory animals that are eat upon primary and secondary consumers by their
prey. They include lion, tiger, hawk, large fish etc.

ii) Decomposers:
They are also called saprobes they are heterotrophs include bacteria fungi. They are also
called micro consumers.

Levels of Organization
In the study of ecology the levels of organization start beyond the living organisms. These
are started from groups of living organisms and ended at ecosystem. The levels of
organization are as follows.
1) Population
2) Community
3) Ecosystem
4) Biosphere

1) Population
A group of similar individuals or species that live together in the same area at the same time
is called population.

2) Community
It is a group of all populations found in a particular area.

3) Ecosystem
The interaction between non-living environments with living organisms in a particular
area forms a system known as Ecosystem.

4) Biosphere
It is also known as ecosphere. It is form by the interaction of different ecosystems, whether
terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems are linked together and collectively constitute a giant
ecosystem called Biosphere.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
The protoplasm of living organisms consists of various elements and hence regular supply of
thee elements is very important for an ecosystem. The elements are constantly recirculated
in the biosphere in characteristics path from environment to organisms and back to the
environment. This circular path is called biogeochemical cycles or biogeocycle. Such as
carbon, hydrogen, Nitrogen.

NITROGEN CYCLE
An important cycle of ecosystem is nitrogen cycle. It is an important elements needed by
plants and animals. It is an important constituent of protoplasm and protein and
chlorophyll. It is also needed in nucleic acid.
Air contains nearly 78% Nitrogen. It is not directly taken by plant or animals but in plants it
is taken in the form of Ammonia and Ammonium. Following are the important sources of
nitrogen.
1) By decomposition of dead organic material.
2) By fixing the atmospheric nitrogen.
3) By thunder storms.

1) By decomposition of dead organic organisms

Plants use nitrogen from the soil in the form of minerals and animals eats plants. When
plants and animals die microorganisms such as nitrifying bacteria and some fungi converts
them in to Ammonia and Ammonium ions. Some of them are added in the soil and some are
released in atmosphere. The bacteria which convert the nitrites in to nitrates are called
Nitrifying Bacteria
2) By fixing the atmospheric nitrogen :( Nitrogen Fixation)
Some micro-organisms such as nitrogen fixing bacteria and some plants of blue green algae
convert the atmospheric nitrogen in Nitrites and Nitrates. These bacteria live in to roots of
certain leguminous plants.
Plants absorb this nitrogen and prepare amino acids proteins and nucleic acids. The plants
are then eaten by animals. Organic nitrogen is release in the form of wastes from animals
which is decomposed by several bacteria and if plant and animals die it is decomposes by
bacteria.

3) By thunder storms
Another source of nitrogen is thunderstorms in this process the nitrogen combines with and
form nitrogen oxides and then converted in to nitric acid by dissolving in water. The acids
are converted in to nitrites with soil salts and hence used by plants.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
The processes that change community orderly or in a sequential way are called Ecological
Succession. The succession leads to formation of stable community in a particular area after
certain period of time. The community that becomes stable after successional changes is
called Climax Community. The term succession was first used by Hult in 1885. There are two
main kinds of succession which are as under:
1) Primary 2) Secondary

1) PRIMARY SUCCESSION
It is a type of succession which occurs in a particular area where never have living things
before. The initially established plants form a community is known as pioneers or Primary
Community. This occurs in an area like newly deposited lava, sand dunes, land slide area or
erode (erosion of land)

2) SECONDARY SUCCESSION
It is a type of succession which occurs in area that was previously occupied by living things,
but was destroyed by fire or any other climatic or biotic changes. This type of area looks to
be bare, but its substratum is build through devoid of living matter. This type of area provide
good substratum for climatic community. So, the succession is more rapid.

On the basis of habitat primary and secondary successions are further divided in to
three types:

1) Hydrosere or Hydrach.
2) Mesosere or Mesarch.
3) Xerosere or Xerarch.

Hydrosere or Hydrach
A sere beginning in a pond or lake or marshes is called Hydrosere. In a pond or lake the
middle region has deep water and it becomes gradually shallow towards the shore.
Hydrosere consists of following stages:
a) Phytoplankton stage b) Submerged stage
c) Floating stage d) Reed swamp stage
e) Marsh meadow stage f) Wood land stage
g) Climax forest stage

a) Phytoplankton stage
It is the initial and starting stage of Hydrosere. I this stage the spores of algae are migrated
to the pond or lake along with dust particles by the help of wind. These spores germinate
during favorable conditions. These planktons are cynobacteria, spirogyra, oedogonium,
diatom and bacteria.

b)Submerged stage
When the phytoplankton and zooplanktons settle in the bottom and make the soil suitable
for growth of rooted hydrophytes. The plants of submerged hydrophytes are Hydrilla,
potamegeton, vallisnaria and elodea, first inhabitate a pond. The pond animals are blue fish,
sun fish and daphnia.

c) Floating stage
The death and decay of submerged plants in ponds becomes suitable for rooted plants.
Their leaves float on the surface of water. The examples of such plants are nymphea,
eichornia and trapa.
d) Reed swamp stage
This stage is also referred as amphibian stage. The examples of such plants are typha,
polygonum, phragmites and sagitaria. In these plants, roots are fixed in the bottom but most
of their parts are above the water table. Due to this, the death and decay of these plants
make pond shallower.

e)Sedge Meadow stage

Continuous decrease in water table and favorable changes in substratum makes the pond
suitable for plant growth. Such plants have much branched rhizome type stem, dense
growth which increases transpiration and it ultimately expose the marshy soil. The common
plants of this stage are juneus, cyperus and carex.

f) Wood land stage

The soil at this stage becomes drier, thus the marshy vegetation disappear and terrestrial
vegetation appear like Salix( shrubs) and populs (tree).The animals at this stage is zebra,
deer etc.

g) Climax stage
The climax community is dependent upon environment. If there is heavy rain fall, it favors
the tropical rain forest but if the rain fall is moderate, then mixed forest is developed.

XEROSERE on Rock (Litho sere)

This type of succession originates on bare rock surface. The rock is a dry and hard
substratum. It has no soil for the penetration of roots and supply of nutrients. The
temperature is extreme and thus, this place is unsuitable for most of the plants. A Xerosere
includes the following stages:
1) Crustose Lichen stage 2) Foliose Lichen stage 3) Moss stage
4) Herbaceous stage 5) Shrub stage 6) Climax forest stage

1) Crustose Lichen stage

On the bare rock surface there is extreme deficiency of water and nutrients. The soil is
absent for the penetration of roots. In such situations Crustose Lichens alone are grown.
These Lichens migrate to the rocks by wind-borne spores. They are attached to the
substratum by their mucilaginous cell wall. They produce acids, which help in chemical
weathering of rocks and produce substratum for other species.

2) Foliose and fructose Lichen stages

The lichens of this stage are are more stable and have ability to absorb moisture and retain
it. In this stage a layer of soil is developed on the rock surface. This soil surface provide rich

Substratum.e.g. Pasmelia, dermatocarpon, Mites, ants and spiders present in rock racks.

3) Moss stage
In this seral stage of Xerosere soil soil is more suitable for the growth of mosses due to
decay of lichen Mosses requires little water. (Mainly for reproduction) e.g. Polytrichum,
Grimmia, selaginella, Mites and Spiders increase their number.etc.

4) Herbs Stage
In this stage, soil accumulation results the xeric conditions which later changed in to
shallow rooted plants. In this seral stage initial stages showed growth of annual herbs and
later on development of perennial herbs. This stage also favors the growth of
animals.e.g.Aristida, Poa, Nematodes, larval insects, mites, ants etc.
5) Shrub Stage
In this stage soil become more suitable for the growth of shrubs and is richer with moisture
and minerals. This stage promotes the growth, of flora as well as fauna. Rhus, Phytocarpus,
Slugs, Snail, Millipedes, Centipedes, Salamanders, Frog, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals like shrew,
squirrels and foxes.
6) Climax Stage

In this seral stage, soil accumulation and humus formation results more fertile soil which
favors the growth of sum Xerophytes trees. This leads to the formation of mesophytic form
of plants and thus final population is developed and the community is called climax
community. This varies from place to place.

INTERACTION
In an ecosystem the organisms are interdependent to each other. The interdependence of
organisms is known as Interactions. The interactions may be beneficial or harmful, so, it is
divided in to two which are as under.

1) PARASITISM
It is an interaction in which one organism (the parasite) lives on another organism (host). In
this, parasite gets benefits and the host gets harm. This association helps to maintain the
balance among plants and animals. There are two kinds of parasites.

i) Ectoparasite
The parasites which live on the surface of host are called ectoparasite.e.g. Fleas, Leeches
.
ii) Endoparasite
The parasite which lives within host are called endoparasites.e.g. Plasmodium, Taenina.

2) SYMBIOSIS
It is an interaction in which living organism live in association with each other causing no
harm to others. There are two types of symbiotic associations found.

i)Mutualism
It is a kind of symbiosis in which living organism live together for getting benefit from each
other and causing no harm. The lack of one organism may affect the other organism.
Example:
a) Nodulated bacteria such as Rhizobium lives in root nodules of leguminous plants to
help in fixing nitrogen and make nitrogen available for absorption. In return bacteria get
shelter. So, both the organisms get the benefit from each other.
b) Lichens are symbiotic association form between algae and fungi.

ii-COMMENSALISM:
It is a kind of symbiosis in which one organism (the commensal) gets benefits from the host
but the host does not get benefit nor harm.
Example:
a- The epiphytic plants grow on trunk of host tree and gets support and food from it,
but there is no harm to host plant. It is commonly found in tropic rain forest.

3- PREDATION
It is one of the important interactions in ecosystem. The predators are the organisms which
take their food by preying upon other living organisms.
Mostly, secondary and tertiary consumers are predators of an ecosystem.
There are number of predator and prey cycles in an ecosystem.
Example:
a- Hawks (ospreys) live on fishes of ocean.
b- Lions prey upon zebra and other animals in jungle.

4- GRAZING
The animals those feed upon green plants known as herbivores such as elephant, sheep,
cattle etc.the feeding of green plants or parts by herbivores is known as grazing.IF grazing
occurs continuously in a particular area, it may loss the vegetation of the area.
The aerial parts prevent themselves from grazing by falling their leaves (deceduous) or by
developing spiny leaves and toxins etc.

HABITAT
It is the type of environment in which an organism lives. Like fresh water, marine water, for
aquatic plants. Habitat is further divided into two main types that is aquatic and terrestrial
habitat.

ECOLOGICAL NICHE
The sum of interactions between the organisms and the living and non-living components of
its environment along with its own requirement is called Niche.

PRACTICE WORK
A. Fill in the blanks
1. The study of living things in relation to its environment is called ecosystem.
2. The concentration of oxygen in atmosphere is about 21%.
3. The ideal soil for plant growth is------
4. The decomposers of an ecosystem are bacteria and fungi.
5. The relationship of Hydrictinia and Hermit crab is called mutualism.
6. The term succession was first time used by Hult in year 1885.
7. Similar group of individuals who can interbreed and produce organisms of their own
kind form a Population.
8. The living organisms which can prepare their food for themselves and other living
organism. Producers.
9. The relationship between members of two different species in which both get benefit
mutualism.
10. The producer of a pond ecosystem is phytoplankton.
11. Estuary is the meeting place of river and sea.
12. The lowest level of biological organization is habitat.
13. The lentic Ecosystem is found in lake.
14. The term ecosystem was first used by Tensely in AD 1935.(T)
B. Write detailed answers of the following questions
1. Write a detailed note on different approaches used for ecological investigations.
2. Write a note on different t abiotic components of an ecosystem.
3. What are bio geochemical cycles? Describe in detail the nitrogen cycle.
4. What is ecological succession? Also describe Hydrosere.
5. Describe in detail the Xerosere.
6. Explain Nitrogen cycle in detail with respect to nitrogen fixation and loss of nitrogen.
C. Write short answers of the following questions
1. Describe briefly various ecological levels of organization.
2. Write a short note on Habitat approach.
3. Write a short note on light as a climatic factor.
4. How edaphic factors effect an ecosystem.
5. Explain briefly the positive and negative interactions.
6. Describe briefly two main types of succession.
7. Write a short note on symbiosis.
8. What is denitrification?
 CHAPTER NO 12
SOME MAJOR ECOSYSTEM
The place where a living community is present and it has a particular environment, this
place is called Habitat. There are two types of Habitat.
i- Aquatic habitat
ii- Terrestrial Habitat.

AQUATIC HABITAT
This habitat contains water. It is also of three types.
i- Fresh water habitat: This habitat includes pond, river and lakes etc.
ii- Marine Habitat: It contains salty water.
iii- Estuarian Habitat: It is a place where sea and river meet together. This place lies b
between marine and fresh water.

POND ECOSYSTEM
A pond is a body of shallow stagnant fresh water, which may be large or small, temporary or
permanent.
It is considered as an example of ecosystem because it exhibits following features.
a- A pond contains all the basic units of an ecosystem that is Abiotic components and
biotic components including producers, consumers, and decomposers.
b- In a pond the Abiotic and biotic components interacts and live in a functional
harmony and thus produce a stable system and equilibrium.

1- ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
They are non-living component of an ecosystem including physical factors such as light,
temperature, water, CO2 ,O2 etc and nutrients. These nutrients are present in dissolve form
in water and are radically available. Solar radiation is the energy receives from sunlight and
trapped by producer.

2- BIOTIC COMPONENT
Living organism of the pond which include plankton, animals, plants and decomposers form
the biotic components. They are distributed with in a pond according to the depth of the
water and the distance from the bank. Depending on the part they play in pond ecosystem,
the biotic component is further subdivided into following types.
i- PRODUCERS
There are two types of producers in pond.
a) Phytoplankton: These are very small plants which include unicellular and blue
green algae. For example: euglena, volvox, and chlorella. They are found everywhere in pond
where sunlight can reach and by the help of this sunlight they can manufacture their food
material.
b) Large plants: These plants are of three types, one type is of largest plants which are
firmly fix in the bottom of pond by the help of their roots and their upper part remain above
the water surface they easily get CO2 and sunlight from air and absorb water and mi8neral
salt from bottom and manufacture their food such as Typha, sagitaria etc.
Other type of plant are those which are fix in the bottom by roots but their leaves float on
the surface of the water e.g.: water lily and Nymphea.
Third type of plant is submerge plants. Their body remains under water. They have poorly
developed or no roots and thin leaves. For example: Hydrilla and Vallisnaria.

ii- CONSUMERS
a) Primary Consumers: These are the herbivore animals which feed directly on the
producers and include both zooplankton and free swimming animals or nektons.
Zooplankton of pond mostly includes minute free floating copepods, other small crustacean
and their larvae, small mollusks and their larvae.
b) Secondary Consumers: These are carnivore animals which mainly feed on primary
consumers. In a pond, secondary consumers usually include carnivorous insects like water
beetles, flat worms, small carnivorous fishes etc.

c)Tertiary consumers: these are also carnivores and occupy the highest trophic level in
their food chains. They are usually large predatory animals such as large carnivorous fishes,
chelones, some water snakes aquatic birds etc.

iii) Decomposers
The decomposers of the pond include many saprophytic bacteria and Fungi. They are
present in abundance at the muddy bottom and among rooted vegetation. Decomposers are
heterotrophs which break down the complex organic matter in the bodies of dead
organisms, absorb some of the products of decomposition and return the inorganic raw
material to the ecosystem for the use of producers.

MARINE WATER ECOSYSTEM

Ocean covers about 70% of earth surface. It is the greatest reservoir of nutrients and living
organisms. Generally sea contains 35% salts. While salt concentration in red sea is 4.6% and
Baltic Sea has 1.2%.Temperature varies in water such as in polar region -2°C. Sea is rich in
nutrients mostly phosphate and nitrates and much in concentration. Great variety of plants
and animals life found in ocean. The water of deep sea is brought to coastal surface by action
of wind called upwelling in which deeper water comes to the surface by activity of wind.

ZONES OF SEA: Horizontally sea can be divided in to two zones, neratic and oceanic zones.

1) Oceanic Zone
It is further divided vertically in to two major zones:
a) Euphotic zone b) Aphotic zone

a) Euphotic Zone
It is the region of oceanic zone in which sunlight reaches to the living organisms and is
transparent zone. Most of the producers of ocean found in this region and the animals of
these zones may be bluish or transparent. Their bodies are smooth and shiny such as baleen
Whales that depends on phytoplankton and tooth whales that feed on fishes and giant
squids
.
b) Aphotic Zone
It is non photosynthetic and dark zone of oceanic region comprises in to upper region
bathyal zone and lower is abyssal zone plant life is totally absent. The animals of this zone
are known as filter feeders, as they sieve out food particles before them reaching to bottom.
The fishes are small in size and possess enlarged mouth for swallowing large animals. They
also possess luminescent organs and use them for preying. Their eyes may be enlarged or
absent. Decomposers and scavengers are characteristically found in this zone.

i)Bathyal Zone
It is vertical region up to the depth of about 2000 m. It is the continental slope consisting of
two division i.e. pelagic and benthic zones.

ii) Abyssal Zone I

this is lower vertical region of oceanic zone below the 2000m dep

2) Neratic Zone
IT is the shallow water found at the edge of continental shelf and up to the depth of 180m. It
is further divided in to.
Supratidal:
It is high tidal zone of Neratic Ocean.

Subtidal/ Intertidal:
It is the intermediate or intertidal zone at in between high and low tide of neratic zone.

Low tidal:
It is below the low tide line region of the Neratic Ocean. Sunlight penetrates in it.
Additionally, Oxygen, carbon dioxide and other nutrients are also helpful for the growth of
plants.

Oceanic Zone

Producers
1. Producers of this zone mainly include phytoplankton, diatoms, and other algae like
Caulerpa, Ectocarpus, Cladophora, Dictyota and Laminaria etc.

2. Producers of sub-tidal zones include phytoplankton, diatoms and animals are

mollusks, star fish, sea cucumber, crustaceans, turtles, seab and whales.

3. Producers of intertidal zones possess jelly like substances called plants that resist
from desiccation. Animals of this zones possess shells and are burrowing type such as Snails,
Shrimps, Clamps, Bristle, Worm, Bugworms etc.

BIOME OR TERRESTRIAL HABITAT

Land on which organism live is called Biomes or Terrestrial habitat.
Following are the most important biomes of the world:
1) Grassland ecosystem 2) Savannah ecosystem 3) Tundra ecosystem

3) Desert ecosystem 5) Forest ecosystem

Features of Land Animals and Plants:
Distinguishing features are:
1- The land animals and plants have evolved supporting tissues like skeleton and wood and
other strengthening tissues.
2- As water is most important for life it is conserved by land animals and plants in different
ways.
3- Formation of thick corcky bark on plants reduces transpiration.
4-Birds and mammals are endothermic and have evolved mechanism of temperature
regulation.
 1-GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grassland biome is found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year not enough to support a
forest, yet more than that of a true forest. Grass land ecosystem covers about 19% of earth’s
surface and found in Argentina, Siberia, Australia, Southern, Russia, South Africa. Grass land
in Pakistan is found in lower Chitral, Gilgit and Kashmir, Wazirastan and Northkallat.
• The main features include limited moisture.
• Irregular rainfall
• Sharp seasonal variation > High radiation.
• Soil contain large amount of humus.

Producers: These are grasses, herbs and shrubs. It includes various sizes of grasses, mostly
cereal crop like corn, wheat, Oat and barley. Due to this reason grassland called Bread
Basket of the world.

Consumers
Primary: These are herbivorous insects such as grasshopper, leaf hopper, buffalo, deer,
rabbit, sheep etc
Secondary: Foxes, birds, snakes, wolves, lizards.
Tertiary: Large carnivores of cat and dog families are common.

Decomposers
These are Fungi and Bacteria.

Abiotic Components
These are mainly organic and inorganic substance found in the soil and atmosphere.

2-SAVANNAH ECOSYSTEM
A Savannah ecosystem is defined as the ecosystem with mixed communities of grasses and
patches of scattered trees. Savannah is term applied for tropical grass lands. Major Savannah
biomes of world are found in African countries, Australia, South India, and South America.
1- Annual rainfall is about 125cm per year.
2- Distinct prolonged dry season.
3- Temperature ranges more than 18 °C throughout the year. During dry season, there
are extensive fires.
4- Grass is much taller usually 3.5m long.
5- Grass catches fire during dry season.
6- Seasons are regulated by rainfall rather than temperature
.
Savannah Plants (Producers)
There is great variety of plants in Savannah.
• Trees are mostly thorny.
• Trees may be deciduous or evergreen.
• Grass is tall.
• Trees like Azelia Africana and Daniellia Oliver are fire resistant.
• Land mostly flat and dominated by grasses such as elephant grass of 15 feet height.
Savannah Animals
• Savannah biomes support a large variety of grazing animals e.g. zebra, giraffe and
hoofed animals like deer, horse etc.
• Secondary and tertiary consumers, such as lions, tiger, vulture, leopards are also
found here.
• Insect are abundant in wet season like flies, termites, ants, and grasshopper.
• Reptiles may be more active in dry season.
 3- TUNDRA ECOSYSTEM
Tundra means open forest-less country.
Tundra ranges from 66.6-72 north and south latitudes and covers such parts of world as
Iceland, southern Greenland, Alaska, Canada, and Siberia etc.
1- Arctic tundra (surround arctic ocean)
2- Alpine tundra ( above timberline up to ice caps to mountains)
• Low temperature is characteristics.i.e. 10C -57°C.
• Short growing season.
• Ground usually remains frozen except for upper 10-20 cm.
• Permanently deeper frozen soil is called as perma frost layer found below 10-20cm
of tundra soil.
• During winter season, sun doesn’t set for an equal period of months.
• Wind velocity in alpine tundra is about 160 per hr and intense ultra violet radiation.

Tundra Plants (Producers)

• In low tundra there is thick spongy mat of living vegetation and is saturated with
water.
• The predominant plants are lichens, mosses, grasses and sedges.
• Small herbs and shrubs also found in tundra.
• Southern slopes also posses flowering herbs like Aconite and Geranium
.
Tundra Animals (Consumers)
• The animals who have adopted to live in tundra are caribou, reindeer, arctic hare,
arctic fox, polar beer, wolf etc.
• During summer there are mosquitoes flies are hosts of migratory birds.
• The caribou and reindeer are highly migratory because there is not enough
vegetation to support them.

4-DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Desert occur in that region where there is less than 25cm of rainfall . And even this amount
is unreliable and unevenly distributed. There may be frequently rains during one particular
year but many years go completely dry.
There are two type of desert on the basis of temperature. The hot deserts of the world are
Sahara which is the largest desert while Gobi is the coldest desert. Besides these deserts
some large deserts are also found in Australia, America, Central Asia, India and Pakistan.
In Pakistan there are three famous deserts Thar, Thul and Cholistan. Thar is found in Sindh.

Producers
The common producers of these deserts are xerophytes .e.g. Accacia, Prosopis, Salvadora
and Capparis. The ground vegetation is Calotropis, Penimeum, and Tribulus.

Animals
Grasshopper, Centipedes and Spider like arthropods. Among reptile, Lizards, Uromastics,
Clatters among Snakes Vipers, Cobra. Among birds Quail, Bustard and Partridge are present,
Among Mammals anteater, Hedgehog, Porcupines, etc.

Decomposers
Decomposers are few due to poor vegetation some thermo bacteria and fungi are present.

5-FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Forest has occupied about 35 to 40 % area of dry land. In Pakistan about 6% of land is
covered by forests. The forests are of three types:
a) Tropical rain forest.
b) Coniferous rain forest.
c) Temperate deciduous forest.

a) Tropical rain forest

The tropical regions of the world have hot weather with heavy rainfall about 200cm. Annual
and temperature remains about 25°C throughout the year. In these regions the plant
community forms tropical rain forests. In these forests all type of plants are grown such as
trees, shrubs, herbs and other small plants.
The tropical rain forests are found in Amazon( part of south America) , Mexico, Brazil,
Columbia, Peru, Indonesia, East Australia, Philippine, Burma, Bangladesh, Srilanka, Malaysia
and West India.

Abiotic Components
The Abiotic components include inorganic and organic substances in the soil. The dead
leaves and branches are decomposed to form organic matter.

Biotic Components
The biotic Components of this forest are as follows:

i) Producers
• In these regions very thick forests are present. There are three kinds of trees, One
type of trees are more than forty meter high, They are called emergent or exposed species
because they are the tallest trees. Second types of trees are twenty meter tall and third type
is less than twenty meter high.
• In shrubs Banana family, Ginger family, Palmae family plants and in herbs Graminae
and Rubiaceae plants are included. Epiphytes such as Ferns, Mosses, Orchids and Lichens
are also found.

ii) Consumer
Different types of primary, Secondary and Tertiary consumers are found in these forest such
as birds, Owls, eagles etc, Monkeys, Chameleon, Snakes and tree frogs live on trees.

iii) Decomposers
Many saprophytes such as bacteria and fungi are present. Soil is usually moist and rich with
organic substances, so their activity is very rapid.

b) Coniferous rain forest

Coniferous forests are found in the regions where rainfall is heavy throughout the year.
Winter season is lengthy with snowfall, usually less than 10° C temperatures. Sometimes
temperature falls below 0°C. Summer season is short growth and developments of plants are
possible for 3-4 months. Coniferous forests are of 2 types
a) Alpine coniferous forests b) Boreal coniferous forests.
Coniferous forest occur in North America, North Europe, Canada, Siberia, . In Pakistan they
are found in Murree, Kaghan, Swat, Jaya valley, Dir and Chalsa.
Biotic components of coniferous forest are as under.

i) Producers
Pinus, fir, abies, Taxus baccata and cederus trees are common. Plants show xerophytic
characters due to hard and cold climate.

ii) Consumers
Due to snowfall invertebrate animals are not found. In larger animals Rabbit, deer, Squirrels,
Lynx, wolf and bear are common. Rabbit, deer, Caribou and squirrels are herbivores and
lynx and wolves are carnivores. Insects and birds are also found.

iii) Decomposers
Organic matter is very less on the ground, so very less bacteria and fungi are found.

c-Temperate deciduous forests

The deciduous forests of temperate regions are called temperate deciduous forests. It is
characterized by an abundant an evenly distributed rainfall from 75-150cm per year and
was reasonably moderate temperature these deciduous forests may be dry, monsoonal
(tropical) and most semi deciduous. Deciduous is term applied for those plants which shed
off their leaves during winter season.
The temperate deciduous forests found in North America, South America, Eastern Asia,
China, Japan and Central Europe of northern hemisphere.
• Soil is good for cultivation.
• Temperature is moderate.
• Distinct summer and winter.
• Rainfall is abundant (about 100 cm per year) and evenly distributed.

Producers
Beech, maple, oax, hickory, chestnut. Trees are usually 8-30m tall. A large number of plants
produce pulpy fruits and nuts.

Consumers
Deer, Bear, Fox, Bobcat, and Red eyed virco, Wood peckers.

Flow of Energy in an Ecosystem

All the living organisms require energy to do work. They obtain energy directly from non-
living things or by other living organisms. The autotrophs of the ecosystem are the living
organisms that capture solar energy and then convert it in to the chemical energy by
photosynthesis. A part of this energy store in them and can be available for other
heterotrophic organisms of the ecosystem.
The energy fin ally release back in to atmosphere by decomposing of these living organisms
or either by loss of heat at various trophic levels.
 PRACTICE WORK
A. Fill in the blanks.

1. The producers of a pond ecosystem are Phytoplankton.

2. The salt concentration of sea is generally 3.5%
3. The maximum temperature in tundra does not exceeds.10°C.
4. The cool desert is in Mangolia.
5. In grassland biomes the rainfall is usually between 25 to 75 cm.
6. In desert temperature may reach upto 70°C.
7. The estuaries are the place where river meets sea.
8. The oxygen concentration on the surface of river is --------------
9. Which of the biome has been increased in area by human activities Desert?
10. In which type of ecosystem the smallest fraction of nutrients present in soil --------------.
11. The biome which is the bread basket of the world is called Grassland.
12. In Pakistan, the forest occupies about 6% of the total land area. (T)
13. All aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems collectively constitute Biome.
14. Light cannot reach to the producer in the euphotic zone of the sea. (F).
15. In an ecosystem the microsaprotrophs are called decomposer.
16. The land habits are mainly influenced by edaphic factors.
17. All aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems collectively constitute Biosphere.
18. The frozen sub-soil in Tundra is called permafrost.

B.Write detailed answers of the following questions

1. Describe in detail various components of a pond ecosystem.

2.What are forest? Describe coniferous forests.
3. Write a note on grassland and tropical rain forest ecosystem.
4. What are the characteristics of coniferous forests? Write the location of this forest in
Pakistan.

C.Write short answers of the following questions

1. Why special types of forest are named temperate deciduous forest?
2. Why coniferous forest is so called?
3. How water from deep sea is brought coastal surface?
4. Distinguish between neratic and oceanic region.
5. Distinguish between tundra and desert.
6. Define Biome and biosphere. Describe desert ecosystem with special reference to
Pakistan.
7. What is the component of an ecosystem? Explain abiotic factors.

D.Define the following terms

1. Tundra.
2. Lentic water
3. Profundal zone.
4. Interdial zone.
5. Pyrophylus fungi.
 TOPIC WISE
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 Growth correlations

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 Genes: The Units Of Hereditary Information

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(2018/2009)
Q6. Describe various sub-stages of Prophase-1 of Meiosis, with well labeled
diagrams.(5 marks) (2009)
Q7. How and when does the Meiotic error take place? Describe any one type of
syndrome.(2 marks) (2009)
Q8. Write a note on Down’s syndrome.(2 marks) (2018/2011/2012)
Q9. Define Meiosis. Describe various stages of Prophase-I of Meiosis.(6 marks)
(2016/2011)
Q10. What is Syndrome? Describe the effects of XXY Trisomic condition in
humans.(2 marks) (2015)

Genes and alleles

Q1. Explain gene pool.(2 marks) (2008)

Q2. Differentiate between Alleles and multiple alleles.(3 marks) (2009)

Mendel’s law of inheritance

Q1. What is test cross?(2 marks) (2018/2010/2014/2007/2012)

Q2. State Mendel’s Law of Segregation.(2 marks) (2007)
Q3. What is test cross? Why is it performed?(2 marks) (2009)
Q4. State the law of independent assortment with phenotypic ratio.(3 marks)
(2009)
Q5. Explain Mendel’s single-trait inheritance.(2 marks) (2010)
Q6. Why did Mendel choose Garden pea for his experiments? State the law of
Segregation. Prove it with the help of monohybrid cross.(6 marks) (2012)

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Q7. Draw a chart showing seven pairs of contrasting characters observed by
Mendel. Also mention which of these characters are dominant or recessive.(2
marks) (2014)
Q8. State the law of independent assortment. Explain it with the help of checker
board method.(6 marks) (2014)
Q9. Why did Mendel choose pea plant as an experimental material?(2 marks)
(2015)

Incomplete dominance and Co-dominance

Q1. Define any one:

Incomplete dominance Co-dominance(2 marks) (2018, 2013, 2011)
Q2. Define test cross of incomplete dominance.(2 marks) (2015)
Q3. Differentiate between Co-dominance and incomplete dominance(2 marks)
(2010)
Q4. Describe incomplete dominance.(2 marks) (2015)

Multiple alleles

Q1. Describe different blood groups and different group types in human
beings.(3 marks) (2009)
Q2. Define Rh factor. Describe how children are in danger of being born with the
disease ‘Erythroblastosis fetalis’.(2 marks) (2012)
Q3. Draw a chart showing genotypes and phenotypes of different blood
groups.(2 marks) (2013)

Linkage and crossing

Q1. Define linkage and crossing over.(2 marks) (2007/2012)

Sex determination and sex linkage

Q1. How is sex determined? Explain sex linkage in drosophila.(5 marks) (2007)
Q2. Would the results of the following two crosses be same? If not, give the
reasons.
Red eyed female drosophila x white eyed male drosophila Red eyed male
drosophila x white eyed female drosophila.
(5 marks) (2009)
Q3. Why is haemophilia rare in women as compared to men? Explain.(2 marks)
(2010)
Q4. Define autosomes and sex chromosomes.(2 marks) (2011)
Q5. Discuss sex-linked inheritance in humans.(6 marks) (2013)
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Q6. A color blind women marries a normal man. How many children of this
couple are likely to be color blind in F2 generation?(2 marks) (2014)
Q7. Define sex-linked inheritance. Discuss Sex-linked inheritance in humans.
(6 marks) (2015)
ECOSYSTEM
Levels of organization

Q1. Write a note on various ecological levels of organization. (2 marks) (2012)

Q2. Draw graphically the level of organization. (2 marks) (2014)

Approaches to ecology
Q1. Write a note on different approaches to ecology. (6 marks) (2009)
Q2. Write a note on different approaches used for Ecological investigation. (6
marks) (2013)
The Ecosystem
Q1. Define the term Ecosystem. Name the various abiotic components of an
ecosystem. Describe climatic factors only. (6 marks) (2018)
Q2. What are the components of an ecosystem? Explain abiotic factors. (5
marks) (2007)
Q3. Write briefly the topographic factors of Ecosystem. (2 marks) (2010)
Q4. Write a note on any one:
Light as a climatic factor Topographic factor (2 marks) (2011)
Q5. Write a note on light as a climatic factor. (2 marks) (2015)
Q6. Name only the biotic components of ecosystem. (2 marks) (2018)
Q7. Write the Edaphic factors of Ecosystem. (2 marks) (2016)

Biogeochemical cycles
Q1. Explain nitrogen cycle in detail with respect to nitrogen fixation and loss of
nitrogen. (5 marks) (2008)
Interdependence of organisms and their significance

Q1. Write a short note on positive or negative interactions in organisms. (2

marks) (2009/2012/2013)
Q2. What is Symbiosis? Describe its various types. (2 marks) (2010)

Ecological succession

Q1. What is ecological succession? Describe Hydrosere or Xerosere in detail. (6

marks) (2011/2014)
Q2. What is ecological succession? Describe various seral stages of Hydrosphere.
(6 marks) (2017)

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 MAJOR ECOSYSTEM
Life in fresh water

Q1. Write a note on biotic components of pond ecosystem. (2 marks) (2014)

Q2. Describe various components of POND ecosystem. (6 marks) (2015)
Q3. How many types of decomposers exist in an ecosystem? Name them. (2
marks) (2017)

Life in marine water

Q1. What is upwelling? Describe in detail marine life in various zones. (6 marks)
(2016/2010)
Q2. Draw a chart showing different zones in the sea. (2 marks) (2013)
Q3. Write a note on neritic region of ocean. (2 marks) (2014)

Terrestrial ecosystem

Q1. Write in short about conifer and deciduous forests in Pakistan. (2 marks)
(2007)
Q2. Define Biome and Biosphere. Describe desert ecosystem with special
reference to Pakistan. (5 marks) (2008)
Q3. What are the characteristics of Coniferous forests? Write the location of
these forests in Pakistan. (2 marks) (2010)
Q4. Write a note on any one: Tundra Biome
Coniferous forests Desert biome (2 marks) (2011)
Q5. Write a note on any one:
Tundra Biome Coniferous Forests Grassland (2 marks) (2016)
Q6. Define ecosystem. Describe Desert or any type of Forest Ecosystem with
special reference to Pakistan. (6 marks) (2012)
Q7. Write a note on any one of the following:
Savannah Tundra Coniferous forests (2 marks) (2013)
Q8. Describe coniferous or temperature deciduous forest of Pakistan. (2 marks)
(2014)
Q9. Describe desert ecosystem with reference to Pakistan. (2 marks) (2015)
Q10. State Coniferous forest in Pakistan. (2 marks) (2017)

The flow of energy

Q1. Write a note on flow of energy in an ecosystem. (2 marks) (2012)

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 COLLECTIVE QUESTIONS FROM PAST PAPERS

BOTANY PAPER II

Chapter no 5.

1. Define (a)growth (b) development.

2. Define meristem with its types?
3. How many ways light influence rate of growth?
4. Do the cell beneath formative phase differ from each other?
5. Why growth is different from each other?
6. Draw L.S of stem & root apices showing d/f growth zone?

Chapter no 1.

1. How living organisms can maintains internal environment?

2. How feedback systems perform their task?
3. What happens when (a) cells are in same environment with aqueous
solution? (b) Cell is transferred into environment having less negative potential.
(c) External water potential is more negative than of cell (d) temperature raised
above 40 c OR below 0 c?
4. Define plasmolysis & DE plasmolysis?
5. Does plasmolysis a living phenomenon? Justify your answer.
6. Why hydrophytes lack cuticle?
7. Hydrophytes have not difficulty in obtaining water. Justify.
8. How halophytes get rid of excess salt?
9. How mesophytes loss surplus water?
10. Define (a) hydathodes (b) guttation (c) succulent (d) sunken stomata (e)
wilting
11. Write difference b/w guttation & transpiration?
12. Role of unsaturated fatty acid in thermoregulation?
13. Why high temperature stress is more dangerous than low temperature
stress?
14. Why plant cell doesn’t burst even if placed constantly in hypotonic
solution?
15. Why excretion doesn’t pose problem in plants?

Chapter no. 2.

1. In how many ways support is provided by plants? Write the ways.

2. In how many region young stem is anatomical arranged?
3. Explain three region of anatomical arrangement of young stem?
4. Name different types of tissues on which young stem depend.
5. How turgor pressure is maintain by parenchymatous cells?
6. Role of parenchyma tissues during support of stem?
7. What happens when parenchyma lost water in to it OR loss its function?
8. Define (a) stimuli (b) fusiform initiation (c) suberin (d) lenticels?
9. How the conducting cells become blocked in secondary growth?

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10.Importance of oaks tree?
11. How heart wood & sap wood formed?
12. What is the main function of cork tissue OR phellem?
13. Write the importance of annual ring in plant?
14. Why does wilting of leaves take place in hot summer days?
15. How does exposed tissue of cortex become protected when primary
epidermis falls off in stem?
16. How girth of stem increases from year to year?
17. How young stem gives mechanical support to plant body?
18. Why leaves of touch me not closed down on touching?
19. What movement of legume plants perform & how?

Chapter no. 3

1. What is indole acetic acid?

2. Define hormones? Why phytohormones are called growth regulators?
3. In how many ways plant hormones control growth? Explain
4. Which hormones is important in drought condition of plant & how?
5. How plants adapt its self from oxygen deficiency?
6. Write role of heat shock protein during heat stress?
7. How plants overcome themselves from herbiovry?
8. Name different types of naturally n synthetic form of (a) auxin (b)
gibberellins(c) cytokinin?
9. What do you mean by abscission of leaves? Explain the process.
10. Explain how flowers & fruits attain colorful marks on them?
11. Why ethane is called fruit ripening hormone?
12. What are the 1st & 2nd lines of defense in plants?
Chapter no. 4

1. How perennating organ is important for asexual reproduction?

2. Define (a) callus (b) hybrid (c) monoecious (d) dioecious (e) florigen?
3. When & why protoplast fusion formed?
4. Write pollinatory success in plants?
5. Explain determinate & indeterminate shoot of flower?
6. What is the impact of self & cross pollination on new generation?
7. Seed dormancy is an important & necessary aspect. Justify
8. Name different types of plants on the basis of its life cycle with difference
b/w them?
9. What is the main purpose of vernilization?
10. P660 & P730 works antagonestaly. Justify
11. Write the importance of invitro fertilization of egg?
12. Difference b/w (a) complete & incomplete flower (b) perfect & imperfect
flower.
Chapter no. 7

1. Define interphase?name its sub stages.

2. Importance of interphase?
3. Why meiosis is called reductional cell division?
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4. Difference b/w metaphase & telophase?
5. Define autosomes & sex chromosomes?
6. Define (a) chromosomes (b) centromere (c) chromomere (d) bivalent (e)
tetrads
7. Name different ways by which cell divides?
8. Define spindle fiber with its importance?
9.Role of apoptosis in gene activation?
10. Write few main important roles of apoptosis?
11. Why do cancer cells kill?
12. Main important properties of meiosis & mitosis.
13. Why synapsis is important in meiosis?
14. Role of crossing over in meiosis.
15.
Chapter no 6.

1. Define the following (a)chromonemata (b)chromomeres (c)nucleosome

(d)histone
2. Define chromosomes with its types?
3. How DNA is neutral?
4. Define sex chromosomes & autosomes?
5. Role of colchicine during karyotype?
6. Write the mutation that results in sickle cell?
7. Draw chemical composition of chromosomes?
8. Difference b/w (a)heterochromatin & euchromatin
9. Why the mice were killed in every fourth attempt of griffith?
10. Role of capsule in bacteria?
11. Write chargaff rule in DNA?
12. Role of cesium chloride?
13. How many type of mutant are their in experiment? How these were able
to grow?
14. Define RNA with all their types & main task?
15. Result of chromosomal mutation?
16. Why sickle cell anemia so called as?
Chapter no 8

1. Write genotypic & phenotypic ratios of 1 st & 2nd law of mendle ,

incomplete dominance , epistasis?
2. Write the problem faced by (a) haemophiilic (b) anemic patients?
3. How kerenal color & skin color show various variation?explain its
inheritance?
4. Define RH factor with its importance?
5. Difference b/w (a) monogenic & polygenic inheritance (b)single &
double trait inheritance (c) linkage & crossing over (d)sex & autosomal
inheritance
6. Describe how children are in danger of being born with disease
erythro Blastosis faetalis?
7. Why is haemophillia is rare in women as compare to men?
8. Define blood group?draw achart sowing d/f blood group in human?

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9. Solve the following cases with explaining the result & ratio (a)colour
blind women marries a normal man (b)red eye female drosophila vs white eye
male drosophilla (c)white eye female vs red eye male drosophila (d)carrier
female marries normal male (e)carrier female vs haemophillic male.
Chapter no 11.

1. Define ecology?who coin this term?

2. Define (a)ecological niche (b)biomes (c)topography (d)giant ecosystem
3. Difference b/w (a)autecology & synecology (b)heliophytes & sciophytes
(c)interspecific & intraspecific association
4. Define pedology & pedogenisis?
5. Draw level of organization?
6. Role of pyrophillius fungi maintaining ecosystem?
7. Write role of red n blue light quality?
8. Define interaction with its types?
9. How ammonia converted into nitates by bacteria?
10. Write about the flow of energy in ecosystem?
11.Write imp of N?
12.How edaphic factors effects an ecosystem?
13. Write all association with example of each?
14. Define nitrification with all its possible ways?
15. What is denitrification?
16. Why distribution of population depends on climatic?
17. Why water is most imp factor of ecosystem?

Chapter no 12.
Define fresh water with all its sub division?graphically?
Define upwelling?
Draw zonation of sea?
Why grassland are consider as bread basket of world?
Define tundra with its types?
Define (a)agar (b)canopy (c)arboreal (d)perma frost (e)pyrophylous fungi
(f)profundal zone (g)interdial zone
Why special type of forest are named temperate deciduous forest?
Why coniferous forest are so called?
How water in deep sea is brought coastal surface?
Difference b/w (a) oceanic & neritic zone (b)tundra & desert

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MARKING SCHEME OF BOARD OF INTERMEDIATE
EDUCATION KARACHI ANNUAL PAPER

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