RESEARCH IN DAILY LIFE 1 PHENOMOENOGICAL QUESTIONS

KEY TERMS EXAMPLES

 What is this lived a) What is it like to be
PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH experience (of a group) bored?
around (specific b) What is it like to
- “The Lived Experience”
phenomenon) like? experience a heart
- Is describing events, situations, experiences, or
 What is it like to transplant?
concepts as it they are experiences by people. c) What is it like to
experience this
- It raises awareness and increases insights experience empathy?
phenomenon or event?
 What are the d) What is it like to
experience pain?
meanings, structures,
THREE ELEMENTS OF PHENOMENOLOGY and essence of (a
1. LIVED EXPERIENCE – phenomenology concerns/ specific phenomenon)
helps researchers to apprehend lived experience by (individuals
within a specific group experiencing the
2. CONSCIOUS PROCESS – experience is a phenomenon)?
conscious process
3. INTERPRETATIONS – the development of
interpretation of the essence of this experiences.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL PROCESS

1. Determine phenomenology is best approach for

GOAL OF PHENOMENOLOGY
research question/ objective.
1. TO DESCRIBE… – to describe the meaning of 2. Identify the phenomenon to study
this experience – both in term of “What was 3. Recognize the philosophical assumptions of
experienced” and “How it was experienced?” phenomenology.
2. TO EXAMINE… – by examining an experience as it 4. Describe researcher’s own experience with
is subjectively lived, new meaning and phenomenon.
appreciations can be developed to inform, or even 5. Bracket (or epoche) researcher’s assumptions
re-orient, how understand that experience. regarding phenomenon.
6. Collect data about experiences of phenomenon.
What and how is it experienced.
TWO TYPES OF PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH

HERMENEUTIC PHENOMENOLOGY CASE STUDY

a) RESEARCHER AS INTERPRETER
- Reflecting on lived experience with  Case study is a design in which the researcher
interpretation by the researcher. develops an in-depth analysis of a case.
Researchers collect detailed information using a
b) EMPIRICAL RESEARCH variety of data collection procedures over a
- Conducted through empirical (collection of sustained period (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009, 2012).
experiences) and reflective (analysis of their  A case study centers on an individual or a single
meanings) activities. issue. One advantage of this study is its capacity to
affect many factors to work out the unique
c) UNDERSTANDING characteristics of the entity (Meng, 2012; Yin, 2016)
- Basic themes of hermeneutic phenomenology  It is a research methods that allows a researcher
are “interpretation,” “textual meaning,” to explore and investigate complex issues within
“dialogue,” “pre-understanding,” and a specific context observing limited numbers of
“tradition.” individuals in a small geographic area (Mendoza
and Melegrito, 2017)
 Case study is an analysis of persons, events,
TRANSCENDENTAL PHENOMENOLOGY decisions, periods, policies, institutions, or other
- Focus less on researchers interpretation and systems that are studied holistically by one or
more on describing experiences of participants. more methods; can be descriptive or explanatory
- Largely developed by Husserl, is a and may be selected for their uniqueness and not
philosophical approach to qualitative research generally for representativeness. It examines a
methodology seeking to understand human phenomenon within its real-life context, over an
experience (Moustakas, 1994). extended period, by doing several in-depth
 interviews and employing multiple data sources. It the presumed causal links in real-life interventions
is time-consuming and may be quite costly. that are too complex for the survey or experimental
 Stake (1995) and Yin (2003) provided the foundation strategies.
of case study as a constructivist approach
COLLECTIVE CASE STUDIES – enables the researcher
depends on someone’s perspectives, making truth
to explore differences within and between cases. The
as relative.
goal is to replicate findings across cases. Because the
comparisons will be drawn, the researcher can predict
similar results across cases, or predict contrasting
SOURCES/ METHODS USED IN CASE STUDY results based on a theory.
o Observation
o Interview
o Oral recording NOTABLE CASE STUDIES
o Documents
 GENIE WILEY – horrific abuse and isolation.
 PHINEAS GAGE – railroad accident.
 ANNA O. – symptoms of hysteria; talk therapy
STRENGTHS OF CASE STUDY

 Ability to explore and describe, in depth, an issue or

event. HOW TO WRITE A CASE STUDY
 Give researchers the chance to collect information
on rare or unusual cases.
 Develop an understanding of health, illness and PROSPECTIVE CASE STUDY – methods are those in
health care in context. which an individual or group is observed in order to
 Single case can be used to develop or disprove a determine outcomes.
theory.
RETROSPECTIVE CASE STUDY – methods involve
looking at historical information.
LIMITATIONS OF CASE STUDY

 Labor intensive and generates large diverse data

sets which can be hard to manage. WHEN TO USE THE CASE STUDY DESIGN
 Case studies are seen by many as a weak
 The focus of the study is to answer “how” and “why”
methodology because they only look at one person
questions.
or one specific group and aren’t as broad in their
 You cannot manipulate the behavior of those
participant selection as other methodologies.
involved in the study.
 Case studies cannot always be replicated.
 You want to cover contextual conditions because
you believe they are relevant to the phenomenon
under study.
TYPES OF CASE STUDY

CONTENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTIVE CASE STUDIES – used to describe an
intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in - A research method that provides a systematic and
which it occurred. objective means to make valid inferences from
verbal, visual, or written data in order to describe
EXPLORATORY CASE STUDIES – used to explore and quantify specific phenomena.
those situations in which the intervention being evaluated
has clear, single set of outcomes.

INTRINSIC CASE STUDIES – the researcher has a STEPS INVOLVED IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
personal genuine interest in the case.
1. Read through or examine the data, becoming
INSTRUMENTAL CASE STUDIES – used to familiar with it.
accomplish something other than understanding a 2. Identify coding units.
particular situation. It provides insight into an issue or 3. The data is analyzed by applying the coding units.
helps to refine a theory. 4. Summarize the data in a frequency table. Include a
tally of the number of times that a coding unit
EXPLANATORY CASE STUDIES – used if you were appears.
seeking to answer a question that sought to explain
CODE – label used to identify connections between  Often attempting too liberally to draw meaningful
meaning units. inferences about the relationships and impacts
implied in a study
CATEGORY – groups of related codes
 Inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with
complex texts
 Tends too often to simply consist of word counts
TYPES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS  Often disregards the context that produced the text,
as well as the state of things after the text is produced
 Can be difficult to automate or computerize
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS – a concept is chosen for o To analyze the text using content analysis, the text
examination and the analysis involves quantifying and must be coded, or broken down, into manageable
counting its presence. It examines the occurrence of code categories for analysis.
selected terms in the data. o Content analysis allows a closeness to data.
o Using content analysis is a technique that allows us
to study human behavior indirectly through analyzing
RELATIONAL ANALYSIS – the analysis involves communications.
exploring the relationships between concepts. o Researchers use content analysis to find out about
Individual concepts are viewed as having no inherent the purposed, messages, and effects of
meaning and rather the meaning is a product of the communication content. They can also make
relationships among concepts. inferences about the producers and audience of the
text they analyze.

USES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS

GROUNDED THEORY
 Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends
of an individual, group or institution. - A method where a theory emerges from data
 Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to collected rather than taken from related literature
communications. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001).
 Determine the psychological or emotional state of - A method that puts emphasis on the perceptions of
persons or groups. the researchers in the research process (Bryant,
 Reveal international differences and in 2002).
communication content. - A method of research where the researcher attempts
to derive a general, abstract theory of process, action
or interaction grounded in the views of participants in
a study (Cresswell, 2003).
ADVANTAGES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
- A research methodology which operates inductively
 Looks directly at communication via texts/ transcripts, (describe reasoning that involves using specific
and hence gets at the central aspect of social observations; observed patterns.)
interaction.
 Allows for both qualitative and quantitative analysis.
 Provides valuable historical and cultural insights over THEORY
time.
- Experience
 Allows a closeness to data.
- Actions and processes
 Is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
- Interaction
(Unobtrusive method is the collective term for ways of
gathering data without intruding into the lives of the
people being studied.)
 Provides insight into complex models of human WHENS AND HOWS OF GROUNDED THEORY STUDY
thought and language use. If the researcher would like …

o To create a novel discovery

DISADVANTAGES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS o To explain experience, process, and action from a
micro perspective up to its possibility of repetition if
 Can be extremely time-consuming they happen in another setting
 Is subject to increased error, particularly when o If current theories are found inadequate (or non-
relational analysis is used to attain a higher level of existent) in constructing meaning of the experience or
interpretation phenomenon under study.
STEPS, PROCEDURES, AND CONSIDERATIONS IN CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY
USING GROUNDED THEORY
 Focuses on the emancipation of the marginalized
1. Identifying your problem group in society.
2. Approach to the source of the problem  It serves both method and output showing equality
3. The research problem among the barriers created by the old society and
4. Participants social caste.
5. Role of the researcher  Abides by the goal of being “the voice” of the
6. Primary method oppressed and the weak whose place in the society
is considered “in the periphery.”

ETHNOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH
STEPS OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
Ethnographic study is …
1. Determine the feasibility of having ethnographic work.
a) Observation and taking note of language in the
2. Identification of the location of the study.
community, exposure of the researcher, the ideology
3. Revie and find evidence of critical sociological
of the community, and cultural sharing is a must.
principles in the community.
b) The researchers observe and interact with the study
participants in a real-life environment.
c) The interests of the ethnographer are the shared
patterns created by behavior, language, and beliefs. CHALLENGES OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

 It may be expensive.
 Open for biases since the prolonged exposure of the
ADVANTAGES OF ETHNOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH researcher in the field may develop an attachment
between the researcher and the local folks.
 Ethnography can help identify and analyze
unexpected issues.  May become an exposition of narratives rather than a
presentation of “cultural and societal patterns.”
 Ethnographic researcher’s in-situ presence helps
mitigate the risk because issues will (hopefully)
become directly apparent to the researcher.
 Ability to deliver a detailed and faithful STEPS IN ETHNOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH
representation of users’ behaviors and attitudes.
1. EXPLORE
 It can be instrumental in uncovering and analyzing 2. GATHER AND NARROW DOWN
relevant user attitudes and emotions. 3. GROUP
4. REVISIT
5. WRITE
DISADVANTAGES OF ETHNOGRAPHICAL 6. SYNTHESIS
RESEARCH

 Will take longer to generate and analyze its data than

other methods. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
 Participants may not act naturally during a short A review of related literature is a comprehensive review
study. More extended studies normally counter-act of the existing literature pertaining to a specific topic or
this because the subjects grow to trust the research question. An effective review provides the
researcher and/or get tired of any pretense. reader with an organized analysis and synthesis of the
existing knowledge about a subject.

TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH The Review of related literature involves the systematic
identification, location, and analysis of documents
REALIST ETHNOGRAPHY containing information related to the research problem.
The term is also used to describe the written component
 Focuses on the individual under study. of a research plan or report that discusses the reviewed
 Narration is in the third person’s point of view. documents. These documents can include articles,
 Presents the data objectively utilizing the information abstracts, reviews, monographs, dissertations, other
collected onsite. research reports, and electronic media.
 The researcher-participant boundary is very well
observed.
 There is no exposition of the researcher’s biases,
political ideologies, and prejudices.
 Identify gaps in the knowledge – This is the primary
purpose of a review of related literature (often called
RRL in research). To create new knowledge, you
must first determine what knowledge may be missing.
This also helps to identify the scope of your study.
 Avoid duplication of research efforts – Not only will
a review of related literature indicate gaps in the
existing research, but it will also lead you away from
duplicating research that has already been done and
thus save precious resources.
 Provide an overview of disparate and
interdisciplinary research areas – Researchers
cannot possibly know everything related to their
disciplines. Therefore, it is very helpful to have access
to a review of related literature already written and
published.
 Highlight researcher’s familiarity with their topic
– A strong review of related literature in a study
strengthens readers’ confidence in that study and that
researcher.

 Chronological
 Thematic
 Methodological
 Theoretical

NON-INTEGRAL CITATIONS

The most common citations that students will see and use
are of the non-integral type, in which all of the citation
elements are placed within brackets – such as the
authors’ family names, the year of publication, and any
necessary page numbers or webpage URLs.

Example: Studies have indicated that air pollution is bad

for a person’s health (Smith, 2012)

Studies have indicated that air pollution is bad for a

person’s health (Smith, 2012), which may be particularly
true for children.

INTEGRAL CITATIONS

The second citation type, and one that is also commonly

used, is the integral citation, which conversely does not
contain all of its reference elements inside brackets as the
non-integral citation does. Used to change the focus from
the research to the researcher, integral citations place the
source authors’ names outside of the brackets and may
be introduced either within a prepositional phrase or as
the main subject of a clause or sentence

Example: According to Jones and Lee (2019), air

pollution is on the rise in numerous Asian countries.

Jones and Lee (2019) argue that air pollution is on the

rise in numerous Asian countries.