Module 1: Electric Charges

Atom is the basic building block of matter.

It comprises the following subatomic particles:
1. Protons are positively charged (+e)
2. Electrons have negative charges (-e)
3. Neutrons have no charge or are electrically neutral

Electric Charge
In the atomic level, an electric charge determines the electric interaction and magnetic interaction
between subatomic particles and other charged particles. This means that they are affected by
electromagnetism. This interaction between charges is summarized in the phrase "like charges
repel, unlike charges attract."

law of charges
stated as follows: Like charges repel each other, and unlike charges attract each other.
As a derived SI (or International System of Units) quantity, an electric charge is represented by the
symbol "q" and measured using the unit coulomb (C). In chemistry, you learned that the charges
of subatomic particles are measured in terms of e. The relationship between e and coulomb is
1 coulomb = 6.242 × 1018 e
An atom that has an imbalance in the number of protons and electrons is called an ion.
Cations are positive (more protons than electrons).
Anions are negative (more electrons than protons).

Ex. Ion with a charge of +3

1𝐶
(+3𝑒) 6.242 𝑥 1018 𝑒 = 4.806 𝑥 10−19 𝐶

Conductors are materials that allow electrical charges to move from one material to another.
Conductors may be charged through different methods
1. Rubbing - The frictional charging process involves the transfer of electrons between two
rubbing objects.

2. Conduction – The process of charging an uncharged conductor by bringing it in electrical

contact with a charged body
3. Induction - a charging method that charges an object without actually touching the object to
any other charged object. The charging by induction process is where the charged particle is
held near an uncharged conductive material that is grounded on a neutrally charged material.
The separation of electrical charges to opposite poles due to induction is known as polarization.
Charging an object by induction may also occur through a process called grounding.
Grounding is a process similar to conduction, but it includes a grounding wire that connects the
neutral body
The charge acquired by rubbed materials can be determined using the triboelectric series.
The triboelectric series is a list of common materials that were experimented on and found to
behave in a predictable way. When these materials are rubbed together, those that appear first in
the list tend to lose their electrons, making them positive. Meanwhile, those latter in the list tend to
gain electrons, making them negative. In other words, if you rub any two of the materials in the
series, the material in the upper part of the list will be positive, and the other material in the lower
part will be negative.

Electric charging is generally used in conditions where precision is necessary. Particles are
charged and projected onto a surface using another provider of electrostatic force.

Electric Dipoles
In the previous discussion, you have learned that when you bring a neutrally charged body A near
a strongly negative body B, its positive charges will be drawn near B, and the negative charges will
be pushed to the other side. This resulting condition polarizes the body and forms a dipole.
Polarization is the process wherein an electrically neutral body becomes polar by the
rearrangement of its molecules.
Point dipoles refer to atoms bearing a positive side and a negative side. In such atoms, the
electrons converge or gather on one side and the protons on the other.
An extension of this concept gives rise to molecular dipoles. This type of dipole involves a molecule
having a negatively charged side and a positively charged side.
The electronegative atoms of the molecule form the negative end of the molecule.
The electropositive ones are responsible for the positive end.
An instantaneous or a temporary dipole - is an atom or a molecule with most of its negative
charges shifted only to one side as a result of their random movement.
 Module 2: Electrostatic Force, Electric Field, and Electric Flux

The act of repelling implies pushing and the act of attracting suggests pulling. You know that a push
or a pull pertains to force. You can then say that electric charges exert a force on each other as they
interact.

Electrostatic Force
This attraction and repulsion between electric charges comes from a force known as electrostatic
force. This force can be computed using Coulomb's law for electrostatics as shown here.
→ 𝒌𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝑬 = 𝒓 𝟐

F = electrostatic force,
q1, and q2,= magnitudes of the charges,
r =is the distance between the charges,
𝑵.𝒎𝟐
k = Coulomb's constant with the value of 𝒌 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑪𝟐

Coulomb's law can be seen as a variation of Newton's law of universal gravitation.

Newton's law governs the gravitational force between two bodies.

Coulomb's law
• Quantifies the electrostatic force between two charges.
• It states that an electrostatic force is directly proportional to the product of the charges and is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the two charges.
• This means that stronger charges will result in a stronger force, and weaker charges will
result in a weaker force.
• Furthermore, the greater the distance between the charges, the weaker is the force between
them. Meanwhile, the force strengthens as the charges move closer to each other.

The Superposition Principle

• There are a total of six forces in the described system of four electric charges in a vacuum.
As these forces are vectors, you simply add them to get the resultant force.

• Resultant force is the sum of all the forces acting on a body. This means that if you have
two or more forces applied on a body, the body will experience the net effect of all the forces
applied.

• This addition of forces applied on a body is essentially an application of the superposition

principle.
 • In the study of electric charges, the superposition principle essentially means that the
overall effect or net effect of the presence of electric charges in a given system is equal to
the individual effects of each pair of charges in the system

Electric Field and Its Representation

The area or field around a charge where the electrostatic force can be experienced is called the
electric field.
An electric field coexists with every electrostatic charge; it associates with each point in space the
electrostatic force experienced per unit of electric charge, by an extremely small (or infinitesimal)
test charge at that point. A test charge is a single charge whose behavior is measured or determined
based on the presence of external factors or stimuli. Its presence is arbitrary. For easier
computation, a unit of 1 C is used.

What is an electric field? What is its importance in an electrostatic charge?

Electric fields predict the behavior of the charges present in any location in space. Physicists
compute the value of an electric field because of its direct relation with electrostatic force.
Mathematically, the electric field can be computed using the equation
→ 𝒌𝑸
= 𝟐
𝑬 𝒓

→
= is the electric field,
𝑬
Q = source charge - is the charge from where the electric field comes from.
r = is the distance from the source charge where the electric field is being measured. The unit used
to measure electric field is newton per coulomb (N/C).

The equation for electric field here shows its relationship with electrostatic force, as follows:
→ 𝑭𝑬
=
𝑬 𝒒
→
𝑭𝑬 is the electrostatic force experienced by the electric charge. An electric field is also a vector
quantity. It has the same direction as the electrostatic force exerted on an electric charge.

Electric Field Lines

An electric field can be graphically represented using electric field lines. The density or thickness
of these lines is directly proportional to the strength of the electric field at any region in space. If the
field lines are close to each other, the electric field is stronger.
Electric field lines are drawn based on the charge being considered. Positive charges have field
lines drawn from them. Negative charges have field lines drawn to them.
Field lines of positive
charges are drawn
outward (away from the
positive charge)

Field lines of negative

charges are drawn inward
(toward the negative
charge).

Electric Flux and Gauss s Law

Electric field is represented by arrows to indicate the flow or movement from positive charge or to a
negative charge. This flow of an electric field through a given area measurable using electric flux.
Mathematically, the equation used to compute for electri flux is as follows:
∅𝑬=(→)(𝑨)(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)
𝑬

→
= for the electric field
𝑬
A = for the area of the considered surface,
𝜽 = for the angle between the electric field lines and the lin perpendicular to the surface of A. The
unit used to measure electric flux is volt-meter (V-m)
𝑵.𝒎𝟐
or newton meters squared per coulomb Note that this equation is useful for both the uniform
𝑪𝟐
electric field and the area.

For a closed surface, electric flux is calculated using a technique or law called Gauss's law.
Gauss’s law states that the electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the net charge inside
the surface divided by the permittivity of free space.
• An example of this is a negatively charged straight wire. Electric field lines can be drawn
toward the wire, implying that the electric field is directed toward the wire.
• Meanwhile, for a positively charged hollow ball, you can predict that the electric field will move
away from the surface of the ball.
• Last, an infinite line of charge will have the associated electric field lines moving either from
or toward its surface depending on the charge that it possesses.

Applications of Electrostatics

Atomic Models
Atoms are made up of electric charges. The interaction between these charges can predict how
each atom will behave.
Electrical Breakdown of Air
The electrical breakdown of air is responsible for the formation of lightning and the presence of other
electrical charges in the atmosphere.
Charged Pendulums
One of the hypothetical applications of the concept of electric charges is on their role in pendulums
bearing a respective electric charge.

Control of Electron Beams and Proton Beams

• Electron beams are industrially used in cross-linking polymers in the field of materials
engineering. For example, in electron beam machining, a narrow beam of high-velocity
electrons are directed toward an object.

• This setup creates heat that could vaporize the material. Thus, electron beam machining is
useful in the accurate cutting of metals.

• Electron beams are also used to produce X-rays, television screens, and oscilloscope
images.

Module 3: Electric Potential

The word "potential" implies that something is about to happen. In this module, you will consider
the "potential" between electric charges and their effects on how charges interact with each other.

Work and Potential Energy

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. A body with energy can do work, whereas a body
without it cannot do work. Think of energy as your fuel to accomplish your work.

Potential energy is one of the many forms of energy. It is the energy of a body due to its position
and normally converted into useful work. This is why it is known as the energy at rest.

Gravitational potential energy (GPE), a type of potential energy, is due to a body's elevation from
the ground. A body placed higher above the ground can do greater work as it moves downward from
its initial position.

Electric Potential

Electric potential is the amount of electric potential energy per unit charge. This is equivalent to
the amount of work needed to move a charge from one reference point to another. Electric potential
is the quantity of energy possessed by a point charge at a certain location in space

Electric potential is mathematically described using this equation:

𝒌𝑸 →
𝑽𝑬 = =
𝒓 𝑬
𝑽𝑬 = electric potential The unit used to measure electric potential is
k = is Coulomb's constant, joules per coulomb (J/C) or volt (V).
Q = is the source charge
r = is the distance from the source charge,
→
= is the electric field
𝑬

Equipotential Lines

• Electric field lines are drawn around a charge to represent the electric field around it.

• Similarly, equipotential lines are loops drawn around a charge to represent the electric
potential around it. At any point in the loop, the electric potential is constant.

• In equipotential surfaces, no work is required to move a charge at constant speed.

• Equipotential lines are drawn perpendicular to each electric field line. This means that for
every line pertaining to the electric field, there are numerous equipotential lines that can be
associated with it.

• This intersection between the two lines implies the inverse relationship between the electric
field and the electric potential. So, as the strength of the electric field weakens, the electric
potential increases, and vice versa.

Module 4: Voltage, Current, and Resistance

Current: Flow of Electrical Charges

Due to electric potential energy, electrons move from one point to another. Thus, electric potential
energy can be transferred to electrons through work done. This movement is possible because of
the electric field around the negative charges. The velocity of this motion is known as drift velocity.

Normally, electrons move to any direction. If this flow is regulated and made to move continuously
in one direction, then the flow becomes an electric current.
Drift velocity and electric current are directly proportional. This means that a higher drift velocity
results in a higher amount of current, and vice versa.

Mathematically, electric current is computed using the equation;

𝒒
𝑰=
𝒕
I = indicates the electric current,
Q = is the amount of charges that pass through a conductor for every unit of time, t.
The unit for current is coulomb per second (C/s) or ampere (A).
 Resistance and Resistivity
An electrical conductor is any
material that allows the free flow of
electric current. A conductor
possesses characteristics that
either enhance or limit the flow of
current passing through it. The
limitation to current flow is referred
to as resistance.
Resistance and electric current are
inversely proportional. So a
greater amount of resistance on a conductor results in a lower amount of current passing through
the conductor, whereas a lower resistance means less restrictions, allowing more current to flow
through the conductor.

Electrical resistivity is an intrinsic property of the material that describes how it resists the electric
current flowing through it. Higher electrical resistivity means higher overall resistance of the material,
whereas lower resistivity indicates the material's lower resistance.
Current flow is reduced by an increase in the electrical resistivity of the material, whereas a decrease
in the resistivity allows more current to flow through the material.
The counterpart of electrical resistivity is electrical conductivity. An increase in the electrical
conductivity of the material results in a lower resistance offered by the material and a higher current
flow through it. On the other hand, decreasing the electrical conductivity of the material increases
its resistance and lowers the flow of current through it.
Another factor or property of the material that affects the resistance and current flow is temperature.
If the conductor has a higher temperature, its resistance increases and the amount of current that
can flow through it decreases. This happens because of the random movement of the molecules
that affects the amount of current flow. On the other hand, if the conducting material has a lower
temperature, the resistance decreases, thus allowing more current to flow through it.
The length of the conductor is another factor that affects the resistance offered by a material.
Longer conductors provide more resistance to the flow of current, which means less current can
flow through it. Shorter conductors provide less resistance, thus allowing more current to flow.
The last factor considered is the cross-sectional area (or fatness) of the conductor. "Fat"
conductors allow more charges to pass through them, which means more current can flow. More
current flow also means lower resistance offered by the conductor. "Thin" conductors, on the other
hand, have limited space for current to flow through them, making resistance higher.

The resistivity, length, and cross-sectional area of a conductor can be related to an equivalent
resistance through the equation:
𝝆𝑽
𝑹=
𝑨
p = is the resistivity of the conductor,
L = is its length,
A = is its cross-sectional area,
R = is the equivalent resistance that it can provide.
As a constant value, the unit of p is ohm-meter (22-m). The unit of resistance is ohm

Electromotive Force
Electromotive force or EMF is not a force. Instead, it is the potential energy given to a unit charge
to make it flow through a conductor or around a complete circuit. The EMF acts like a charge pump
that causes charges to flow through a circuit. As a measurable quantity, EMF is measured using the
unit volt (V).
Electromotive force is what the voltage source provides to a circuit. It is the "push" given to the
electric charges for them to flow from the source to the components of the circuit. This "push" is
provided by the cell or the battery connected to the circuit and is defined beforehand. Without a
battery, there would be no EMF that will make the charges flow, and therefore no current.
Similar to electromotive force is the potential difference (PD) across a circuit. Potential difference
is an actual consideration of the potentials in the circuit. The existence of PD also identifies the flow
of charges through the circuit. Without this difference, there will be no electric potential, thus making
the flow of charges through the conductor impossible. Both the EMF and PD are measured in terms
of voltage (V).

Ohms Law
In 1827, Georg Simon Ohm discovered the relationship among voltage, current, and resistance.
He found out that electricity acts similarly to water in a pipe. Through this observation, he was able
to summarize the relationship among EMF or voltage (V), electric current (I), and resistance (R)
through the Ohm s law. In equation form, Ohm's law is stated as follows:

V = IR
Electric Circuits
The current flows along a conductor, where it is brought from its source to where electrical energy
is needed such as your appliances. The pathway for the current to move to and from the source and
the appliance is called an electric circuit. A functional circuit has to be "closed" or must form a
closed loop. Closed circuits allow the current to flow from the source of the current to the load
where the current is needed
On the other hand, an "open" circuit does not form a closed loop; the resulting circuit would then
be nonfunctional. Open circuits have gap(s) where current cannot flow. Thus, electric current cannot
be delivered to the load where it is needed.
 A schematic diagram is a picture
that represents the components of a
process, device, or other object using
abstract, often standardized symbols
and lines.

Schematic diagrams make it easy to

draw circuits presents the basic
components in circuits and their
schematic representations.

A resistor is an electronic component used to provide a specific amount of resistance. Generally, it

can be considered as a load because loads provide resistance to current flow. The components of
a circuit may be connected in series or in parallel. Take a look at the differences between these two
basic types of connections.
1. The Series Circuit
• all components are connected using a single pathway. In other words, a series circuit is
characterized by a single loop for current to flow. The current is the same for all the
components along this circuit. The total voltage is the sum of the individual voltages across
the circuit, and the total resistance of the circuit is the sum of the individual resistances of
each circuit load. However, the PD of the voltage for each individual circuit component is not
the same as the total voltage. These relationships are summarized by the following formulas:
𝑽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏
𝑰𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝑰𝒏
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏

The Parallel Circuit

Parallel circuits use branches to allow current to pass through more than one path, unlike in the
series circuit. The voltage between two points in the circuit does not depend on the path taken; thus,
the individual voltages in a parallel circuit are the same as the total voltage. However, unlike in the
series circuit, the current in each load is not the same as the total current in the circuit. The total
current is the sum of the individual currents across the resistors. The reciprocal of the total resistance
in this type of circuit is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. Always
remember that the total resistance is always less than the individual resistances. Here are the
following formulas for a parallel circuit:

𝑽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝑽𝒏
𝑰𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑰𝒏
 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯+
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒏
Ohmic and Non-Ohmic Materials
Circuit components can be classified as either ohmic or non-ohmic. Ohmic components show the
relationship between voltage and the current as in Ohm's law. This means that the way these
components behave in a circuit can be predicted using the said law. Furthermore, the important
factors to consider for ohmic components as these are placed in a circuit are voltage, current, and
resistance. Examples of ohmic components are resistors and ordinary conducting wires.
On the other hand, non-ohmic components do not behave as ohmic components. Ohm's law does
not apply in the way these components operate; thus, other factors are considered when these
components are placed in a circuit. Examples of non-ohmic components are bulb filaments and
semiconductors such as transistors and diodes.

Module 5: Capacitance

Capacitors
A capacitor is an electric component that temporarily stores charges within a circuit. Inside it are
two conducting plates facing each other and separated by an insulator referred to as a dielectric.
This material impedes the continuous passage of electric current through the capacitor and stores
it until it is discharged at a later time.
Capacitors are constructed by inserting an insulator to form a gap along the path of a conductor.
The size of this insulator affects the amount of charges stored in the capacitor. The junction between
the conductor and the dielectric in a capacitor can be adjusted so the amount of charges that can
be stored by the capacitor may vary.

The amount of charges stored in a capacitor per unit of electric potential is referred to as
capacitance. Mathematically, it is computed using the following equation:
𝑸
𝑪=
𝑽
C = is the capacitance of the capacitor
Q = is the magnitude of the charge stored on each plate.
V = is the voltage applied to each plate. The unit used to measure capacitance is coulomb per volt
(C / V) or farad (F).

Shape of Capacitors
Capacitors can be classified in terms of their construction-parallel-plate, spherical, and
cylindrical. Each of these has advantages and disadvantages based on capacitance, charge, and
potential difference.

1. Parallel-plate capacitors are the simplest to understand in terms of construction because

they conform directly to the definition of a capacitor. In this type of capacitor, two parallel
 charging plates are separated by a dielectric that contains the charges. The capacitance that
can be offered by a parallel-plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area of the plates as
well as to the distance between these plates. The voltage across this type of capacitor is also
directly proportional to the distance between the plates.

2. Cylindrical capacitors have different a construction compared to a parallel-plate. , inner and

outer cylindrical structures correspond to the plates of the parallel-plate capacitor. The
dielectric is placed between these two charged cylinders.

The capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor varies directly with its length. A longer capacitor
provides higher capacitance, whereas a shorter one provides a lower value. Increasing the
amount of dielectric in this type of capacitor also increases the capacitance that it offers. Also,
a large or "fat" cylindrical capacitor offers a higher capacitance than a thin one. Such
variation means that an increase in the distance between the two charged cylinders will
increase the amount of work to be done to move a charge from one cylinder to the other,
thereby increasing the voltage across the capacitor

3. Spherical capacitors have a construction similar to that of a cylindrical capacitor. An internal

spherical structure is one of the charged bodies of the capacitor. The other charged body is
the outer spherical structure that covers the internal sphere. The dielectric is placed between
these two charged spheres.

The capacitance of a spherical capacitor varies directly with its overall radius. Increasing the
radius of this type of capacitor will enlarge the spherical surfaces, consequently widening the
distance between the two charged spheres. By doing so, the amount of dielectric also surges,
thus boosting the capacitance offered by the capacitor. In addition, the work necessary to
move a charge from one sphere to the other is also increased, thus intensifying the voltage
across the capacitor.

Capacitors in a Circuit

Capacitors function when they are connected to a circuit. Separate treatments should be done for
capacitors connected in series and in parallel.

Series Connection

The following formulas hold for capacitors that are connected in series.
The formula here shows that the total charge stored by the circuit containing the capacitors is of
equal amount or constant throughout.
𝒒𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝒒𝟏 = 𝒒𝟐 = 𝒒𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝒒𝒏

Meanwhile, this formula shows that the total voltage in the circuit containing the capacitors varies
on the amount of voltage across each capacitor. The total voltage is equal to the sum of the
individual voltages of the capacitors in the circuit.
𝑽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏

The third formula shows that the reciprocal of the total capacitance due to the capacitors in the
circuit is equal to the sum of the individual reciprocals of each capacitance. This means that
capacitors connected in series provide a low capacitance. Note that the total capacitance is lower
than the individual capacitances of the capacitors in a series circuit.
 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯
𝑪𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝒏
Parallel Connection

The following formulas hold for capacitors that are connected in parallel.
The formula here shows that the total charge in the circuit containing the capacitors varies on the
amount of charge stored in each capacitor. The total charge is equal to the sum of the individual
charges stored in the capacitor in the circuit.

𝒒𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝒒𝟏 + 𝒒𝟐 + 𝒒𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒒𝒏

The second formula here shows that the total voltage stored by the circuit containing the capacitors
is of equal amount or constant throughout.

𝑽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝑽𝒏

Finally, the third formula here shows that the total capacitance in the circuit containing
the capacitors varies on the capacitance of each capacitor. The total capacitance is equal to
the sum of the individual capacitances stored in the capacitors in the circuit.
𝑪𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑪𝒏

Applications of Capacitance
The property of capacitors to store electric energy has found many applications in various
technologies. The following sections will further discuss how capacitors are applied to common
technologies today.
Charged Parallel-Plate Capacitors
The capacitance in a parallel-plate capacitor is dependent on the area and the distance between
the charged plates. Mathematically, the capacitance of this type of capacitor is computed using the
following equation:
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝐾 ∈0
𝑑
Batteries and Electroscopes
A battery is known as a convenient source of electric energy, whereas an electroscope is an
effective storage of electrical energy. Both devices are relevant to capacitors because they allow
electric charges to be stored in them.

Geiger Counters
Geiger counters are used to measure ionizing radiation with the use of a specialized tube
containing inert gases or noble gases.
Ionizing radiation is a type of radiation that may cause damage to living tissues because it changes
the electrical characteristics of the substance. Such a form of radiation is hazardous when people
become exposed to it. A Geiger counter is made up of a tube filled with an inert gas. High voltage
is then applied to this tube. An electrical charge is conducted inside the tube when incident radiation
ionizes the gas.
Coaxial Cables
One of the uses of cylindrical capacitors is seen in coaxial cables. This cable has an inner
conductor surrounded by a tubular insulator. This insulator is further surrounded by a tubular
conducting layer. This cable is primarily used in local area networking (LAN), a cabled network that
connects computers in an office or building. A variant of cabled LAN is the wireless LAN (WLAN),
otherwise known as Wi-Fi.

Module 6: Usage of Electric Energy

Electrical Power in an Electric Circuit

Circuits facilitate the delivery of electrical energy through current flow to people who need it to do
their daily tasks. As influenced by the EMF, electric current moves in the circuit from a source to
electrically powered equipment. The equipment then converts this energy to work or other forms as
governed by the law of conservation of energy.

Law of conservation of energy

States that energy is neither created nor destroyed; it is just transformed from one form to
another.

The rate of this conversion is referred to as electric power. Mathematically, electric power is
computed using the equation
P = VI
P = represents the electric power delivered,
V = is the voltage or EMF
I = is the current delivered.

A variation can be obtained using Ohm's law that would involve the internal resistance or R of the
equipment that converts electric energy.
𝑽𝟐
𝑷=
𝑹
This is interpreted as the power lost due to resistance. Electric power is measured in terms of the
unit watt (W).

Heat Generation from Electric Current

The electrical energy that passed through a current can be converted into heat by employing a circuit
component with a higher amount of resistance. The resistance provided by this component impedes
the flow of the current and allows the energy it brings to accumulate and be converted into heat.
The amount of heat generated per second by the current flow on a device is computed using the
equation
heat (J) generated per second = 12R
I represent the current in the circuit and R is the resistance. This indicates that the amount of heat
generated by the current flow in a conductor is directly affected by the amount of current that passes
through it and also by the amount of resistance offered by the conductor.

Selection of Fuses
The flow of current in a conductor generates heat along its path. Too much heat, however, can be
dangerous to the overall circuit and may cause fire. Electrical fuses provide a solution to this
concern. Fuses are designed to have very thin pieces of wire. They only allow a certain amount of
current to pass through them; otherwise, a fuse burns out if there is an excessive amount of current.
If the fuse burns out, it will shut down the entire circuitry, thus preventing damage. It is always safer
to use a small fuse than a large one. By selecting the proper fuse to be used in your circuitry, you
can be protected from electrical accidents due to faulty wiring.

Surface Charge on Junction between Wires Made of Different Materials

Current flows uniformly along a conductor made of a single material. If a different material is placed
at an end of the conductor, the flow of current can be impeded in a way that is similar to a capacitor.
The charges that accumulate in the junction between these materials are referred to as surface
charges.

Module 7: R-C Circuits

Kirchhoff s Rules
A general way to analyze a circuit is by using Kirchhoff s rules. These rules are used by electrical
engineers as they compute the amount of current that goes through a circuit regardless of its
configuration. These statements were first described by Gustav Kirchhoff, a German physicist, in
1845. Kirchhoff's rules contain the following two statements:
1. Kirchhoff's Point/Junction Rule: The sum of all the currents entering a point or junction of the
circuit is equal to the sum of all the currents leaving that point or junction.
2. Kirchhoff's Loop/Circuit Rule: The algebraic sum of the potential changes around any complete
loop in the network is zero.
The loop rule is based on the conservation of electric charge. No charge can accumulate at
the junction. The total charge entering and leaving the junction at a particular amount of time should
always be the same. Sign conventions are also used in the loop rule. Current entering the junction
is considered as positive, and current leaving the junction is negative; therefore the total current in
the junction is always zero.
Capacitor States
As an electric current enters a capacitor in a circuit, the capacitor is said to be charging as it stores
charges in itself. During the state when it releases its stored charges to the circuit, it is said to be
discharging. In these cases, the current, potential, and charge associated with the capacitor is said
to be affected by this discharging process. A charging capacitor and a discharging capacitor each
possesses different attributes in terms of the current that passes through it, the potential across it,
and the charge that it contains

Circuit Diagrams with Resistors and Capacitors

Circuits containing resistors and capacitors are referred to as R-C circuits.

Module 8: Magnetic Poles, Magnetic Force, and Magnetic Field

The term "magnetism" originated from Magnesia in Greece. It was the ancient Greeks who found
lodestones that can attract pieces of iron. Magnetism occurs because of the alignment of atoms.
These aligned atoms are called magnetic domains.

Interactions of Magnetic Poles and Magnetic Force

Just like electric charges, a magnetic pole exists as either a north-seeking pole or a south-seeking
pole. These poles are commonly known as the north pole and the south pole of a magnet. How
they interact with one another is also similar to how electric charges interact. Like poles repel, and
unlike ones attract each other. The repulsion and attraction are caused by the magnetic force that
exists between magnetic poles.
However, magnetic poles cannot exist in isolation like electric charges. A negative charge can exist
by itself as well as a positive charge. On the other hand, a north pole will always have a
corresponding south pole in the same magnet. Breaking a magnet in half will only produce a smaller
magnet with both a north pole and a south polecorresponding south pole in the same magnet.
Breaking a magnet in half will only produce a smaller magnet with both a north pole and a south
pole.

Magnetization and Demagnetization

• The magnetic properties of a magnet usually wear out with the passage of time or through
various demagnetizing techniques. Magnets can be demagnetized by hammering, heating,
and being exposed to an alternating current. These techniques involve mixing up the
arrangement of molecules to cancel the polarity of the entire material.
• Molecules can be rearranged again through magnetization, thus bringing back the materials
overall polarity. A demagnetized magnet can be magnetized again by exposing it to another
magnet with a strong magnetic field.

The Magnetic Field and Magnetic Field Patterns

Around every magnetic pole is a region where another magnetic pole will experience magnetic
interaction from it. This region is referred to as the magnetic field. This magnetic field can be
graphically represented by magnetic field line patterns. The density of these lines around magnetic
poles is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field at any region in space. This means
that dense field lines indicate a strong magnetic field.
Magnetic field lines are drawn based on the pole being considered. A north pole will have field lines
drawn from it, and a south pole will have field lines drawn toward it. And because these poles are
both present in a single magnet, lines would always be drawn from the north pole to the south pole.

Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field

In 1820, a Dutch scientist named Hans Christian Oersted made a discovery about electricity.
During one of his lectures, he observed that a current passing through a conductor deflects a nearby
compass. This observation began his discovery of the concept of electromagnetism. He discovered
that electric current or flow of electric charges results in magnetism.

A cyclotron is an apparatus that can set charged particles into motion so that these particles can
be subjected to an arbitrary magnetic field.

In a cyclotron, the charged particle moves along a circular path that moves outward from the center.
As the charge moves, it continuously accelerates. This acceleration is then directly proportional to
the radius of the cyclotron. This means that the speed of the charged particle increases as the
cyclotron s radius widens. Cyclotron frequency is related to the number of revolutions that the
charge will undergo as it moves in the cyclotron. Because this frequency is directly proportional to
the cyclotron radius, an increase in the cyclotron frequency increases the speed of the charged
particle.
 Module 9: The Magnetic Field

Magnetic Field and Ampere s Law

When like poles are placed right next to each other, there will be strong repulsion between the two.
But as you separate the poles, this repulsion weakens until it becomes negligible. This can lead you
to infer that there is a region around a magnetic pole where the magnetic force can affect other
magnetic poles. This region is the magnetic field. Mathematically, magnetic field is generally
computed using the equation:
→
→ 𝑭𝑴
=
𝑩 𝒒𝟎 ( 𝒗 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽)

→ V = is the velocity of the charge, and

= is the magnetic field
𝑩
𝜽 =is the angle formed between the path of the
F = the magnetic force
moving charge and the magnetic field. The unit
𝒒𝟎 = is the electric charge forming the used to measure magnetic field is tesla (T).
magnetic field

A very important principle in the study of magnetism is Ampere s law.

Ampere s law shows the relationship between the flowing current through a loop of conductor and
the net magnetic field produced in the loop. It generally states that "whenever current passes
through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced around it."

At this point, there are two main quantities being

associated with magnetism - the current that flows and
the magnetic field that it produces. Both of these
quantities are vectors, so their directions must be
considered. The direction of these quantities is determined
using the right-hand rule. Using your right hand, position
your thumb and the rest of your fingers as if you were
grasping a wire. When the right-hand rule is done
correctly, your thumb will point to the direction of the
current. If there is a wire, your thumb aligned along it
indicates the direction of the current, and the "curl" of your
four fingers around the conductor represents the direction
of the magnetic field.

Magnetic Field due to One or More Straight Wire Conductors

The magnetic field along a straight current-carrying conductor forms concentric circles
around the wire. It is computed using the following equation:
→ 𝝁𝟎 𝑰
=
𝑩 𝟐𝝅𝒓
→
= is the magnetic field
𝑩
I = is the current in the wire
r = is the perpendicular distance from the side of the wire
𝝁 = is the permeability of free space. Its value is 4π 107 T-m/A.
The magnetic field is directly proportional to the electric current and inversely proportional to the
perpendicular distance from the straight electrical conductor. Moving away from the electrical
conductor decreases magnetic field strength.

Recall that within the magnetic field, the magnetic force from a magnetic pole can be experienced.
This magnetic force is quantified using the equation:
→
𝑭𝑴 = 𝑰𝑳𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

→
𝑭𝑴 = is the magnetic force
I = is the current that produces the magnetic field
L = is the length of the straight wire where the current is flowing
B = is the magnetic field
𝜽 = is the angle between the wire and the magnetic field.

The right-hand rule is a good

aid in identifying the direction
of the magnetic force. The
thumb points to the direction
of the charge or the direction
of conventional current (from
the positive terminal to the
negative terminal). Also, the
four fingers point to the
direction of the magnetic field
and the palm points to the
direction of the magnetic
force.
Using the right-hand rule, if both currents are in the same direction, their magnetic fields will be
oppositely directed. This implies that the wires will
experience a force of attraction. On the other hand, still using the right-hand rule, if both currents
flow in opposite directions, their magnetic fields will propagate in the same direction. This implies
that the wires will experience a force of repulsion.
Magnetic Field along the Axis of Circular Current Loop
The magnetic field present along the axis or the center of a circular current loop is mathematically
determined using the equation:

→ 𝝁𝟎 𝑰
=𝑵
𝑩 𝟐𝑹

→
= is the magnetic field
𝑩
N = is the number of turns of the wire forming the current loop
I = is the current in the loop
R = is the radius of the loop.

Magnetic Field for Highly Symmetric Current Configurations

The Ampere's law is used when calculating the magnetic fields of current distributions with a high
degree of symmetry. Such current distributions exist on surfaces that are geometrically symmetrical
or regularly shaped. Mathematically, Ampere s law is stated as
𝛴𝐵𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 ∆𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

∆𝒍 = is the length of a small segment along a closed path of arbitrary shape around the current
Bparallel = is the component of the magnetic field parallel to ∆𝑙,
I = is the net current passing through the surface bounded by the path
𝝁𝟎 = is the permeability of free space.
From the given equation, take note that you have to take the sum of all the terms on the left side of
the equation around the closed path. This means that you need to apply concepts of integral calculus
to evaluate this equation more accurately.

Biot-Savart Law
Another principle that relates the flow of current to the formation of the magnetic field is the Biot-
Savart law. Its mathematical statement involves the use of mathematical differentials because the
current is expected to change as it flows through a conductor. Recall that Ampere's law stated that
every moving charge produces a corresponding magnetic field. The Biot-Savart law provides a
more specific analysis of magnetic fields by considering the current that produces the magnetic field
as varying, which is the case in reality.

Strength of Earth s Magnetic Field

Earth is said to contain a very large "magnet" coming from its own magnetic field. This magnetic
field is due to the moving charges stirred beneath the crust as the planet rotates, thus heating up its
core.
Mass Spectrometers
Physicists use mass spectrometers to determine the relative masses and abundances of isotopes.
A mass spectrometer is also used by chemists in identifying unknown molecules produced in
chemical reactions. Anesthesiologists use mass spectrometers to determine the gases in the patient
s lungs during surgery. The masses of the ions evaluated in the use of mass spectrometers are
computed using the equation:
𝒆𝒓𝟐 →
𝒎 = ( 𝟐𝑽 ) ( )2
𝑩
M = is the mass of the ion
R = is the radius of the path followed by a particle with a charge of +e,
V = is the potential difference
B = is the magnetic field being fed into the spectrometer.

Deuterons are produced from an ion source in a mass spectrometer. A deuteron is a particle that
has approximately twice the mass of a proton, but it carries the same charge.

Solenoids
A solenoid is a long coil of wire that is wrapped around a core to form a helix. It is the basic
foundation of most modern technologies that makes use of the concept of magnetism. The core of
a solenoid can be of any material, including air. As current flows through the conductor, a magnetic
field is produced in the solenoid, which can be computed using the equation:
→
= 𝝁𝟎 𝒏𝑰
𝑩

→
= is the magnetic field
𝑩
n = is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid
I = is the current that flows through the solenoid.
ss