MEASUREMENTS

AND
INSTRUMENTATION

HARMONICS Dr.J.KANAKARAJ
Analogue Instruments
HARMONIC DISTORTION ANALYSERS
HARMONIC DISTORTION ANALYSERS
Harmonic disturbance
Most modern devices, at present, are equipped with electronics which
in some way or another provide increased performance in the tasks and
productive processes we carry out.

Everyone uses computers for their personal use, or for the process or
control of any production system with variable speed drives, air
conditioning units, lifts which adjust slowly on approaching the
destination floor, etc.

These devices are equipped with rectifiers, modulators, etc. and distort
the current waveform for them to work properly.

While all this equipment has improved our quality of life, but, on the
other hand it has brought about greater contamination of our
electrical system.
 What generates harmonics?
Harmonics are produced by not-linear loads that absorb non-sinusoidal current. The most
common loads, both in industrial surroundings and domestic ones, are the following ones:

Frequency / Variable speed drives

• Discharge lamps (high pressure sodium
vapour lamp, mercury vapour lamp,
low consumption, fluorescent, etc.)
• Rectifiers
• AC/DC Converters
• Arc welding
• Induction ovens
• UPS
• Computers and laptops
• Etc.
 HOW ARE THE HARMONICS GENERATED?
The main cause of the harmonics generation are the “non-linear” loads.
So, before talking about harmonics, we need to define what is a “linear” load and what a “non-
linear” load.

Linear load
It is a load that draws instantaneously proportional current to the applied voltage, i.e., its
impedance is maintained constant along the whole alternating period.
For public electricity supply of 50 or 60 Hz sinusoidal voltage, this will mean a pure sinusoidal
current also.

Linear loads can be classified as

resistive (electrical heaters, incandescence light bulbs),
inductive (transformers, motors), or combinations of some of them,
capacitive (capacitors usually found as part of systems or equipments).
Non-Linear loads
In opposition to linear-loads, a non-linear load changes its impedance with
instantaneous applied voltage, that will lead to a non-sinusoidal current draw when
the voltage is applied.

In other words, this kind of load does not have a constant relationship with current vs.
voltage along the alternating period. The simplest circuit to represent a non-linear
load is a diode-rectifier, with its multiple variants (full-wave diode rectifier, half-wave
diode rectifier, single-phase or three-phase). See fig.2.

Some examples of non-linear loads, capable of injecting harmonics into an electrical

distribution, are: industrial equipments (welding, arc furnace), variable frequency
drives (VFD), line-switched rectifiers, switch-mode power supplies, lighting ballasts
… and also modern electronic equipments, at low load levels, even they could be
designed to optimize efficiency around it’s rated working point.

All these circuits can contain semiconductor power devices such as diodes,
thyristors SCR’s), transistors, and/or switching of loads or circuits.
Fig.2 Example of non-linear load: circuit corresponding to a 6-pulse
rectifier (or VFD input stage), and its highly distorted current
(Iph1, similar for all 3 phases) not proportional to the 3-phase supply
voltage
Some of the effects the harmonics can cause, to the
equipment, to the installation, or both, are:
› • Added efficiency losses to the system composed by
electrical installation and equipment.
› • Unexpected resonances.
› • Disturbances in electronic equipments, causing “logical”
faults in digital circuits.
› • Unwanted overload (or need to oversize) for
transformers, wirings.
› • Malfunctions of motors and generators.
› • Unwanted Circuit Breakers tripping or Fuses blowing.
What effects do harmonics produce?
What effects do harmonics produce?
Other effects of the harmonics

• Electronic equipment may be sensitive to the voltage distortion supplying it, due to higher
voltage peaks, unexpected zero-crossing, affectation to protection circuits, etc.

• Digital circuits can be affected by misinterpretation of logical values in presence of

harmonics.

• Reduced service life of components and equipment under continuous distorted supply
voltage.

• Affectation to IT equipment such as memory losses, turn offs.

• UPS may need to handle with high distorting loads, i.e., high current peaks may be over the
range of the crest factor capacity of this UPS. In such case, the voltage distortion can even
increase, if the inverter of the UPS is not capable enough.
 Fourier analysis for periodic signals
To define what the harmonics are, Fourier analysis for periodic signals are used:

Any complex periodic signal can be obtained as the addition of different “pure”
sinusoidal waves at different frequencies and amplitudes, multiple/s of the fundamental
frequency. These multiples of the fundamental frequency are called harmonics.

The mathematical expression of this definition, for a periodic signal I(t), is:

In the decomposition into individual sinusoidal waveforms of above, the fundamental waveform
will be the one for n=1, and the multiples of this are called harmonics of “n” order, for “n”
ranging from 2 and above (it can be N → ∞).

I0 represents the 0Hz component (DC, or mean value greater than 0). фn represents the phase
displacement of each harmonic.
Fourier analysis for periodic signals
Assuming a signal with no DC component, we can write:

Being I1(t) the fundamental waveform of frequency f1 (ω=2・π・f1 in the original expression),
and In(t) the different harmonics at multiple frequencies 2・f1, 3・f1, …,N・f1.

Fig.5 Decomposition example

of a complex distorted signal,
as addition of 50Hz
fundamental and 3rd, 5th and
7th harmonics (150Hz, 250Hz,
350Hz respectively).
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
It is defined as a ratio between the r.m.s. value of all the harmonics and the r.m.s. of the
fundamental frequency.
• Current THD (THDi) - according to the definition above,
the Total Harmonic Distortion for current will be:

Fig.6 Harmonics spectrum for the sample signal represented in Fig.5

(100% at fundamental, 15% for 3rd harmonic, 12% for 5th, 9% for 7th).
Voltage THD (THDv) – similarly,

the Total Harmonic Distortion of voltage is expressed as:

Fourier analysis for periodic signals

For symmetrical waveforms, only “odd” harmonics may appear

(multiples 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc, of the fundamental frequency), as in
example of Fig.5.

• For asymmetrical waveforms, a part from “odd”, “even” multiples of

the fundamental may appear (multiples 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc).

Also DC components can appear in asymmetrical waveforms, which

are represented as 0Hz signals.
Fig.8 Effects of triplen
Harmonics.
addition into Neutral
conductor, derived from
three-phase distorted
currents.
The harmonics in which a signal can be decomposed, as we saw before, are entire multiples of
the fundamental. A part from the distinction between Odd (symmetrical) and Even
(asymmetrical), they can be classified according its phase rotation with the fundamental:

Positive sequence harmonics (4th, 7th, 10th,...): they do have the same phase rotation than the
fundamental, and circulate between phases.

• Negative sequence harmonics (2nd, 5th, 8th,…): they have the opposite phase rotation than the
fundamental, and circulate between phases.

• Zero sequence harmonics (3rd, 6th, 9th, …), also known as Triplen harmonics: these harmonics
are on phase with the fundamental, and circulate between phases and neutral. What is the
same, they do not cancel and add up directly in the Neutral conductor.

For that reason, in the presence of significant components of such harmonics in a 3-phase
installation, Neutral conductor will need to be oversized (compared to phase conductors) to
carry out these extra-current. For example, in the presence of around 10 Arms 3rd order
harmonic in each of the 3 phases, will mean an extra current of around 30 Arms in Neutral
conductor (at 150Hz in a 50Hz installation), like in Fig.8. If no triplen harmonics were present,
Neutral current will carry no current (no 50Hz component present in Fig.8).
Standards
European Directive 2004/108/CE relative to the approach of the legislations of the Member
States on the Electromechanical Compatibility, replacing directive 89/336/CEE

• European directive on lifts 95/16/CEE

• Standard EN 12015 “Electromagnetic compatibility. Product family standard for lifts,

escalators and passenger conveyors. Emission”

Standard IEC 60364-5-52 “Electrical Installations of Buildings - Part 5-52: Selection and
Erection of Electrical Equipment - Wiring Systems-Second Edition; Compiled from and
Replaces IEC 60364-5-523(1999)”

• Standard EN 50160 “Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution

systems”

• Standard EN 61642:2000 “Industrial a.c. networks affected by harmonics. Application of filters

and shunt capacitors”
Standards

• Standard IEC 61800-3 “Adjustable speed electrical power drive systems. EMC requirements
and specific test methods”
• Standard IEC 61000-3-2 “Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-2: Limits - Limits for
harmonic current emissions (equipment input current ≤ 16 A per phase)”
• Standard IEC 61000-3-12 “Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-12: Limits - Limits for
harmonic currents produced by equipment connected to public low-voltage systems with input
current > 16 A and ≤ 75 A per phase”
• Standard IEC 61000-3-4 “Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-4: Limits - Limitation
of emission of harmonic currents in low-voltage power supply systems for equipment with rated
current greater than 16 A”
• Standard IEEE 519-1992 “Recommended Practice and Requirements for Harmonic Control
in Electric Power System”
• Standard G5/4-1 “Managing Harmonics: ENA Engineering Recommendation”
Solutions
After the diagnosis and the assessment of the disturbances we move onto the treatment
or solution.

We must always look for a balance between the technical solution and the economic
one.

The ideal technical solution will be to filter directly the disturbing loads (LR reactance, LCL
filter, FB3, EMI filter and FAR-H/Q), avoiding the propagation of the harmonic currents against
other loads and installation , and a greater drop in harmonic voltage which would provoke the
distortion of the voltage wave.

In other cases, the solution is to look for a solution as near as possible to the loads (AF/APF
active filter, TSA, blocking filter of blockade FB3T, absorption/hybrid filter FAR-H/Q, FR
rejection filter).
 HARMONIC DISTORTION ANALYSERS
Generally, the output waveform of an electronic device, such as an amplifier, should
become an exact replica of the input waveform. However, in most of the cases that does
not happen due to the introduction of various types of distortions.

Distortions may be a result of the inherent non-linear characteristics of

components used in the electronic circuit. Non-linear behaviour of circuit elements
introduces harmonics in the output waveform and the resultant distortion is often termed
Harmonic Distortion (HD).

Types of Distortion
The various types of distortions which occur are explained below.
1. Frequency Distortion
2. Phase distortion
3. Amplitude Distortion
4. Inter-modulation Distortion
5. Cross-over Distortion
6. Total Harmonic Distortion
This distortion occurs due to the amplification factor of the amplifier is different for different
frequencies.
Phase distortion
This distortion occurs due to the presence of energy-storage elements in the system, which
cause the output signal to be displaced in phase with the input signal. If signals of all
frequencies are displaced by the same amount, the phase shift distortion would not be
observed. However, in actual practice, signals at different frequencies are shifted in phase
by different angles and therefore, the phase-shift distortion becomes noticeable.
3. Amplitude Distortion
The amplifier generates harmonics of the fundamental of the input signal. Harmonics
always give rise to amplitude distortion, for example, when an amplifier is overdriven and
clips the input signals.

This type of distortion occurs as a consequence of interaction or heterodyning of two

frequencies, giving an output which is the sum or difference of the two original
frequencies.

This type of distortion occurs in push-pull amplifier due to incorrect bias levels.
A non-linear system produces harmonics of an input sine wave, the harmonics consists of
a sine wave with frequencies which are multiples of the fundamental of the input signal.

The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is measured in terms of the harmonic contents of
the wave, as given by

In a measurement system, noise is read in addition to harmonics, and the total waveform,
consisting of harmonics, noise and fundamental, is measured instead of the
fundamental alone.
Therefore, the measured value of the total harmonic distortion(THDM) is given by
Figure 13.38 Simplified block diagrams of fundamental suppression harmonic distortion
analysers: (a) Manual reading (b) Ratio reading
The signal source has very low distortion and this can be checked by reading its output
distortion by connecting directly into the analyser. The signal from the source is fed into the
amplifier under test. This generates harmonics and the original fundamental frequency. The
fundamental frequency is removed by a notch filter.

In the manual system, as shown in Figure, the switch S is first placed in the position 1 and
the total content of fundamental and harmonics (ET) is measured. Then the switch is moved
to the position 2 to measure just the harmonics EH. the value of THD is then found using
following equation:
The meter can be calibrated by putting the switch in the position 1 and adjusting the
reading for full scale deflection. With the switch position 2, the meter reading is now
proportional to THD.
Figure shows an alternative arrangement, where the value of ET and EH are read
simultaneously and their ratio calculated and displayed as THD on the indicator.
For good accuracy, the notch filter must have excellent rejection and high pass
characteristics. It should attenuate the fundamental by 100 db or more and the harmonics
by less than 1 db. The filter also needs to be tuned accurately to the fundamental of the
signal source. This is difficult to achieve manually and most distortion analysers do this
automatically.
A common form of notch filter is a Wien bridge. This balances at one frequency
only and at this frequency, the output voltage at the bridge null detector is minimum.
 DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
1.High Input Impedance: PMMC meter has a sensitivity of 20 kΩ/V with a
0 – 0.5 V range and has an input resistance of only 10 kΩ at its 0.5 V range.
So this draws a full scale current of 50 mA which loads the measurand
considerably. The electronic voltmeter (EVM), on the other hand, can have
input resistances from 10 MΩ to 100 MΩ with the input resistance remaining
constant over all ranges.
2.Detection of Low Level Signals: Electronic voltmeter avoids the loading
errors by supplying the power required for measurement by using external
circuits like amplifiers.
3.Low Power Consumption: Electronic voltmeters utilize the power
required for operating the instrument from an auxiliary source. Thus the
power drawn from the circuit under measurement is very small or even
negligible. This can be interpreted as the voltmeter circuit has very high
input impedance. This feature of electronic voltmeter is indispensable for
voltage measurement in many high impedance circuits such as
encountered in communicating equipments.
4.High Frequency Range: The most important feature of electronic
voltmeters is that their response can be made practically independent
of frequency within extremely wide limits. Some electronic voltmeters
permit the measurement of voltage from direct current to frequency of
the order of hundreds of MHz. the high frequency range may also be
attributed to low input capacitance of most electronics devices. The
capacitance may be of the order of a few pF.

5.Better Resolution Resolution (smallest reading perceivable) of

analog instruments is limited by space on the scale markings and also
by ability of the human operator to read such small deviations in scale
markings. Whereas in a digital instrument, the measured value is
displayed directly on a LED or LCD panel whose resolution is solely
determined by resolution of the analog to digital converter (ADC). Use
of 12 bit (or higher) ADC can make a digital instrument to read as small
as 0.001 V in 0 – 5 V range.
6.Storage Facility Digital instruments have an additional optional
advantage that their readings can be stored for future reference.

7.Accuracy Since there are very few moving parts (or even no moving
parts) in the digital instruments, in general they are usually more
accurate than the analog instruments. Even the human error involved in
reading these instruments is very less, which adds to the accuracy of
digital instruments. However, overall accuracy of a digital instrument will
largely depend on accuracies of the large number of individual
electronic components used for building the instrument.
In addition, digital instruments are more user friendly as they are easy
to read, takes up smaller space, suitable for mass production, and also
sometimes less costly.
 Disadvantages of Digital Instruments
1. Effects of noise is more predominant on digital instruments than analog
instruments.
Analog instruments, due to inertia of its moving parts, normally remain
insensitive to fast varying noise, while digital instruments continue to show
erratic variations inpresence of noise.
2. Analog instruments have higher overload capacity than digital instruments.
The sensitive electronic components used in digital instruments are more
prone to damage in case of even momentary overloads.
3. Digital instruments can sometimes loose its reliability and tend to indicate
erratic values due to faulty electronic circuit components or damaged display.
4. Digital instruments and their internal electronic components are very much
sensitive to external atmospheric conditions. In case of high humidity and
corrosive atmosphere the internal parts may get damaged and indicate the
faulty values. Temperatures can cause the chars. of the electronic devices to
vary over time.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
 The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a very useful and
versatile laboratory instrument used for display, measurement and
analysis of waveform and other phenomena in electrical and electronic
circuits.

CROs similar to a X-Y plotters, displays an input signal versus

another signal or versus time. The ‘stylus’ of this ‘plotter’ is a luminous
spot which moves over the display area in response to an input voltage.
The luminous spot is produced by a beam of electrons striking a
fluorescent screen.

The extremely low inertia effects associated with a beam of

electrons enables such a beam to be used following the changes in
instantaneous values of rapidly varying voltages.
 The normal form of a CRO uses a horizontal input voltage which is an
internally generated ramp voltage called ‘time base’. The horizontal voltage
moves the luminous spot periodically in a horizontal direction from left to right
over the display area or screen.

The vertical input to the CRO is the voltage under investigation. The
vertical input voltage moves the luminous spot up and down in accordance with
the instantaneous value of the voltage. The luminous spot thus traces the
waveform of the input voltage with respect to time. When the input voltage
repeats itself at a fast rate, the display on the screen appears stationary on the
screen.

The CRO thus provides a means of visualising time-varying voltages. As

such, the CRO has become a universal tool in all kinds of electrical and
electronic investigation.
 The main part of the CRO is Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). It generates
the electron beam, accelerates the beam to a high velocity, deflects the
beam to create the image and contains a phosphor screen where the
electron beam eventually becomes visible. The phosphor screen is coated
with ‘aquadag’ to collect the secondary emitted electrons.

For accomplishing these tasks, various electrical signals and

voltages are required, which are provided by the power supply circuit of the
oscilloscope.
Low voltage supply is required for the heater of the electron gun for
generation of electron beam and high voltage, of the order of few thousand
volts, is required for cathode ray tube to accelerate the beam.
Normal voltage supply, say a few hundred volts, is required for other control
circuits of the oscilloscope.
Horizontal and vertical deflecting plates are fitted between the electron gun
and screen to deflect the beam according to the input signal. The electron
beam strikes the screen and creates a visible spot. This spot is deflected
on the screen in the horizontal direction (X-axis) with constant time
dependent rate. This is accomplished by a time base circuit provided in the
oscilloscope.
The signal to be viewed is supplied to the vertical deflection plates
through the vertical amplifier, which raises the potential of the input signal
to a level that will provide usable deflection of the electron beam. Now
electron beam deflects in two directions, horizontal on X-axis and vertical
on Y-axis.
A triggering circuit is provided for synchronising two types of
deflections so that horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input
vertical signal each time it sweeps.
There are a number of distinct disadvantages of the analog storage oscilloscope.
Thesedisadvantages are listed below:

1. There is a finite amount of time that the storage tube can preserve a stored
waveform. Eventually, the waveform will be lost. The power to the storage tube must
be present as long as the image is to be stored.

2. The trace of a storage tube is, generally, not as fine as a normal cathode ray tube.
Thus, the stored trace is not as crisp as a conventional oscilloscope trace.

3. The writing rate of the storage tube is less than a conventional cathode ray tube,
which limits the speed of the storage oscilloscope.

4. The storage cathode ray tube is considerably more expensive than a conventional
tube and requires additional power supplies.

5. Only one image can be stored. If two traces are to be compared, they must be
superimposed on the same screen and displayed together.
 Digital Storage Oscilloscope
In the digital storage oscilloscope (DSO), the waveform to be
stored is digitised, stored in a digital memory and retrieved for display on
the storage oscilloscope. The stored waveform is continually displayed by
repeatedly scanning the stored waveform and, therefore, a conventional
CRT can be employed for the display and thus some of the cost of the
additional circuitry for digitizing and storing the input waveform is offset.

The stored display can be displayed indefinitely as long as the

power is applied to the memory, which can be supplied with a small
battery. The digitised waveform can be further analysed by either the
oscilloscope or by loading the content of the memory into a computer.
 Some of the digital storage oscilloscope use 12-bit converter, giving
0.025% resolution and 0.1% accuracy on voltage and time readings, which
are better than the 2.5% of analog storage oscilloscopes.

Split screen capabilities (simultaneously displaying live analog

traces and replayed stored ones) enable easy comparison of the two
signals. Pre-trigger capability is also an important advantage.

The only drawback of digital storage oscilloscopes is limited

bandwidth by the speed of their analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).
However, 20 MHz digitising rates available on some oscilloscopes yield a
bandwidth of 5 MHz, which is adequate for most of the applications.
 Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)
Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)
uses both of digital-to-Analog and Analog-
to-Digital (DACs and ADCs) for digitising,
storing and displaying analog waveforms.

The overall operation is controlled

and synchronised by the control circuits.
Which usually have microprocessor
executing a control program stored in Read-
Only Memory (ROM).

The data acquisition portion of the

system contains a sample-and-hold (S/H)
and a analog-to-digital converter that
repetitively samples and digitized the input
signal and transmits the digitised data to
memory for storage.
The data acquisition portion of the system contains a sample-and-hold (S/H) and
a analog-to-digital converter that repetitively samples and digitized the input
signal at a rate determined by the sample clock, and transmits the digitised data
to memory for storage. The control circuit makes sure that successive datapoints
are stored in successive memory locations by continually updating the memory’s
address counter.

This data acquisition and the storage process continue until the control circuit
receives a trigger signal from either the input waveform (internal trigger) or an
external trigger source.

When the triggering occurs, the system stops acquiring data further and enters
the display mode of operation, in which all or part of the memory data is
repetitively displayed on the CRT.
In display operation two DACs are employed for providing the vertical and horizontal
deflecting voltages for the cathode ray tube. Data from memory produce the vertical
deflection of the electron beam, while the time base counter provides the horizontal
deflection in the form of a staircase sweep signal.

The control circuits synchronize the display operation by incrementing the memory
address counter and the time base counter at the same time so that each horizontal step of
the electron beam is accompanied by a new data value from the memory to the vertical
DAC. The counters are continuously recycled so that the stored data points are repetitively
re-plotted on the screen of the CRT.

The screen display consists of discrete dots representing the various data points
but the number of dots is usually so large (typically 1000 or more) that they tend to blend
together and appear to be a continuous waveform.
ADD A SLIDE
TITLE - 4
ADD A SLIDE
TITLE - 5