CHAPTER 2 - People and Biomes 3
CHAPTER 2 - People and Biomes 3
CHAPTER 2 - People and Biomes 3
Humans have been influencing and altering our environments since we first emerged—so much
so that scientists have dubbed the current era the Anthropocene, meaning the geological age
dominated by human activity. Just as human activities have transformed and evolved over time, so
have the places and biomes they inhabit. For instance, hunting may have contributed to the extinction
of some megafauna, and the controlled burning of forests dramatically altered their landscape. More
dramatic and rapid changes began to occur after the Industrial Revolution, when advancements in
technology opened up previously unexplored avenues. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, in the 1700s,
almost half the world was covered in wilderness, but current estimates indicate that just 23 percent of
the world remains wild and untouched by human industrialization.
As of 2018, Earth’s human population is over 7.5 billion, and this growing population means an
increase in human influence. In fact, more places on Earth are affected and influenced by humans than
not. In many ways, humans can be considered ecosystem engineers, having fundamentally altered the
ecological and biochemical processes around them. Through landscape modifications and natural
resource use, humans have altered over 75 percent of the ice-free land on Earth.
Scientists, such as Erle Ellis from the Laboratory for Anthropogenic Landscape Ecology at the
University of Maryland, and Navin Ramakutty at McGill University, are beginning to recognize the
integral role humans play within the biomes they reside. They call these terrestrial biomes where
humans dwell anthropogenic biomes or anthromes. This novel paradigm contrasts with the more
traditional idea that humans are independent of the natural world.
A. Terrestrial Biomes
The Earth’s biomes are categorized into two major groups: terrestrial and aquatic. Terrestrial
biomes are based on land, while aquatic biomes include both ocean and freshwater biomes.
The eight major terrestrial biomes on Earth are each distinguished by characteristic temperatures
and amount of precipitation. Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing
rain, sleet, snow, or hail. It is the primary connection in the water cycle that provides for the delivery
of atmospheric water to the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain.
1. Tropical Rainforest
• A rainforest is an area of tall, mostly evergreen trees and a high amount of rainfall.
• Rainforests are Earth’s oldest living ecosystems, with some surviving in their present
form for at least 70 million years.
• The largest rainforests on Earth surround the Amazon River in South America and the
Congo River in Africa.
• Tropical rainforests are the most biologically diverse terrestrial ecosystems in the
world. Roughly half of the world’s species can be found here, with an estimated 40 to
100 or more different species of trees present in each hectare. They are so warm and
moist that they produce as much as 75 percent of their own rain through evaporation
and transpiration.
• The trees in this biome do not have a seasonal loss of leaves associated with variations
in temperature and sunlight; these forests are “evergreen” year-round.
Supplemental Lesson:
https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/a28910396/amazon-rainforest-
importance/
2. Savannas
The savanna biome, which is a type of grassland biome, consists of areas of open grassland
with very few trees. There are two kinds of savannas: tropical and semi-tropical savannas.
• Animals including elephants, giraffes, lions and cheetahs make their homes in the
savanna. Due to its open environment, camouflage and mimicry are essential for
animal survival in the savanna.
• Savannas have extreme wet seasons and dry seasons. They can receive over four
feet of rain during the wet season, and as little as a few inches during the dry.
• Due to this lack of precipitation, it is very difficult for large plants like trees to grow
in savannas.
• While savannas are located on six of the seven continents, the largest are found in
equatorial Africa. One of the most famous African savannas its large wildebeest and
zebra populations.
3. Subtropical Deserts
Subtropical deserts, which exist between 15° and 30° north and south latitude, are centered
on the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. In some years, evaporation exceeds precipitation in
this very dry biome.
• Subtropical hot deserts may have daytime soil surface temperatures above 60°C
(140°F) and nighttime temperatures approaching 0°C (32°F). In cold deserts,
temperatures may be as high as 25°C (77°F) and may drop below -30°C (-22°F).
• Subtropical deserts are characterized by low annual precipitation of fewer than 30
cm (12 in), with little monthly variation and lack of predictability in rainfall. In some
cases, the annual rainfall can be as low as 2 cm (0.8 in), such as in central Australia
(“the Outback”) and northern Africa.
• The type of vegetation and limited animal diversity of this biome are closely related
to the low and unpredictable precipitation. Very dry deserts lack perennial
vegetation that lives from one year to the next. Instead, many plants are annuals
that grow quickly, reproduce when rainfall does occur, and then die.
• Many other plants in these areas are characterized by having a number of
adaptations that conserve water, such as deep roots, reduced foliage, and water-
storing stems. Seed plants in the desert produce seeds that can remain in
dormancy for extended periods between rains. To reduce water loss and conserve
energy, many desert animals like the fennec fox are nocturnal and burrow during
the day.
Fennec fox: Fennec foxes live in the deserts of Desert plants: To reduce water loss, many desert
Northern Africa and have large ears for heat plants have tiny leaves or no leaves at all. The leaves
dissipation during the day. They stay in burrows of ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens), shown here in the
during the day and are mostly active at night. Sonora Desert near Gila Bend, Arizona, appear only
after rainfall and then are shed.
4. Chaparral
The chaparral, also called the scrub forest, is found in California, along the Mediterranean
Sea, and along the southern coast of Australia.
• The annual rainfall in this biome ranges from 65 cm to 75 cm (25.6–29.5 in), with
the majority of rain falling in the winter.
• Due to the very dry summers, many chaparral plants are dormant during that
season. The chaparral vegetation is dominated by shrubs and is adapted to periodic
fires, with some plants producing seeds that only germinate after a hot fire. The
ashes left behind after a fire are rich in nutrients, such as nitrogen, that fertilize the
soil and promote plant regrowth.
5. Temperate Grasslands
Temperate grasslands are characterized as having grasses as the dominant vegetation.
Trees and large shrubs are absent. Temperatures vary more from summer to winter, and
the amount of rainfall is less in temperate grasslands than in savannas.
• Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. Rainfall is moderate.
• Known for their rich soil that yields abundant growth of grasses. Temperate
grasslands are found in places such as North America and Eastern Europe.
• Humans have had a dramatic impact on the grassland biome. Because temperate
grasslands have rich soil, most of the grasslands in the United States have been
converted into fields for crops or grazing land for cattle.
• Some animals that inhabit temperate grasslands in North America are bison,
antelope, birds, gophers, prairie dogs, coyotes, and insects. On the steppes you'll
find similar animals to the Great Plains including lynx, antelopes, falcons, and fox.
6. Temperate Rainforest
Temperate deciduous forests are most notable because they go through four seasons:
Winter, Spring, Summer, and Fall. Leaves change color (or senesce) in autumn, fall off in the
winter, and grow back in the spring; this adaptation allows plants to survive cold winters.
• Temperate deciduous forests are located in the mid-latitude areas which means
that they are found between the polar regions and the tropics.
• During the fall, trees change color and then lose their leaves. This is in preparation
for the winter season. Because it gets so cold, the trees have adapted to the winter
by going into a period of dormancy or sleep
• Many different kinds of trees, shrubs, and herbs grow in deciduous forests. Most of
the trees are broadleaf trees such as oak, maple, beech, hickory and chestnut. There
are also several different kinds of plants like mountain laurel, azaleas and mosses
that live on the shady forest floor where only small amounts of sunlight get through.
Tongas National Forest - The world's largest intact Hokkaido Forest – Hokkaido, Japan
temperate rainforest. Amazingly, the Tongass actually
encompasses fjords, the snowy peaks of the Coastal
Mountains, and even glaciers!
7. Boreal Forest
Taiga (also known as boreal forest) is the northernmost and coldest forest on earth,
dominated by species of evergreen conifers spruce, fir and pine, the deciduous conifer larch,
and species of birch and aspen. It occurs in vast tracts across Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia,
Russia and northeastern China.
• The boreal forest is home to many animals. It is the winter home of the migratory
caribou and reindeer and the permanent home of many others.
• The insects attract a wide variety of species of birds to the forest like the spruce
grouse and the pileated woodpecker. Mammals like pine marten, moose, bobcats,
black bears, fishers, Canada lynx, and grizzly bears are found in the taiga.
8. Arctic Tundra
The arctic tundra biome is the northernmost biome. It covers the lands north of the Arctic
Circle up to the polar ice cap. It reaches as far south as the Hudson Bay area of Canada and
the northern part of Iceland.
• The arctic tundra is a vast, dry, rocky place, with few trees. The word “tundra”
comes from the Finnish word tunturi. This word means ‘treeless plain'.
• One important characteristic of the tundra is the permafrost. The word
“permafrost” is short-form for the words “permanently frozen”.
• Most vegetation in the tundra tends to be herbaceous. Herbaceous plants are ones
without woody stems. Grasses and mosses are some of the herbaceous plants that
grow in the tundra. Examples of tundra plants include reindeer moss, liverworts and
lichens.
• Many large mammals, such as caribou, polar bears, arctic foxes, and musk ox, are
found in this biome. There are also several smaller mammals which are prey to the
larger mammals. These include lemmings and arctic hare.
• Many prey animals have brown fur in the summer and white fur in the winter. This
helps them camouflage with the changing landscape.
B. Ecosystems
1. Marine Ecosystem
Marine ecosystems are aquatic environments with high levels of dissolved salt, such as those
found in or near the ocean. Marine ecosystems are defined by their unique biotic (living) and
abiotic (nonliving) factors.
Scientists divide marine ecosystems into several broad categories, although there are
discrepancies depending on the source about what qualifies as a marine ecosystem. The
number of marine ecosystems is actively debated. Although there is some disagreement,
several types of marine ecosystems are largely agreed on: estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove
forests, coral reefs, the open ocean, and the deep-sea ocean.
a) Estuaries - An estuary is a coastal zone where oceans meet rivers. Here, nutrients and
salts from the ocean mix with those from the river in regions sheltered from extreme
weather. As a result, estuaries are among the most productive places on Earth and
support many types of life. In addition, because they are located where rivers join the
ocean, estuaries have traditionally supported many human communities and activities
like fishing, shipping, and transportation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XOJsezGwcmQ
b) Salt Marshes - Salt marshes occur where oceans meet land. These places are rich in
nutrients from sediment brought in by the ocean. Marshes are regularly flooded by high
tides, making the surrounding ground wet and salty. As a result, the soil is low in oxygen
and filled with decomposing matter. These ecosystems are dominated by low-growing
shrubs and grasses.
c) Mangrove Forests - Mangrove forests are found in tropical areas. These ecosystems
frequently flood with ocean water, submerging the roots of mangrove trees. The root
systems of mangroves filter out salt and sit above ground to access oxygen. These trees
provide a home for a variety of species. Animals, such as fish, crabs, shrimp, reptiles,
and amphibians, live among the mangrove’s roots while its canopy provides a nesting
site for birds.
d) Coral Reefs - Coral reefs are extremely diverse ecosystems that host sponges,
crustaceans, mollusks, fish, turtles, sharks, dolphins, and many more creatures. By some
counts, coral reefs can account for a quarter of all ocean species.
e) Open Ocean - Open ocean ecosystems vary widely as the depth of the ocean changes.
At the surface of the ocean, the euphotic zone, the ecosystem receives plenty of light
and oxygen, is fairly warm, and supports many photosynthetic organisms. Many of the
organisms that we associate with marine ecosystems, such as whales, dolphins, octopi,
and sharks, live in the open ocean.
2. Freshwater Ecosystems
Rivers, creeks, lakes, ponds, and streams are all freshwater habitats. So are wetlands like
swamps, which have woody plants and trees; and marshes, which have no trees but lots of
grasses and reeds. Freshwater accounts for only three percent of the world’s water. (The rest is
saltwater.) But despite that tiny amount, freshwater habitats are homes for more than 100,000
species of plants and animals.
• Lakes are formed by different acts of nature. Many appeared after glaciers moved across
Earth during the last ice age, between 12,000 and 1.8 million years ago, and left giant bowl-
shaped hollows in the land that filled with rainwater and runoff. Others were created when
Earth’s crust shifted, leaving grooves and ridges to catch water. And sometimes when a
volcano erupts, all the magma flows out. If the land collapses into the empty crater, it
leaves holes that can turn into huge lakes. Crater Lake in Oregon was made this way.
• Rivers are created when melting snow or ice runs down mountains, following the grooves
and channels of the land on the way to the sea—rivers always flow to an ocean.
• Wetlands, areas where the land is covered with water most of the time, often form in the
land surrounding rivers that flood, or in areas where groundwater seeps up through the
bedrock underneath the soil.
C. Philippine Ecosystems
The Philippines is considered a mega-diversity country rivaled only by a few countries in the
world when it comes to variety of ecosystems, species and genetic resources. Many of the island
comprising the archipelago are believed to have a very high degree of land and animal species
endemism covering at least 25 genera of plants and 50% of terrestrial wildlife.
The Philippines has more than 52,177 described species, half of which are endemic or found
nowhere else on earth.In terms of terrestrial vertebrates, the Philippines is known to host
1,238 species of which 618 (or 50%) is endemic. In terms of fishes, the Philippines counts at
least 3,214 species, of which about 121 are endemic and 76 threatened.
• Top 10 in terms of Endemism
The Philippines’s species are among the world’s top 10 in terms of
endemism.
In terms of terrestrial vertebrates, the Philippines is known to host 1,238
species of which 618 (or 50%) is endemic.
4th in Bird Endemism - The Philippines has 718 known species of Bird.
Production forest areas for tree plantations and agroforestry activities are sources of jobs
and revenues, with agriculture having represented 18.4% of the country’s GDP in 2007.
Sources:
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/putting-me-biome/
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/biology/chapter/terrestrial-biomes/
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https://www.treehugger.com/land-biomes-savannas-373494
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_Subtropical_Deserts_and_Chaparral
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https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/biome/biotemperate.php
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