Unit 2 - Research Aptitude

Research Aptitude
UNIT - 2
NET/JRF/SLET/SET/PhD Entrance
UGC NET STUDY MATERIAL

(Revised)
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RESEARCH: Meaning, Types and Characteristics
When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers to a question, you are
implying that the process;
• is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies (approaches);
• uses procedures, methods, and techniques that have been tested for their validity and
reliability;
• is designed to be unbiased and objective.
Philosophies mean approaches, e.g., qualitative, quantitative, and the academic discipline in
which you have been trained.
Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question.
Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and
accuracy.
Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn
each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested interest.
(Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something).
Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called ‘research’.
However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from discipline to
discipline and so the meaning of ‘research’ differs from one academic discipline to another.
The difference between research and non-research activity is, in the way we find answers: the
process must meet certain requirements to be called research. We can identify these requirements
by examining some definitions of research.
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. “re” is a prefix meaning again,
a new or over again and “search” is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test
and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study
and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve

problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable.
Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data.
Characteristics of Research:
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions.

But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as
possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.
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Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your study in
a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved
to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a
laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as
research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where such controls
are not possible. Therefore, in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors,
you attempt to quantify their impact.
Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain
logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must
follow others.
Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.
Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The
process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.
Types of Research
Research can be classified from three perspectives:
1. Application of research study
2. Objectives in undertaking the research
3. Inquiry Mode employed
Based on Application:
From the point of view of application, there are two broad categories of research:
A. Pure Research
B. Applied Research,
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually
challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or

in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the
existing body of research methods.
Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation,
administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory but is usually
descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research.
Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic
institution such as a university will have a specific applied research program funded by an
industrial partner interested in that program.
Based on Objectives:
From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as
a. Descriptive
b. Correlational
c. Explanatory
d. Exploratory
A. Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon,

service or programme, or provides information about, say, living condition of a community,
or describes attitudes towards an issue.
B. Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a

relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.
C. Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two
or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
D. Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate

the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study pilot study).
In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.
Based on Inquiry Mode:
From the process adopted to find answer to research questions – the two approaches are:
A. Structured approach
B. Unstructured approach
A. Structured approach:
The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research. Everything that
forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of
respondents- is predetermined. It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue
or phenomenon by quantifying the variation.

e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?
B. Unstructured approach:
The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research. This approach
allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.
It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without

quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude.
e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of

different opinions different people have about an issue, description of working condition in a
particular industry.
Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses.
In many studies, there is a combination of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine / accommodation available in a
city and the extent of their popularity.
Types of cuisine is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails
description of the culture and cuisine
The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of
people who visit restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that
reflect the extent of popularity.
Positivism and Post positivism Approach to Research

Positivism:
Positivism argues for the existence of a true and objective reality that can be studied through
applying the methods and principles of natural sciences and scientific inquiry. It maintains that
“the object of study is independent of researchers; knowledge is discovered and verified
through direct observations or measurements of phenomena; facts are established by taking
apart a phenomenon to examine its component parts.” According to this paradigm, the role of
the researcher is to provide material for the development of laws by testing theories.
Positivists believe in five principles which include

• Phenomenalism (knowledge confirmed by the senses can be regarded as knowledge),
• Deductivism (the purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested to
make laws),
• Inductivism (the gathering of facts provides the basis for laws and knowledge),
• objectivism (science should be value-free) and

• scientific statements
Post positivism:
Post Positivism is considered a contemporary paradigm that developed as a result of the criticism
of positivism. Like positivists, post positivists also believe in the existence of a single reality,
however, they acknowledge that reality can never be fully known and efforts to understand
reality are limited owing to the human beings’ sensory and intellectual limitations.
The aim of post positivist research is also prediction and explanation. Like positivists, post
positivists also strive to be objective, neutral and ensure that the findings fit with the existing
knowledge base. However, unlike positivists, they acknowledge and spell out any predispositions
that may affect the objectivity
Positivism and post positivism were precluded from use in this study for several reasons. Firstly,
research conducted under both of these paradigms is usually quantitative where a hypothesis is
tested while the researcher remains objective and separate from the area of investigation.

METHODS OF RESEARCH
When constructing a building there is no point ordering materials or setting critical dates for
completion of project stages until we know what sort of building is being constructed. The rest
decision is whether we need a high-rise office building, a factory for manufacturing machinery, a
school, a residential home or an apartment block. Until this is done, we cannot sketch a plan,
obtain permits, work out a work schedule or order materials.
Similarly, social research needs a design or a structure before data collection or analysis can
commence. A research design is not just a work plan. A work plan details what has to be done to
complete the project but the work plan will flow from the project's research design.
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer
the initial question as unambiguously as possible. Obtaining relevant evidence entails
specifying the type of evidence needed to answer the research question, to test a theory, to
evaluate a programme or to accurately describe some phenomenon. In other words, when
designing research, we need to ask: given this research question (or theory), what type of
evidence is needed to answer the question (or test the theory) in a convincing way?
Research design `deals with a logical problem and not a logistical problem'.
Before a builder or architect can develop a work plan or order materials, they must rest establish
the type of building required, its uses and the needs of the occupants. The work plan flows from
this. Similarly, in social research the issues of sampling, method of data collection (e.g.
questionnaire, observation, document analysis), design of questions is all subsidiary to the matter
of `What evidence do I need to collect?'
So, we can define it as
“Research Design is a framework or plan for conducting a research project. It details the
procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve research
problems.”
Types of Research Design (Brief)

(Source: Marketing Research, Malhotra)
Research Methods:
Research methods are the strategies, processes or techniques utilized in the collection of data or
evidence for analysis in order to uncover new information or create better understanding of a
topic.
Research Methods Vs. Research Design
(Source: Wikimedia)

Types of Research Methods
George J. Mouly has classified research method into three basic types:
• Descriptive or Survey Method

• Historical Method, and
• Experimental Method
Descriptive or Survey Method
It is concerned with the present and attempts to determine the status of the phenomena under
investigation. This method has been further classified into four categories:
(a) Descriptive or Normative (b) Analytical (c) School survey and (d) Genetic
(a) Descriptive survey is of four types
• Testing survey method,

• Questionnaire survey method,
• Interview survey method.
(b) Analytical survey is of five types
• Documentary frequency,
• Observational survey,
• Rating survey,
• Critical incident,
• Factor analysis
Historical Method
This method is concerned with the past and which attempts to trace the past as a means for
seeing the present prospective.
The historical method collects facts by going to the past in different periods. The sources of
information include written records, newspapers, diaries, letters, travellers' accounts, etc. Social
researchers generally confine themselves to three major sources of historical information.
a) Documents and various historical sources to which historians have access

b) Materials of cultural history and of analytical history and
c) Personal sources of authentic observers and witnesses.
The historical method can be classified into three types:

(a) Historical
(b) Legal, and
(c) Documentary
Moreover, the documents which you may study, may be personal documents like biographies,
diaries, letters, and memoirs or may be public documents like magazines and newspapers,
and other published data.
Experimental Method
It is oriented towards the discovery of basic relationship among phenomenon as means of

predicting and eventually, controlling their occurrence into four types as given below:
1 Simple experimental design

2 Multivariate analysis
3 Case study
4 Predictive or correlation
Qualitative Methods and Quantitative Methods
Qualitative Research (QR) is way to gain a deeper understanding of an event, organization or

culture. Depending on what type of phenomenon you are studying, QR can give you a broad
understanding of events, data about human groups, and broad patterns behind events and people.
While traditional lab-based research looks for a specific “something” in the testing environment,
qualitative research allows the meaning, themes, or data to emerge from the study.
Qualitative research uses non-statistical methods to gain understanding about a population.
Types of Qualitative Research Methods:
• Anthropological
• Ethical Inquiry
• Participant observation
• Face-to-face interviewing
Quantitative Research Method is about collecting and analysing data to explain

phenomena. Information from a sample is used to make generalizations or predictions about
a population. Some questions that are easily answered using information from samples include:
• What percentage of high school teachers belong to minority groups?

• How many females in college study mathematics compared to males?
• Has the high school graduation rate in our district increased over time?
However, data doesn’t always naturally happen in a numerical way. You may want to answer
questions like:

• What do high school students think of their teachers?
• What is the general public opinion of health care reform?
• What do customers at a particular business think of customer service?
Methods for Quantitative Research

• Survey
• Secondary data/ databases
• Panel
• Structured Observation
• Experiment
Differences Between Qualitative Method and Quantitative Methods

Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods
Methods include focus groups, in-depth Surveys, structured interviews &

interviews, and reviews of documents for observations, and reviews of records or
types of themes documents for numeric information
Primarily inductive process used to Primarily deductive process used to test pre-
formulate theory or hypotheses specified concepts, constructs, and
hypotheses that make up a theory
More subjective: describes a problem or More objective: provides observed effects

condition from the point of view of those (interpreted by researchers) of a program on
experiencing it a problem or condition
Text-based Number-based
More in-depth information on a few cases Less in-depth but more breadth of
information across a large number of cases
Unstructured or semi-structured response Fixed response options

options
No statistical tests Statistical tests are used for analysis
Can be valid and reliable: largely depends Can be valid and reliable: largely depends
on skill and rigor of the researcher on the measurement device or instrument
used
Time expenditure lighter on the planning Time expenditure heavier on the planning
end and heavier during the analysis phase phase and lighter on the analysis phase
Less generalizable More generalizable
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STEPS OF RESEARCH PROCESS
The research process is like undertaking a journey.

For a research journey, there are two crucial decisions to make:
1) What you want to find out about or what research questions (problems) you want to find
answers to;
2) How to go about finding their answers?
There are practical steps through which you must pass on your research journey to find
answers to your research questions.
The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research methodology.
At each operational step in the research process, you are required to choose from a multiplicity
of methods, procedures, and models of research methodology, which will help you to best
achieve your objectives.
Steps in Research Process:
1. Formulating the Research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Review
3. Developing the objectives (and Hypotheses)
4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design
5. Collecting the Data
6. Processing and Analysis of Data
7. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results (Formal write-ups of conclusions
reached)

STEP 1. FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:
It is the first and most crucial step in the research process. The main function is to decide what
you want to find out about.
Sources of research problems:
Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps:
• People: a group of individuals
• Problems: examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating to their lives;
to ascertain the attitude of a group of people towards an issue
• Programs: to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention
• Phenomena: to establish the existence of regularity.
In practice, most research studies are based upon at least a combination of two Ps.
Every research study has two aspects:
Study population:
• People: individuals, organizations, groups, communities. (They provide you with the
information or you collect information about them)
Subject area:
• Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles
• Program: content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions,
consumers, Service providers, etc.
• Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself
(Information that you need to collect to find answers to your research questions)
You can examine the professional field of your choice in the context of the four Ps in order
to identify anything that looks interesting.
Considerations in selecting a research problem:

These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that you will remain
motivated.
1. Interest: a research endeavour is usually time consuming and involves hard work and
possibly unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great interest to sustain the
required motivation.
2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time
and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific

and clear.
3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and
measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.
4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level of expertise for the task you are
proposing since you need to do the work yourself.
5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current
gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical problems
can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating stage.
Steps in Formulation of a Research Problem:

Working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level of knowledge in the broad subject
area within which the study is to be undertaken. Without such knowledge, it is difficult to
clearly and adequately ‘dissect’ a subject area.
Step1: Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.

Step 2: Dissect the broad area into subareas.
Step 3: Select what is of most interest to you.
Step 4: Raise research questions.
Step 5: Formulate objectives.
Step 6: Assess your objectives.
Step 7: Doublecheck.
So far, we have focused on the basis of your study, the research problem. But every study in
social sciences has a second element, the study population from whom the required information
to find answers to your research questions is obtained.
As you narrow the research problem, similarly you need to decide very specifically who
constitutes your study population, in order to select the appropriate respondents.
STEP 2. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE:

• Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with the available body of
knowledge in your area of interest.
• Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes valuable
contribution to every operational step.
• Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is also
rewarding.
Its functions are:

a. Bring clarity and focus to research problem;
b. Improve methodology;
c. Broaden knowledge;
d. Contextualise findings.

Bring clarity and focus to research problem:
The process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area better and thus
helps you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to
understand the relationship between your research problem and the body of knowledge in the
area.
Improve methodology:
A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods similar to the ones that
you are proposing, which procedures and methods have worked well for them, and what
problems they have faced with them. Thus, you will be better positioned to select a
methodology that is capable of providing valid answer to your research questions.
Broaden knowledge base in research area:

It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in which you intend to conduct your research
study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area of study, it helps fulfill this expectation.
It also helps you to understand how the findings of your study fit into the existing body of
knowledge.
Contextualise findings:
How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have found? What
contribution have you been able to make into the existing body of knowledge? How are your
findings different from those of others? For you to be able to answer these questions, you need
to go back to your literature review. It is important to place your findings in the context of what
is already known in your field of enquiry.
Procedure for reviewing the literature:

i) search for existing literature in your area of study;
ii) review the literature selected;
iii) develop a theoretical framework;
iv) develop a conceptual framework.
STEP 3 - FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES (HYPOTHESES)
• Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study.
• They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study.
• It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.
Objectives should be listed under two headings:

a) main objectives (aims);
b) Sub-objectives.
The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a statement of

the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or establish.
The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the
main framework of your study.
• They should be numerically listed.
• Wording should clearly, completely and specifically communicate to readers.
• Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study.
• Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.
Identifying Variables:
In a research study it is important that the concepts used should be operationalised in measurable
terms so that the extent of variations in respondents’ understanding is reduced if not eliminated.
Techniques about how to operationalise concepts, and knowledge about variables, play an
important role in reducing this variability.
Their knowledge, therefore, is important in ‘fine tuning’ your research problem.

For example:
• ‘Jet Airways’ is a perfect example of quality cabin service.
• Food in this restaurant is excellent.
• The middle class in India is getting more prosperous.
When people express these feelings or preferences, they do so on the basis of certain criteria in
their minds. Their judgement is based upon indicators that lead them to conclude and express
that opinion.
These are judgements that require a sound basis on which to proclaim. This warrants the use of a
measuring mechanism and it is in the process of measurement that knowledge about variables
plays an important role.
Variable:An image, perception or concept that can be measured – hence capable of taking on
different values- is called a variable.
Concept: Concepts are mental images or perceptions, and therefore, their meaning varies
markedly from individual to individual.
Difference between Concept and Variable:
A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable can be subjected to measurement by

crude/refined or subjective/objective units of measurement. It is therefore important for the
concept to be converted into variables.

Concept Variable
• Subjective impression • Measurable though the degree of
• No uniformity as to its precision varies from scale to
understanding among different scale and from variable to
people variable (e.g. attitude - subjective,
• As such cannot be measured income - objective)
Examples; Examples;
• Effectiveness • Gender (male/female)
• Satisfaction • Attitude
• Impact • Age (x years, y months)
• Excellent • Income ($ __ per year)
• High achiever • Weight ( __ kg)
• Self-esteem • Height ( __ cm)
• Rich • Religion (Catholic, protestant,
• Domestic violence Jew, Muslim), etc.
• Extent and pattern of alcohol
consumption, etc.
Measurement of Scales (Types of DATA)
There are four types of data that may be gathered in social research, each one adding more to the
next. Thus, ordinal data is also nominal, and so on.
A useful acronym to help remember this is NOIR (French for 'black').
Nominal or Categorical:
A nominal scale enables the classification of individuals, objects or responses into subgroups
based on a common/shared property or characteristic. A variable measured on a nominal scale
may have one, two, or more subcategories depending upon the extent of variation.
For example: ’water’ or ‘tree’ have only one subgroup, whereas the variable “gender” can be
classified into two sub-categories: male and female. ‘Hotels’ can be classified into ---- sub-
categories.

The sequence in which subgroups are listed makes no difference as there is no relationship
among subgroups. Nominal items are usually categorical, in that they belong to a definable
category, such as 'employees'.
Ordinal or Ranking Scale:
Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses or a property into subgroups on the basis of
common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups in a certain order. They are arranged either in
ascending or descending order according to the extent a subcategory reflects the magnitude of
variation in the variable.
For example: ‘income’ can be measured either quantitatively (in rupees and paise) or
qualitatively using subcategories ‘above average’, ‘average’ and ‘below average’. The
‘distance’ between these subcategories are not equal as there is no quantitative unit of
measurement. ‘Socioeconomic status’ and ‘attitude’ are other variables that can be measured on
ordinal scale.
Interval Scale:
An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In addition, it uses a unit of
measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating points.
For example:
Celsius scale: 0*C to 100*C
Fahrenheit scale: 32*F to 212*F
Attitudinal scales: 10-20
21-30
31-40 etc
Ratio Scale:
A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal, and interval scales plus its own property:
the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point. Since the
difference between intervals is always measured from a zero point, this scale can be used for
mathematical operations.
The measurement of variables like income, age, height, and weight are examples of this scale. A
person who is 40 years old is twice as old as one who is 20 years old.
Parametric vs. Non-parametric:
Interval and ratio data are parametric and are used with parametric tools in which distributions
are predictable (and often Normal).
Nominal and ordinal data are non-parametric and do not assume any particular distribution.
They are used with non-parametric tools such as the Histogram.
Continuous and Discrete Variables:

Continuous Variables are measured along a continuous scale, which can be divided into
fractions, such as temperature. Continuous variables allow for infinitely fine sub-division,
which means if you can measure sufficiently accurately, you can compare two items and
determine the difference.
Discrete variables are measured across a set of fixed values, such as age in years (not
microseconds). These are commonly used on arbitrary scales, such as scoring your level of
happiness, although such scales can also be continuous.
CONSTRUCTING HYPOTHESES:
As a researcher, you do not know about a phenomenon, but you do have a hunch to form the
basis of certain assumptions or guesses. You test these by collecting information that will enable
you to conclude if your notion was right.
The verification process can have one of the three outcomes. Your hunch may prove to be:
1. Right;
2. partially right;or
3. Wrong.
Without this process of verification, you cannot conclude anything about the validity of your
assumption.
Hence, a hypothesis is an intelligent guess, hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion, or an idea

about a phenomenon, relationship, or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know.
A researcher calls these assumptions/ hunches hypotheses, and they become the basis of an
inquiry.
In most studies, the hypotheses will be based upon your own or someone else’s observation.
Hypotheses bring clarity, specificity, and focus on a research problem, but are not essential for
a study.
You can conduct a valid investigation without constructing formal hypotheses.
Functions of Hypotheses:
• The formulation of the hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells you what
specific aspects of a research problem to investigate.
• A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby providing
focus to the study.
• As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study.
• A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of a theory. It allows you to
conclude what is true or what is false accurately.
Types of Hypotheses
1. Null Hypotheses
2. Alternative Hypotheses
1. Null Hypotheses: A null hypothesis is a type of hypothesis used in statistics that

proposes that no statistical significance exists in a set of given observations. The null
hypothesis attempts to show that no variation exists between variables or that a single
variable is no different than its mean. It is presumed to be true until statistical evidence
nullifies it for an alternative hypothesis.
2. Alternative Hypotheses: The alternate hypothesis is just an alternative to the null. For
example, if your null is “I’m going to win up to $1000” then your alternate is “I’m
going to win more than $1000.” Basically, you’re looking at whether there’s enough
change (with the alternate hypothesis) to be able to reject the null hypothesis.
STEP 4 – PREPARING RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.
The function of the research design is to provide for the collection of relevant information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time, and money.
The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,

involves the consideration of the following:
1. Objectives of the research study.

2. Method of Data Collection to be adopted
3. Source of information (Sample Design)
4. Tool for Data collection
5. Data Analysis-- qualitative and quantitative
Objectives of the Research Study: Objectives identified to answer the research questions
have to be listed, making sure that they are:
a) numbered, and
b) the statement begins with an action verb.
Methods of Data Collection: There are two types of data
• Primary Data - collected for the first time

• Secondary Data - those which have already been collected and
analysed by someone else.
METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
Observation Method:
Commonly used in behavioural sciences. It is the gathering of primary data by the
investigator’s own direct observation of relevant people, actions, and situations
without asking from the respondent.

e.g.
• A hotel chain sends observers posing as guests into its coffee shop to check on
cleanliness and customer service.
• A foodservice operator sends researchers into competing restaurants to learn menu
items prices, check portion sizes and consistency, and observe point-of-purchasee
merchandising.
Observation can yield information that people are normally unwilling or unable to provide.
Survey Method: Survey Method Approach is most suited for gathering descriptive
information.
Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in the same way.
Unstructured Surveys: let the interviewer probe respondents and guide the interview
according to their answers.
Survey research may be Direct or Indirect.
Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviours and thoughts.
e.g. Why don’t you eat at MacDonald’s?
Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: “What kind of people eat at MacDonald’s?”
From the response, the researcher may be able to discover why the consumer avoids
MacDonald’s. It may suggest factors of which the consumer is not consciously aware.
Contact Methods:
Information may be collected by
- Mail
- Telephone
- Personal interview
Mail Questionnaires:
Advantages:
• Can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent.
• Respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on a mail
questionnaire.
• No interviewer is involved to bias the respondent’s answers.
• Convenient for respondent’s who can answer when they have time.
• Good way to reach people who often travel.
Limitations:
• not flexible
• take longer to complete than telephone or personal interview
• the response rate is often very low
• A researcher has no control over who answers.
Telephone Interviewing:
• quick method
• more flexible as the interviewer can explain questions not understood by the
respondent
• depending on respondent’s answer they can skip some Qs and probe more on others
• allows greater sample control
• response rate tends to be higher than mail
Drawbacks:
• Cost per respondent higher
• Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer
• Interviewer’s manner of speaking may affect the respondent’s answers
• Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a variety of
ways
• under time pressure, data may be entered without actually interviewing
Personal Interviewing:
It is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of information. Trained
interviewers can hold the respondent’s attention and are available to clarify difficult
questions. They can guide interviews, explore issues, and probe as the situation
requires. Personal interviews can be used in any type of questionnaire and can be
conducted fairly quickly. Interviewers can also show actual products, advertisements,
packages, and observe and record their reactions and behaviour.
It has two forms-

• Individual- Intercept interviewing
• Group - Focus Group Interviewing
Intercept interviewing:
•
Widely used in tourism research.
•
Allows researcher to reach known people in a short period of time.
•
only method of reaching people whose names and addresses are unknown
•
Involves talking to people at homes, offices, on the street, or in shopping malls.
interviewer must gain the interviewee’s cooperation
•
•
time involved may range from a few minutes to several hours (for longer surveys
compensation may be offered)
• involves the use of judgmental sampling i.e. interviewer has guidelines as to whom to
“intercept”, such as 25% under age 20 and 75% over age 60
Drawbacks:
• Room for error and bias on the part of the interviewer who may not be able to correctly

judge age, race, etc.
• Interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain ethnic or age groups.
Focus Group Interviewing:

It is rapidly becoming one of the major research tools to understand people’s thoughts and
feelings.
It is usually conducted by inviting six to ten people to gather for a few hours with a trained
moderator to talk about a product, service, or organization. The meeting is held in a pleasant
place, and refreshments are served to create a relaxed environment.
The moderator needs objectivity, knowledge of the subject and industry, and some
understanding of group and consumer behaviour.
The moderator starts with a broad question before moving to more specific issues,
encouraging open and easy discussion to bring out true feelings and thoughts.
At the same time, the interviewer focuses the discussion, hence the name focus group
interviewing.
Drawbacks:
• Cost: may cost more than the telephone survey
• Sampling: group interview studies keep small sample size to keep time and cost
down; therefore it may be difficult to generalize from the results.
• Interviewer bias.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method, it is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions that are capable of being verified with observation or
experiment.
Experimental research is appropriate when the proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way.
e.g.
• Tenderisers(independent variable) affect cooking time and texture of meat(
dependent variable) .
• The effect of substituting one ingredient in whole or in part for another such
as soya flour to flour for making high protein bread.
• Develop recipes to use products.
DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN:
Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample.
A Sample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population as a whole.

Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow the researcher to make accurate
estimates of the thoughts and behaviour of the larger population.

Designing sample calls for three decisions:
Who will be surveyed? (The Sample)

• The researcher must determine what type of information is needed and who is most likely
to have it.
How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)
• Large samples give more reliable results than small samples. However, it is not
necessary to sample the entire target population.
How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)
• Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire population
(probability sampling)
• The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain information from
(nonprobability sampling)
The needs of the research project will determine which method is most effective.
Types of Sampling:
A. Probability sampling: A sampling procedure in which each element of the population
has a fixed probabilistic chance of being selected for the sample.
Probability sampling is further divided into the following:
1. Simple random sample: A probability sampling technique in which each element has
a known and equal probability of selection. Every element is selected independently of
every other element, and the sample is drawn by a random procedure from a sampling
frame. This method is equivalent to a lottery system in which names are placed in a
container, the container is shaken, and the names of the winners are then drawn out in
an unbiased manner. To draw a simple random sample, the researcher first compiles a
sampling frame in which each element is assigned a unique identification number.
Then random numbers are generated to determine which elements to include in the
sample.
2. Systematic sampling: In systematic sampling, the sample is chosen by selecting a
random starting point and then picking every ith element in succession from the
sampling frame.25 The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population
size N by the sample size n and rounding to the nearest whole number. For example,
there are 100,000 elements in the population, and a sample of 1,000 is desired. In this
case, the sampling interval, i, is 100. A random number between 1 and 100 is selected.
If, for example, this number is 23, the sample consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323,
423, 523, and so on.
3. Stratified random sample: Population is divided into mutually exclusive

(heterogeneous) groups (strata) then random sampling is drawn from each group
(stratum).

It is a two-step process in which the population is partitioned into subpopulations or
strata. The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive in that
every population element should be assigned to one and only one stratum and no
population elements should be omitted. Next, elements are selected from each stratum
by a random procedure, usually Simple Random Sampling.
4. Cluster (area) sample: The population is divided into mutually exclusive groups
(Homogeneous) such as blocks, and the researcher draws a sample of the group to
interview.
A two-step probability sampling technique where the target population is first divided
into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulations called clusters, and
then a random sample of clusters is selected based on a probability sampling technique
such as SRS. For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the
sample, or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically.
Differences between Stratified Sampling and Cluster Sampling
B. Non-probability sampling: Sampling techniques that do not use chance selection

procedures but rather rely on the personal judgment of the researcher.
Further divided into the following:
1. Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of
convenient elements. The selection of sampling units is left primarily to the
interviewer. Often, participants are selected because they happen to be in the right
place at the right time.
2. Judgemental sampling: It is a form of convenience sampling in which the
population elements are selected based on the judgement of the researcher. The
researcher, exercising judgement or expertise, chooses the elements to be included
in the sample because it is believed that they are representative of the population of
interest, or are otherwise appropriate.
3. Quota sampling: It is a two-stage restricted judgemental sampling. The first stage
consists of developing control categories or quotas of population elements. In the
second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or judgement.

4. Snowball Sampling: A strategy used to gather a sample for a research study, in
which study participants give the researcher referrals to other individuals who fit
the study criteria. Snowball samples cannot be generalized to the population
because they are not selected randomly. Snowball samples are usually used to
investigate groups that have some unique, rare, or unusual quality and groups in
which members know each other through an organization or common experience.
For example, snowball samples might be used to identify marathon runners or
cancer survivors who attend support groups.
Different types of Sampling (Brief)
TOOL FOR DATA COLLECTION (RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS)

The construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the most important aspect
of a research project because anything you say by way of findings or conclusions is based up
the type of information you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the
questions that you ask of your respondents. The famous saying about computers- “garbage in
garbage out”- is also applicable for data collection. The research tool provides the input into
study, and therefore, the quality and validity of the output (the findings), are solely dependent
on it.
Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool:

The underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below is to ensure the validity of your
instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the objectives of your study.

Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research Questions for
your study.
Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions That you want
to answer through your study.
Step III: Take each research question listed in step II and list the information required to answer
it.
Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this information.
Questionnaire:
A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for answers.
The respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down
the answers themselves.
Interview Schedule: It is called an Interview Schedule when the researcher asks the
questions (and if necessary, explain them) and record the respondent’s reply on the
interview schedule.
Because there are many ways to ask questions, the questionnaire is very flexible. The
questionnaire should be developed and tested carefully before being used on a large
scale.
There are three basic types of questionnaire:

• Closed–ended
• Open-ended
• Combination of both
1. Closed –ended Questionnaire:
• Closed ended questions include all possible answers/prewritten response categories, and
respondents are asked to choose among them. E.g. multiple-choice questions, scale
questions.
• Type of questions used to generate statistics in quantitative research.
• As these follow a set format, and most responses can be entered easily into a computer
for ease of analysis, greater numbers can be distributed.
2. Open-ended Questionnaire:
• Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words.
• Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but instead leaves a blank section for the
respondents to write in an answer.
• Whereas closed –ended questionnaires might be used to find out how many people use
an open-ended questionnaire might be used to find out what people think about a
service.
• As there are no standard answers to these questions, data analysis is more complex.
• As it is opinions which are sought rather than numbers, fewer questionnaires need to be
distributed.
3. Combination of both:
• This way it is possible to find out how many people use a service and what they think of
the service in the same form.
• Begins with a series of closed –ended questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and
the finish with a section of open-ended questions or a more detailed response.
Piloting the Questionnaire:

Once you have constructed your questionnaire, you must pilot it. This means that you must test it
out to see if it is obtaining the result you require. This is done by asking people to read it through
and see if there are any ambiguities that you have not noticed. They should also be asked to
comment about the length, structure, and wording of the questionnaire, alter the questions
accordingly
STEP 5: COLLECTING DATA:
Having formulated the research problem, developed a study design, constructed a research
instrument, and selected a sample, then collect the data from which you will draw inferences
and conclusions for the study. Depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews,
mail out a questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or make observations.
STEP 6: PROCESSING AND ANALYSING DATA
Processing and analysing data involves a number of closely related operations which are
performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in a manner
that they answer the research questions(objectives).
The Data Processing operations are:
1. Editing- a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions
and to correct these when possible.
2. Classification- a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Depending on the nature of phenomenon involved.
a) Classification according to attributes: here, data is analysed on the basis of

common characteristics which can either be:
• Descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion, etc. or
• Numerical such as weight, height, income, etc.
b) Classification according to class –intervals: is done with data relating to income,
age, weight, tariff, production, occupancy, etc. Such quantitative data are known
as the statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class–intervals.
e.g. persons whose income are within Rs 2001 to Rs 4000 can form one group or
class, those with income within Rs. 4001 to Rs. 6000 can form another group or class
and soon.

3. Tabulation-Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same
in compact form for further analysis. It is an orderly arrangement of data in columns
and rows. Tabulation is essential because:
a) It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statements to a
minimum.
b) It facilitates the process of comparison.
c) It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.
d) It provides the basis for various statistical computations.
Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. Simple

tabulation generally results in one-way tables which supply answers to questions
about one characteristic of data only. Complex tabulation usually results on two-
way tables (which give information about two inter-related characteristics of data),
three –way tables or still higher order tables, also known as manifold tables.
DATA ANALYSIS METHODS

Qualitative Data Analysis:
Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process with few rigid rules and procedures. For this
purpose, the researcher needs to go through a process called Content Analysis.
Content Analysis means analysis of the contents of an interview in order to identify the main
themes that emerge from the responses given by the respondents. This process involves a
number of steps:
Step 1. Identify the main themes: The researcher needs to carefully go through the descriptive
responses given by respondents to each question in order to understand the meaning they
communicate. From these responses, the researcher develops broad themes that reflect these
meanings. People use different words and language to express themselves. It is essential that the
researcher select wording of the theme in a way that accurately represents the meaning of the
responses categorized under a theme. These themes become the basis for analyzing the text of
unstructured interviews.
Step 2. Assign codes to the main themes: If the researcher wants to count the number of times a
theme has occurred in an interview, he/she needs to select a few responses to an open-endedd
question and identify the main themes. He/she continues to identify these themes from the same
question until a saturation point is reached. Write these themes and assign a code to each of
them, using numbers or keywords.
Step 3. Classify responses under the main themes: Having identified the themes Next step is to
go through the transcripts of all the interviews and classify the responses under the different
themes.
Step 4. Integrate themes and responses into the text of your report: Having identified responses
that fall within different themes, the next step is to integrate into the text of your report. While
discussing the main themes that emerged from their study, some researchers use verbatim

responses to keep the feel of the response. There are others who count how frequently a theme
has occurred, and then provide a sample of the responses. It entirely depends upon the way the
researcher wants to communicate the findings to the readers.
Quantitative Data Analysis:

This method is most suitable for large well designed and well-administered surveys using a
properly constructed and worded questionnaire. Data can be analysed either manually or with
the help of a computer.
Manual Data Analysis: This can be done if the number of respondents is reasonably small, and
there are not many variables toanalyse.However, this is useful only for calculating frequencies
and for simple cross- tabulations.
Manual data analysis is extremely time consuming. The easiest way to do this is to code it
directly onto large graph paper in columns. Detailed headings can be used or question numbers
can be written on each column to code information about the question.
To manually analyse data (frequency distribution), count various codes in a column and then
decode them.
In addition, if you want to carry out statistical tests, they have to be calculated manually.
However, the use of statistics depends on your expertise and the desire/need to communicate the
findings in a certain way.
Data Analysis Using a Computer:
If you want to analyse data using a computer, you should be familiar with the appropriate
program. In this area, knowledge of computers and statistics plays an important role.
The most common software is SPSS. However, data input can be a long and laborious process,
and if data is entered incorrectly, it will influence the final results.
STEP 7: REPORTING THE FINDINGS:
Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most challenging stage of the research process.
The report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered, and what
conclusions you have drawn from your findings. The report should be written in an academic
style. Language should be formal and not journalistic.

Thesis and Article Writing
The thesis is a treatise that represents the fulfillment of the scholarly aspiration of the student. A
good thesis should be clear and unambiguous and have a logical structure that should assist the
reader’s understanding of the argument being presented and not obscure it. In order to achieve
this objective, the layout and physical appearance of the thesis should conform to a set pattern.
Note: The following format of thesis writing is a general standard and accepted format. But
universities and institutions have their own prescribed format with this core structure of thesis
writing. Please consider the specific format suggested by your institutions, organisations, and
universities.
Example: Guidelines for Thesis writing suggested by an Institution
The generally accepted format of thesis or report writing tend to be produced in the following
way:
Title Page
• Title of the Research Project,
• Name of the researcher,
• Purpose of the research project, e.g., “A research project submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements of National Council for Hotel Management and Catering Technology,
New Delhi for the degree of Ph.D. in Hospitality and Hotel Administration”
• Date of Publication
Table of Contents
This section is listed the contents of the report, either in chapters or in subheadings.
List of Tables
This section includes title and page number of all tables
List of Figures
This section contains the title and page number of all graphs, pie charts, etc.
Acknowledgements
Here, the researcher may acknowledge Institute Principal, Faculty Guide, both research guide
and technical guide, research participants, friends etc.
Introduction
This section introduces the research setting out aims and objectives. It includes a rationale for the
research.
Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature

This section is included all your background research, which may be obtained from the literature
review. You must indicate where all the information has come, so remember to keep a complete
record of everything you read. If you do not do this, you could be accused of plagiarism which is

a form of intellectual theft. When you are referring to a particular book or journal article, use the
Harvard system.
Research design:
This section includes all practical details followed for research. After reading this, any interested
party should be able to replicate the research study. The methods used for data collection, how
many people took part, how they were chosen, what tool was used for data collection, how the
data was analysed etc.
Data Analysis and Interpretation:

If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section may contain tables, graphs, pie
charts, and associated statistics. If you have conducted a qualitative piece of research, this
section may be descriptive prose.
Summary and Conclusion:
In this section, you sum up your findings and draw conclusions from them, perhaps in relation to
other research or literature.
Recommendation:
If you have conducted a piece of research for a hotel or any other client organization, this section
could be the most important part of the report. A list of clear recommendations that have been
developed from the research is included. Sometimes, this section is included at the beginning of
the report.
Suggestion for Further Research:

It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to include a section that shows how
the research can be continued. Perhaps some results are inconclusive, or perhaps the research has
thrown up many more research questions that need to be addressed. It is useful to include this
section because it shows that you are aware of the wider picture and that you are not trying to
cover up something which you feel may be lacking in your own work.
List of References/Bibliography:
• List of references contains details only of those works cited in the text.
• A bibliography includes sources not cited in the text, but which are relevant to the
subject. (larger dissertations or thesis)
• Small research projects will need only a reference section. It includes all the literature to
which you have referred in your report.
Annexures
List of publications:
List of publications obtained by the student from the PhD work should be included in the Thesis.
Students are strongly encouraged to place the accepted versions of the manuscripts (maximum
two), which were integral part of thesis work.
Curriculum vitae (optional):

Provide one page giving academic qualifications, academic achievements and list of
publications.

Appendices (optional):
Appendices may include the formulas, diagrams, protocols, or any similar data that are not
contained in the body of the thesis. The number can be given as A-1, A-2 and listed as such in
the table of contents.
FORMAT OF CITATIONS/REFERENCES
Citations or in-text citations are similar to references but occur in the body of the text with direct
quotes and paraphrases to identify the author/publication for the material you have used.
Citations are used:
• to show which reference supports a particular statement
• for direct quotes – when you repeat a passage from a text (or speech, video, etc.) in your
assignment without changing any words
• when you paraphrase – this is when you use your own words to restate the meaning of a
text in your assignment.
One of the most important things to remember is that every citation should also have a
corresponding entry in your reference list.
A reference list is a list of the resources that you used when writing your assignment or doing
your research. These resources may include:
• books, including electronic books, journals (online and paper-based)
• online sources including websites, blogs, and forums
• speeches
• conference papers, proceedings, and theses
• other sources of information such as film, television, video, etc.
Reference lists come at the end of an assignment and are arranged in alphabetical order, usually
by author or editor. If there is not an author or an editor, the title is used.
Comparison Between Citation and Reference

BASIS FOR
CITATION REFERENCE
COMPARISON
Meaning Citation is a way of disclosing Reference is a list that contains

within the main body, that the all the sources which have been
quote, image, chart, statistics, sought or cited while writing
etc. are taken from an outside the article or assignment.
source.
Use It informs the readers, the basic It informs the reader, the
source of information. complete source of information.

BASIS FOR
CITATION REFERENCE
COMPARISON
Purpose To indicate the source of the To support or criticize an

material taken. argument or point.
Placement Presented in the bracket. Presented as endnote or end of

the document.
Information It contains information like It contains information like

publication year and last name publication date, title of
of the author. book/journal, author's name,
page number.
(source: keydifferences.com)
Types of Citation/References:
MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write papers and cite
sources within the liberal arts and humanities.
Book - Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research methodology: Methods and techniques.
New Age International, 2004.
Journal - Ghosh, Madhusudan. "Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank Linkage
Programme." Journal of Rural Development 31.3 (2012): 347-363.
2. APA (American Psychological Association) is most commonly used to cite sources within
the health sciences and social sciences fields.
Book - Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age
International.
Journal - Ghosh, M. (2012). Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank Linkage
Programme. Journal of Rural Development, 31(3), 347-363.
3. Chicago Manual of Style, are quite flexible and cover both parenthetical and note citation
systems.
Book - Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research methodology: Methods and techniques.

New Age International, 2004.
Journal - Ghosh, Madhusudan. "Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank Linkage
Programme." Journal of Rural Development 31, no. 3 (2012): 347-363.
4. Parenthetical referencing, also known as Harvard referencing, is a citation style in which

partial citations—for example, "(Smith 2010, p. 1)"—are enclosed within parentheses and
embedded in the text, either within or after a sentence.

Book - Kothari, C.R., 2004. Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age
International.
Journal - Ghosh, M., 2012. Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank Linkage
Programme. Journal of Rural Development, 31(3), pp.347-363.
5. The Vancouver system, also known as Vancouver reference style or the author–number
system, is a citation style that uses numbers within the text that refer to numbered entries in the
reference list.
Book - Kothari CR. Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International; 2004.
Journal - Ghosh M. Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank Linkage Programme. Journal of
Rural Development. 2012 Sep 1;31(3):347-63.
Standard Format for Printing a report

Paper: Bond Paper (need not be executive bond)
Size: 8.5inches X 11inches
Margin: Left - 1.5inch
Top - 1inch
Bottom - 1inch
Right - 1inch
Font: Times New Roman

FontSize: 12
Spacing: Double
Binding: BlackRexin
Gold Embossing on Research Title

Cover: Student Name
Name of Institute
Year of Submission
Paper: Bond Paper (need not be executive bond)s

Size: 8.5inches X 11inches
Margin:
Left - 1.5inch
Top - 1inch
Bottom - 1inch
Right - 1inch
Font: TimesNewRoman
FontSize: 12
Spacing: Double

Binding: BlackRexin
Gold Embossing on Cover:
Research Title
Student Name
Name of Institute
Year of Submission
Note: The format of Thesis and Article writing, mentioned above, is a general and standard
format. Please follow your universities or institutions guidelines for writing a thesis and articles.
Application of ICT in Research (New Topic)
Application of ICT in Research: Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) refers to

technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. It is similar to
Information Technology (IT) but focuses primarily on communication technologies. This
includes the Internet, wireless networks, cell phones, and other communication mediums.
Information and communication technologies (ICT) have provided society with a vast array of
new communication capabilities. For example, people can communicate in real-time with others
in different countries using technologies such as instant messaging, voice over IP (VoIP), and
video-conferencing. Social networking websites like Facebook allow users from all over the
world to remain in contact and communicate on a regular basis.
ICT, or information and communications technology (or technologies), is the infrastructure

and components that enable modern computing.
Although there is no single, universal definition of ICT, the term is generally accepted to mean
all devices, networking components, applications and systems that combined allow people and
organizations (i.e., businesses, nonprofit agencies, governments and criminal enterprises) to
interact in the digital world.
Components of an ICT system
ICT encompasses both the internet-enabled sphere as well as the mobile one powered by wireless
networks. It also includes antiquated technologies, such as landline telephones, radio and
television broadcast - all of which are still widely used today alongside cutting-edge ICT pieces
such as artificial intelligence and robotics.

The list of ICT components is exhaustive, and it continues to grow. Some components, such as
computers and telephones, have existed for decades. Others, such as smartphones, digital TVs
and robots, are more recent entries.
(source: searchcio.techtarget.com)
Application of ICT in Research
Applications of ICT are mainly used by researchers for its ability to ease the knowledge-
gathering process and to enhance resource development. Researcher in general value creativity
and originality, thus the ICT tools which provide with the most open situations with great
autonomy to the researcher can really help in identifying and solving research problems in the
most creative ways. The use of ICT is based on the individual’s logical assessment of how
various applications increase his/her effectiveness and efficiency in work and provide ease in
communication with peers.
Use of ICT tools or application for making research data and information available are plenty in
numbers today, but the best use of ICT tools would be to improve cognitive skills and thus help
discriminate, analyse and create information rather than simply accumulate. As usually research
process deals with a large amount of complex information and requires a lot of skills to analyse
and organize these well, any ICT tool which helps the researcher give meaning and precision
along with adding value to the information generated would be rated above the ones which help
in just gathering information.
Generally, Applications of ICT help the researcher in the following research-related tasks:
• identify appropriate information sources

• critically analyse information
• research effectively
• manage information
• use the information to extend and communicate knowledge across subject fields
• search up to ten databases and electronic resources simultaneously
• receive results in a common format
• link to individual databases for more specialised searching
• select favourite resources and e-journals, save searches and records, and set up email alerts.
Applications of ICT have many effects on research. They can be classified into three categories
which include:
1. Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis

2. Applications of ICT in data analysis, and
3. Applications of ICT in post-data analysis
A. Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis:
Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis refers to the activities how ICTs are applied on activities
of social science research before reaching the stage of data analysis.
ICT application in pre-data analysis includes:
1. Literature Search, Article Availability, Thesis and Dissertation Availability

2. Content Search
3. Literature Tracking
4. Data Collection
1. Literature Search: Last time researchers need to perform a manual search on hard copies of
literature in libraries whereby this is a tedious effort and the search results were limited. On the
contrary, a lot of research materials, literature and artefacts today can be searched using Internet
search engines and databases.
• ShodhGanga: Indian theses repository where you can search and download the theses.
• Google Scholar: Provides a way to broadly search for scholarly literature across disciplines and
sources.
• Microsoft Academic Search: Find information about academic papers, authors, conferences,
journals, and organizations from multiple sources.
• Mendeley: A unique platform comprising a social network, reference manager, article
visualization tools.
• SSRN: Multi-disciplinary online repository of scholarly research and related materials in social

sciences.
Some other Famous Database for Research Articles and literature:
• AMS
• Annual Reviews
• ASME Digital Collection
• Cambridge Core
• Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS)
• Cochrane Library
• eBook Academic collection
• EBSCO Databases, Discovery Service, eBooks, Point of Care Products, DynaMed and Journal
Collections
• EBSCO Information Services
• Economic & Political Weekly
• Elsevier
• Emerald eJournals
• Encyclopedia Britannica
• IEEE Xplore
• Indian Citation Index.
• Indian Journals
• IOPscience
• JSTOR
• Portland Press
• Project Euclid
• Project MUSE
• ProQuest databases
• Royal Society of Chemistry Journals
• Royal Society of Chemistry Publications Online
• Sage Online Journals
• Science Mag
• Scitation
• SIAM Journals Online
• Springer Link
• Supreme Court Cases Online
• Taylor & Francis Online
• Web of Knowledge
• Wiley Online Library
2. Content Search: In today’s world of research, researchers can utilize the softcopy literature’s
search or find function (also called content search) to search for specific keywords or phrases in
which this is more effective and productive. This observation is also supported what Sekaran
(2003) had stated that online search using technology is inexpensive and can improve the
identification of relevant sources of literature. Such content search also enables a researcher to
evaluate quickly whether a particular article or thesis et al. is worthy for his or her deeper
review. Moreover, the content search also helps a qualitative researcher to count the frequency
of certain keywords appears in an interviewed transcript more effectively.

3. Literature Tracking – In the past, researchers have to sort, classify and store all their
literature or artefacts that they had reviewed into computer folders or physical folders/place
holders. Researchers also need to create their own tracking mechanism e.g. in a word document
or spreadsheet format to track and manage their reviewed literature so that they can re-use or
refer to in future. Doing these manually can be daunting tasks.
With the advancement of ICT, researchers can still use the old approaches but more and more
researchers now are using software like Mendeley which can help manage, share and discover
the literature contents and contacts that they had reviewed. Using software like Mendeley to
track a researcher’s literature is saving time and effort as well as capable to manage lots of
literature that the researcher was not possible in the past.
4. Data Collection – with the help of application of ICT, Data collection can be collected via
online, web-based or Internet survey. Using this purpose-built software and Internet technology
which are greener technology in data collection can reduce the time and cost to collect surveyed
responses from the respondents. Not only an online survey can be administered more
effectively, but the data collected in its original format can also be input directly into the
statistical software.
Important Data Collection Application of ICT:
1. Google Forms
2. SurveyMonkey
B. Applications of ICT in data analysis
Application of ICT in data analysis includes the ICTs are applied on activities during the stage of
data analysis and can be divided into:
1. Quantitative Data Analysis

2. Qualitative Data Analysis
1. Quantitative Data Analysis:
The exploratory factor analysis, multiple regression, t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
are some common data analysis techniques used among researchers conducting quantitative
research. There are also some advanced and popular data analysis techniques like path analysis,
covariance-based Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), variance-based SEM (partial least
squares), hierarchical regression analysis, hierarchical linear modelling et al.
• Statistical Package for Social Science / SPSS are more advanced and rich with a lot of features
and functionalities
• R (R Foundation for Statistical Computing)
• MATLAB (The Mathworks)
• Microsoft Excel
• SAS (Statistical Analysis Software)
• GraphPad Prism

• Minitab
List of Statistical Software Packages - click
2. Qualitative Data Analysis:
The following statistical software packages are for qualitative data analysis:
• NVivo
• ATLAS.ti
• MAXQDA
• SPSS Text Analytics
• Transana can be used for video transcribing in certain qualitative research
C. Application of ICT in post-data analysis
Application of ICT in post-data analysis refers to the ICTs are applied on activities of research
after completing the stage of data analysis which covers:
1. References and Bibliography Compilation

2. Article and Thesis / Dissertation’s Discussion among Researchers, Supervisors, Supervisees etc.
3. Plagiarism Detection
4. Journal Manuscripts Submission
1. References and Bibliography Compilation:
A few years back, researchers tend to compile references and bibliography manually. They
literally typing in to build the entire section of the references or bibliography then followed by
sorting them in ascending order. Recently, while researchers are writing, they can use citation or
reference management software to help select citations and populate the references or
bibliography automatically. This type of software can improve researchers’ efficiency and
accuracy while preparing their articles or theses.
The following software is used for referencing and bibliography compilation:
• EndNote
• Zotero
• Mendeley
2. Article and Thesis / Dissertation’s Discussion:
In the course of producing an article, thesis or dissertation, there are needs for discussions or
communications among researchers, supervisors, supervisees or during the viva voce. Now, we
have the advanced application of ICT to facilitate sharing of research materials, seeking
comments from subject matter experts, enable analytics to monitor papers published, as well as
following some scholarly works.

There are online platforms or websites which can be used for such discussion:
• Academia.edu
• ResearchGate
3. Plagiarism Detection:
In the past, plagiarism acts were slow and hard to detect as the authority of universities or
journals dependent on readers to identify them manually while they were reading through the
submitted articles or theses/dissertations. With the advancement of ICT, readers or researchers
can use plagiarism checker software available in the market like:
• Grammarly
• Article Checker
• Turnitin
• DupliChecker etc.
4. Journal Manuscripts Submission:
In the past, journal manuscript submission used to be via email communications between
researchers/authors and journal’s editors/coordinators. Now web-based journal manuscript
management and peer-review software, electronic manuscript submission or management
systems are commonly used among the community of researchers and journals/publishers. Using
such systems can reduce their time of submission and checking the status of publishing.
Moreover, using such systems can greatly improve the productivity and quality of work to
administer the submission as well as the peer-review management in which miscommunication,
lost or delay of communication can be minimized.
The following are the Application of ICT for Manuscripts Submission and publicising:
• Elsevier
• Wiley
• Sage Publications etc.
Apart from the above-mentioned ICT tools for research, there is a long list of ICT applications
which can be used for quality research papers and theses.

RESEARCH ETHICS
Research Ethics: The application of moral rules and professional codes of conduct to the
collection, analysis, reporting, and publication of information about research subjects, in
particular active acceptance of subjects' right to privacy, confidentiality, and informed consent.
Collecting data through any of the methods may involve some ethical issues concerning the
participants and the researcher:
• Those from whom information is collected or those who are studied by a researcher
become participants of the study.
• Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to the accepted code
of conduct, is a researcher.
Ethical issues concerning research participants: There are many ethical issues in
relation to participants of research activity.
i) Collecting information:
Your request for information may put pressure or create anxiety on a respondent. Is it ethical?
Research is required to improve conditions. Provided any piece of research is likely to help
society directly or indirectly, it is acceptable to ask questions if you first obtain the
respondents’ informed consent.
If you cannot justify the relevance of the research you are conducting, you are wasting your
respondents’ time, which is unethical.
ii)Seeking consent:
In every discipline, it is considered unethical to collect information without the knowledge
of the participant and their expressed willingness and informed consent.
Informed consent implies that subjects are made adequately aware of the type of information
you want from them, why the information is being sought, what purpose it will be put to,
how they are expected to participate in the study, and how it will directly or indirectly affect
them. It is important that the consent should be voluntary and without the pressure of any
kind.
iii) Providing incentives:

Most people do not participate in a study because of incentives, but because they realize
the importance of the study.
Is it ethical to provide incentives to respondents to share information with you because they are
giving their time?
Giving a present before data collection is unethical.
iv)Seeking sensitive information:

Certain types of information can be regarded as sensitive or confidential by some people and
thus an invasion to their privacy, asking for such information may upset or embarrass a

respondent.
For most people, questions on drug use, pilferage, income, age, marital status, etc. are
intrusive. In collecting data, you need to be careful about the sensitivities of your
respondents.
It is not unethical to ask such questions provided that you tell your respondents the type of
information you are going to ask clearly and frankly, and give them sufficient time to decide
if they want to participate, without any significant inducement.
v) The possibility of causing harm to participant:

When you collect data from respondents or involve subjects in an experiment, you need to
examine carefully whether their involvement is likely to harm them in any way. Harm
includes l research that might consist of hazardous experiments, discomfort, anxiety,
harassment, invasion of privacy, or demeaning or dehumanizing procedures. If it is likely to,
you must make sure that the risk is minimal, i.e., the extent of harm or discomfort is not
greater that ordinarily encountered in daily life. If the way information is sought creates
anxiety or harassment, you need to take steps to prevent this.
vi) Maintaining confidentiality:

Sharing information about a respondent with others for purposes other than research is
unethical. Sometimes you need to identify your study population to put your findings into
context. In such a situation, you need to make sure that at least the information provided by
respondents is kept anonymous.
It is unethical to identify an individual’s responses. Therefore you need to ensure that after
the information has been collected, the source cannot be known.
ETHICAL ISSUES RELATING TO THE RESEARCHER

Avoiding bias:
ii)
Bias on the part of the researcher is unethical. Bias is a deliberate attempt to either hiding what
you have found in your study or highlight something disproportionately to its actual existence.
iii)Provision or deprivation of a treatment:

Both the provision and denial of a treatment/ intervention may pose an ethical dilemma for you
as a researcher. Is it ethical to provide a study population with an intervention/ treatment that
has not yet been conclusively proven effective or beneficial? But if you do not test, how can you
prove or disprove its effectiveness or benefits?
There are no simple answers to these dilemmas. Ensuring informed consent, ‘minimum risk,’
and frank discussion as to the implications of participation in the study will help to resolve
ethical issues.
iv) Using inappropriate research methodology:

It is unethical to use a method or procedure you know to be inappropriate, e.g., selecting a highly
biased sample, using an invalid instrument, or drawing wrong conclusions.

v) Incorrect reporting:
To report the findings in a way that changes or slants them to serve your own or someone
else’s interest is unethical.
vi) Inappropriate use of the information:

The use of information in a way that directly or indirectly adversely affects the respondents
is unethical. If so, the study population needs to be protected.
Sometimes it is possible to harm individuals in the process of achieving benefits for the
organizations. An example would be a study to examine the feasibility of restructuring an
organization. The restructuring may be beneficial to the organization as a whole but may be
harmful to some individuals.
Should you ask respondents for information that is likely to be used against them?
It is ethical to ask questions provided you tell respondents of the potential use of the
information, including the possibility of it being used against
Some of them, and you let them decide if they want to participate.
IMPORTANT TERMS
Seminars are educational events that feature one or more subject matter experts delivering
information
primarily via lecture and discussion.
Workshops tend to be smaller and more intense than seminars. This format often involves
students practicing their new skills during the event under the watchful eye of the instructor.
Conferences often features keynote presentations delivered to all attendees, as well as multiple
breakout sessions. Attendees often expect to receive information about industry trends and
developments.
Symposium is typically a more formal or academic gathering, featuring multiple experts

delivering short
presentations on a particular topic.
Summit is a gathering of the highest level of leaders and experts.
Teleseminars are seminars that are delivered via a conference call over the telephone and/or
over the Internet. The instructor moderates the call, while the attendees listen. To engage
listeners, many instructors provide outlines, notes sheets or copies of PowerPoint slides to follow
when listening to the presentation.
Webinars or Webconferences are presentations that involve an audio and video component.
The audio portion of the event is delivered via phone or over the Internet, so that participants can

listen via their computer speakers. The video portion of the event is delivered via the Internet,
giving participants a presentation to watch while listening to the instructor.
Accuracy
A term used in survey research to refer to the match between the target population and the
sample.
Alpha Level
The probability that a statistical test will find significant differences between groups (or find
significant predictors of the dependent variable), when in fact there are none. This is also
referred to as the probability of making a Type I error or as the significance level of a statistical
test. A lower alpha level is better than a higher alpha level, with all else equal.
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
Same method as ANOVA, but analyzes differences between dependent variables.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
A statistical test that determines whether the means of two or more groups are significantly
different.
Anonymity
An ethical safeguard against invasion of privacy whereby the researcher is unable to identify the
respondents by their responses.
Attrition
The rate at which participants drop out of a longitudinal study. If particular types of study
participants drop out faster than other types of participants, it can introduce bias and threaten the
internal validity of the study.
Average
A single value (mean, median, mode) representing the typical, normal, or middle value of a set of
data.
Axiom
A statement widely accepted as truth.
Bell-Shaped Curve
A curve characteristic of a normal distribution, which is symmetrical about the mean and extends
infinitely in both directions. The area under curve=1.0.
Beta Level
The probability of making an error when comparing groups and stating that differences between
the groups are the result of the chance variations when in reality the differences are the result of
the experimental manipulation or intervention. Also referred to as the probability of making a
Type II error.
Bimodal Distribution
A distribution in which two scores are the most frequently occurring score. Interpretation of an
average of biomodial distribution is problematic because the data represents non-normal
distribution. Identifying biomodial distributions is done by examining frequency distribution or
by looking at indices of skew or kutosis, which are frequently available with statistical software.

Bootstrapping
A popular method for variance estimation in surveys. It consists of subsampling from the initial
sample. Within each stratum in the sample, a simple random subsample is selected with
replacement. This creates a finite number of new samples (or repetitions). The same parameter
estimate is then calculated for each of the subsamples. The variance of the estimated parameter is
then equal to the variance of the estimates from these subsamples.
Case Study
An intensive investigation of the current and past behaviors and experiences of a single person,
family, group, or organization.
Categorical Data
Variables with discrete, non-numeric or qualitative categories (e.g. gender or marital status). The
categories can be given numerical codes, but they cannot be ranked, added, multiplied or
measured against each other. Also referred to as nominal data.
Causal Analysis
An analysis that seeks to establish the cause and effect relationships between variables.
Ceiling
The highest limit of performance that can be assessed or measured by an instrument or process.
Individuals who perform near to or above this upper limit are said to have reached the ceiling,
and the assessment may not be providing a valid estimate of their performance levels.
Census
The collection of data from all members, instead of a sample, of the target population.
Central Limit Theorem
A mathematical theorem that is central to the use of statistics. It states that for a random sample
of observations from any distribution with a finite mean and a finite variance, the mean of the
observations will follow a normal distribution. This theorem is the main justification for the
widespread use of statistical analyses based on the normal distribution.
Central Tendency
A measure that describes the ¿typical¿ or average characteristic; the three main measures of
central tendency are mean, median and mode.
Chi Square
A statistic used when testing for associations between categorical, or non-numeric, variables. It is
also used as a goodness-of-fit test to determine whether data from a sample come form a
population with a specific distribution.
Cluster Analysis
A type of multivariate analysis where the collected data are classified based on several
characteristics in order to determine groups (or clusters) of cases that would be useful to explore
further. This type of analysis can help one determine which groups of variables best predict an
outcome.
Coefficient of Determination
A coefficient, ranging between 0 and 1, that indicates the goodness of fit of a regression model.

Cohort
A group of people sharing a common demographic experience who are observed through time.
For example, all the people born in the same year constitute a birth cohort. All the people
married in the same year constitute a marriage cohort.
Confidence Interval
A range of estimated values that is the best guess as to the true population's value. Confidence
intervals are usually calculated for the sample mean. In behavioral research, the acceptable level
of confidence is usually 95%. Statistically, this means that if 100 random samples were drawn
from a population and confidence intervals were calculated for the mean of each of the samples,
95 of the confidence intervals would contain the population's mean. For example, a 95%
confidence interval for IQ of 95 to 105, indicates with 95% certainty that the actual average IQ in
the population lies between 95 and 105.
Confidence Level
The percentage of times that a confidence interval will include the true population value. If the
confidence level is .95 this means that if a researcher were to randomly sample a population 100
times, 95% of the time the estimated confidence interval for a value will contain the population's
true value. In other words, the researcher can be 95% confident that the confidence interval
contains the true population value.
Confounding Variable
A variable that is not of interest, but which distorts the results if the researcher does not control
for it in the analysis. For example, if a researcher is interested in the effect of education on
political views, the researcher must control for income. Income is a confounding variable
because it affects political views and education is related to income.
Construct Validity
The degree to which a variable, test, questionnaire or instrument measures the theoretical
concept that the researcher hopes to measure. For example, if a researcher is interested in the
theoretical concept of "marital satisfaction," and the researcher uses a questionnaire to measure
marital satisfaction, if the questionnaire has construct validity it is considered to be a good
measure of marital satisfaction.
Continuous Variable
A variable that, in theory, can take on any value within a range. The opposite of continuous is
discrete. For example, a person's height could be 5 feet 1 inch, 5 feet 1.1 inches, 5 feet 1.11
inches, and so one, thus it is continuous. One's gender is either "male" or "female", thus it is
discrete.
Control
The processes of making research conditions uniform or constant, so as to isolate the effect of
the experimental condition. When it is not possible to control research conditions, statistical
controls often will be implemented in the analysis.
Control Variable
A variable that is not of interest to the researcher, but which interferes with the statistical
analysis. In statistical analyses, control variables are held constant or their impact is removed to
better analyze the relationship between the outcome variable and other variables of interest. For
example, if one wanted to examine the impact of education on political views, a researcher
would control income in the statistical analysis. This removes the impact of income on political
views from the analysis.
Controlled Experiment
A form of scientific investigation in which one variable, termed the independent variable, is
manipulated to reveal the effect on another variable, termed the dependent or responding
variable, while all other variables in the system are held fixed.
Cooperation Rate
In survey research, this is the ratio of completed interviews to all contacted cases capable of
being interviewed.
Correlation
The degree to which two variables are associated. Variables are positively correlated if they both
tend to increase at the same time. For example, height and weight are positively correlated
because as height increases weight also tends to increases. Variables are negatively correlated if
as one increases the other decreases. For example, number of police officers in a community and
crime rates are negatively correlated because as the number of police officers increases the crime
rate tends to decrease.
Correlation Coefficient
A measure of the degree to which two variables are related. A correlation coefficient in always
between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is between 0 and +1 then the variables are
positively correlated. If the correlation coefficient is between 0 and -1 then the variables are
negatively correlated.
Coverage
In survey research, this is the process of selecting a sample of individuals that reflect the larger
population that the researchers wish to describe.
Cross-Sectional Data
Data collected about individuals at only one point in time. This is contrasted with longitudinal
data, which is collected from the same individuals at more than one point in time.
Cross-Tabulation
A method to display the relationship between two categorical variables. A table is created with
the values of one variable across the top and the values of the second variable down the side. The
number of observations that correspond to each cell of the table are indicated in each of the table
cells.
Curvilinear
A statistical relationship between two variables that is not linear when plotted on a graph, but
rather forms a curve.
Data
Information collected through surveys, interviews, or observations. Statistics are produced from
data, and data must be processed to be of practical use.
Data Analysis
The process by which data are organized to better understand patterns of behavior within the
target population. Data analysis is an umbrella term that refers to many particular forms of

analysis such as content analysis, cost-benefit analysis, network analysis, path analysis,
regression analysis, etc.
Data Imputation
A method used to fill in missing values (due to nonresponse) in surveys. The method is based on
careful analysis of patterns of missing data. Types of data imputation include mean imputation,
multiple imputation, hot deck and cold deck imputation. Data imputation is done to allow for
statistical analysis of surveys that were only partially completed.
Deduction
The process of reasoning from the more general to the more specific.
Deductive Method
A method of study that begins with a theory and the generation of a hypothesis that can be tested
through the collection of data, and ultimately lead to the confirmation (or lack thereof) of the
original theory.
Degrees of Freedom
The number of independent units of information in a sample used in the estimation of a
parameter or calculation of a statistic. The degrees of freedom limits the number variables that
can be included in a statistical model. Models with similar explanatory power, but more degrees
of freedom are generally prefered because they offer a simpler explanation.
Dependent Variable
The outcome variable. In experimental research, this variable is expected to depend on a
predictor (or independent) variable.
Descriptive Statistics
Basic statistics used to describe and summarize data. Descriptive statistics generally include
measures of the average values of variables (mean, median, and mode) and measures of the
dispersion of variables (variance, standard deviation, or range).
Dichotomous Variables
Variables that have only two categories, such as gender (male and female).
Discomfirming Evidence
A procedure whereby, during an open-ended interview, \ a researcher actively seeks accounts
from other respondents that differs from the main or consensus accounts in critical ways
Discrete Variables
A variable that can assume only a finite number of values; it consists of separate, indivisible
categories. The opposite of discrete is continuous. For example, one's gender is either "male" or
"female", thus gender is discrete. A person's height could be 5 feet 1 inch, 5 feet 1.1 inches, 5
feet 1.11 inches, and so on, thus it is continuous.
Dispersion
The spread of a variable's values. Techniques that describe dispersion include range, variance,
standard deviation, and skew.
Distribution
The frequency with which values of a variable occur in a sample or a population. To graph a

distribution, first the values of the variables are listed across the bottom of the graph. The
number of times the value occurs are listed up the side of the graph. A bar is drawn that
corresponds to how many times each value occurred in the data. For example, a graph of the
distribution of women's heights from a random sample of the population would be shaped like a
bell. Most women's height are around 5'4" This value would occur most frequently, so it would
have the highest bar. Heights that are close to 5'4", such as 5'3" and 5'5" would have slightly
shorter bars. More extreme heights, such as 4'7" and 6'1" would have very short bars.
Double Barreled Question
A survey question whereby two separate ideas are erroneously presented together in one
question.
Double Blind Experiment
A research design where both the experimenter and the subjects are unaware of which is the
treatment group and which is the control.
Dummy Coding
A coding strategy where each value of a categorical variable is turned into its own dichotomous
variable. The dichotomous variable is coded as either 0 or 1. Dummy coding is used in
regression analysis to measure the effect of a categorical variable on the outcome when the
categorical variable has more than 2 values.
Dummy Variables
Categorical variables that are assigned a value of 0 or 1 for use in a statistical analysis (see
Dummy Coding).
Ecological Fallacy
False conclusions made by assuming that one can infer something about an individual from data
collected about groups.
Econometrics
A field of economics that applies mathematical statistics and the tools of statistical inference to
the empirical measurement of relationships postulated by economic theory.
Effect Size
A measure of the strength of the effect of the predictor (or independent) variable on the outcome
(or dependent) variable.
Endogeneity
A threat to the assumption that the independent (exogenous) variable actually causes the
dependent (or endogenous) variable. Endogeneity occurs when the dependent variable may
actually be a cause of the independent variable. Sometimes this is referred to as reverse causality.
For example, a researcher may note that states with the death penalty also have high murder
rates. The researcher may conclude that the death penalty causes an increase in the murder rate;
however, it could be that states that experience a high murder rate are more likely to institute the
death penalty. Endogeneity is the opposite of exogeneity.
Epistemology
A way of understanding and explaining how we know what we know. Each research
methodology is underpinned by an epistemology that serves as a guiding philosophy and
provides a concrete process of research steps.
Error
The difference between the actual observed data value and the predicted or estimated data value.
Predicted or estimated data values are calculated in statistical analyses, such as regression
analysis.
Estimated Sampling Error
The predictable and built-in level of error that accompanies all samples of a given size.
Ethnographic Decision Models
A qualitative method for examining behavior under specific circumstances. An EDM is often
referred to as a decision tree or flow chart and comprises a series of nested ¿if-then¿ statements
that link criteria (and combinations of criteria) to the behavior of interest.
Ethnographic Interviewing
A research method in which face-to-face interviews with respondents are conducted using open-
ended questions to explore topics in great depth. Questions are often customized for each
interview, and topics are generally probed extensively with follow-up questions.
Factor Analysis
An exploratory form of multivariate analysis that takes a large number of variables or objects
and aims to identify a small number of factors that explain the interrelations among the variables
or objects.
Fixed Effects Regression
Regression techniques that can be used to eliminate biases associated with the omission of
unmeasured characteristics. Biases are eliminated by including an individual-specific intercept
term for all cases.
Focus Group
An interview conducted with a small group of people, all at one time, to explore ideas on a
particular topic. The goal of a focus group is to uncover additional information through
participants' exchange of ideas.
Frequency Distribution
The frequency with which values of a variable occur in a sample or a population. To graph a
distribution, first the values of the variables are listed across the bottom of the graph. The
number of times the value occurs are listed up the side of the graph. A bar is drawn that
corresponds to how many times each value occurred in the data. For example, a graph of the
distribution of women's heights from a random sample of the population would be shaped like a
bell. Most women's height are around 5'4" This value would occur most frequently, so it would
have the highest bar. Heights that are close to 5'4", such as 5'3" and 5'5" would have slightly
shorter bars. More extreme heights, such as 4'7" and 6'1" would have very short bars.
GIS (Geographical Information Systems)
A computer system that enables one to assemble, store, manipulate, and display geographically
referenced information.
Gini Coefficient
A measure of inequality or dispersion in a group of values (e.g.; racial inequality in a
population). The larger the coefficient the greater the dispersion.

Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM)
A multi-level modeling procedure that works well for nested circumstances (e.g., estimating the
effects of children nested within classrooms nested within schools). HLM enables a researcher to
estimate effects within individual units, formulate hypotheses about cross level effects and
partition the variance and covariance components among levels.
Histogram
A visual presentation of data that shows the frequencies with which each value of a variable
occurs. Each value of a variable typically is displayed along the bottom of a histogram, and a bar
is drawn for each value. The height of the bar corresponds to the frequency with which that value
occurs.
Index
A type of composite measure that summarizes several specific observations and represents a
more general dimension.
Index Variable
A variable that is a summed composite of other variables that are assumed to reflect the same
underlying construct.
Inductive Method
A method of study that begins with specific observations and measures, from which patterns and
regularities are detected. These patterns lead to the formulation of tentative hypotheses, and
ultimately to the construction of general conclusions or theories
Jackknife Technique
A (usually) computer-intensive method to estimate parameters, and/or to gauge uncertainty in
these estimates. The name is derived from the method that each observation is removed (i.e. cut
with the knife) one at a time (or two at a time for the second-order Jackknife, and so on) in order
to get a feeling for the spread of data.
Kurtosis
A statistical equation that measures how peaked a distribution is. The kurtosis of a normal
distribution is 0. If kurtosis is different than 0, then the distribution is either flatter or more
peaked than normal.
Least Squares
A commonly used method for calculating a regression equation. This method minimizes the
difference between the observed data points and the data points that are estimated by the
regression equation.
Level of Significance
See significance level.
Likert Scale
A scale that on which survey respondents can indicate their level of agreement or disagreement
with a series of statements. The responses are often scaled and summed to give a composite
measure of attitudes about a topic.
Linear Regression
A statistical technique used to find a linear relationship between one or more (multiple)

continuous or categorical predictor (or independent) variables and a continuous outcome (or
dependent) variable.
Logit Model
A special form of regression used to analyze the relationship between predictor variables and a
categorical outcome variable.
MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance)
A statistical test that measures that varying group effects on many dependent variables.
Mean
A descriptive statistic used as a measure of central tendency. To calculate the mean, all the
values of a variable are added and then the sum is divided by the number of values. For example,
if the age of the respondents in a sample were 21, 35, 40, 46, and 76, the mean age of the sample
would be (21+35+40+46+76)/5 = 43.6
Median
A descriptive statistic used to measure central tendency. The median is the value that is the
middle value of a set of values. 50% of the values lie above the median, and 50% lie below the
median. For example, if a sample of individuals are ages 21, 34, 46, 55, and 76 the median age is
46.
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)
A term used by the U.S. Census Bureau to designate an area of adjacent counties (except in New
England where they are defined by adjacent cities). Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) are
often used to geographically understand labor markets because individuals often look for work
outside of the city or county in which they live.
Missing Completely at Random (MCAR)
The term implies that all respondents are equally likely/unlikely to respond to the item and that
the estimate is approximately unbiased. To ignore the missing data and restrict analyses to those
records with reported values for the variables in the analysis, implicitly invokes the assumption
that the missing cases are a random subsample of the full sample, that is, they are missing
completely at random (MCAR). This is a strong assumption.
Mode
A descriptive statistic that is a measure of central tendency. It is the value that occurs most
frequently in the data. For example, if survey respondents are ages 21, 33, 33, 45, and 76, the
modal age is 33.
Moving Average
A form of average which has been adjusted (or “smoothed”) to allow for seasonal or cyclical
components of a time series.
Multivariate Analysis
Any of several statistical methods for examining more than one predictor (independent) variable
or more than one outcome (dependent) variable or both. Allows researchers to examine the
relation between two variables while simultaneously controlling for the influence of other
variables.

Multivariate Probit Model
The multivariate probit model is a generalization of the bivariate probit, which includes several
distinct indicators as right-hand side variables.
Mutually Exclusive
Said of variables, events or conditions that can be placed into one category and no other. If there
is no overlapping part between two events, we say they are mutually exclusive. However,
mutually exclusive doesn’t mean the two events are independent.
Non-sampling Error
Errors that can occur at any phase of the sampling process. Non sampling error can result from
nonresponse to surveys or from mismeasurement of survey responses.
Normal Distribution
This distribution describes a frequency distribution of data points that resembles a bell shape.
(To graph a distribution, first the values of the variables are listed across the bottom of the graph.
The number of times the value occurs are listed up the side of the graph. A bar is drawn that
corresponds to how many times each value occurred in the data. See Frequency Distribution) In a
normal distribution, the mean data point is the most likely data point to occur, data points that are
equally higher or lower than the mean have an equal chance of occurring, and the farther a data
point is from the mean the less likely it is to occur. The normal distribution exhibits important
mathematical properties that are necessary for performing most statistical tests.
Null Hypothesis
This hypothesis states that there is no difference between groups. The alternative hypothesis
states that there is some real difference between two or more groups.
One-Way ANOVA
A test of whether the mean for more than two groups are different. For example, to test whether
the mean income is different for individuals who live in France, England, or Sweden, one would
use a one-way ANOVA.
P-Value
The probability that the results of a statistical test were due to chance. A p-value greater than .05
is usually interpreted to mean that the results were not statistically significant. Sometimes
researchers use a p-value of .01 or a p-value of .10 to indicate whether a result is statistically
significant. The lower the p-value the more rigorous the criteria for concluding significance.
Paired T-Test
This test is usually used to determine whether an intervention brought about a change in some
characteristic of respondents (e.g., respondents' math knowledge). To perform a paired t-test,
respondents' math knowledge would be measured prior to the intervention, then the intervention
would be performed (e.g., teaching a class on math), then respondent's math knowledge would
be measured after the intervention. The change from before to after the intervention is used to
assess whether the intervention was successful.
Parameter
A characteristic of a population.
Pearson's Correlational Coefficient
Usually denoted by r, this is a measure of the degree to which two variables are associated.
Pearson's correlational coefficient is used when the two variables are continuous. The coefficient
can range from -1 to +1. If the coefficient is between 0 and +1, the variables are positively
correlated, which means they both tend to increase at the same time. For example, height and
weight are positively correlated because as height increases weight also tends to increases. If the
coefficient is between 0 and -1, the variables are negatively correlated, which means as one
increases the other decreases. For example, number of police officers in a community and crime
rates are negatively correlated because as the number of police officers increase the crime rate
tends to decrease. The closer the coefficient is to either -1 or +1, the stronger the association
between the two variables. This is also called a Product Moment Correlation
Pilot Studies
A small scale research study that is conducted prior to the larger, final study. The pilot study
gives researchers a chance to identify any problems with their proposed sampling scheme,
methodology, or data collection process. These studies are very useful in accessing strengths and
weakness of a potential study.
Poisson Distribution
A distribution that describes the number of events that occur in a certain time interval or spatial
area. For example, the number of child care arrangements during a given period of time.
Population
A clearly defined group of people or objects. Samples are drawn from the population and
statistical results that are
Quasi-Experimental Research
Research in which individuals cannot be assigned randomly to two groups, but some
environmental factor influences who belongs to each group. For example, if researchers want to
look at the effects of smoking on health, they cannot ethically assign individuals to a group that
smokes and a group that does not smoke. Researchers might rely on some environmental factor,
for example an ad campaign that discourages smoking, to examine changes in health following
the campaign. The theory behind quasi-experimental designs is that following an environmental
intervention, individuals' characteristics play a smaller role in determining whether they smoke
or do not smoke, and thus membership in these groups is closer to random assignment.
R-Squared
A measure of how well the independent, or predictor, variables predict the dependent, or
outcome, variable. A higher R-square indicates a better model. The R-square denotes the
percentage of variation in the dependent variable that can be explained by the independent
variables. An Adjusted R-squared is a better comparison between models that have with different
numbers of variables and different sample sizes than is the R-Squared. Please see Adjusted R-
squared for more information.
Random Coefficient
A variable that varies in ways the researcher does not control. For instance, if research subjects
sign up for a study after seeing a posting asking for people between the ages of 20 and 24, age
would not be a random coefficient, but factors such as gender and race would be.
Random Error
An error that affects data measurements in a non-systematic way because of random chance.

Range
A measure of dispersion of data. The range is calculated by subtracting the value of the lowest
data point from the value of the highest data point.
Rank Order
A scale of objects presented to research subjects, Whereby they are asked to rank the objects
according to a specific criterion.
Rating Scale
A rating scale is a measuring instrument for which judgments are made in order to rate a subject
or case at a specified scale level with respect to an identified characteristic or characteristics.
Ratio
The quotient of two values.
Regression Analysis
A statistical technique that measure the relationship between a dependent (outcome) variable and
one or more independent (predictor) variables (see linear, logistic and multiple regression).
Regression Coefficient
A coefficient that is calculated for each independent (predictor) variable. The regression
coefficient indicates how much the dependent (outcome) variable will change, on average, with
each unit change in the independent variables.
Regression Equation
An mathematical equation that indicates the relationship between a dependent (outcome)
variable and one or more independent (predictor) variables. The equation indicates the extent to
which the dependent variables can be predicted by knowing the value of the independent
variables.
Sampling Error
Fluctuation in the value of a statistic that is calculated from different samples that are drawn
from the same population. For example, if several different samples of 5 people are drawn at
random from the U.S. population, the average income of the 5 people in those samples will vary.
(In one sample, Bill Gates may have been selected at random from the population, which would
lead to a very high mean income for that sample.) It is not incorrect to have sampling error, and
in fact statistical techniques take into account that sampling error will occur.
Scatter Plot
A display of the relationship between two quantitative or numeric variables. A scatter plot shows
the value of one variable plotted against the value of another variable.
Semantic Differential Scale
A type of categorical, non-comparative scale with two opposing adjectives separated by a
sequence of unlabelled categories.
Significance Level
The probability that a relationship observed in statistical analyses were actually due to chance.
The significance level is established before the statistical analysis is undertaken. If the statistical
tests indicate that the chances of finding the observed results are higher than the set significance

level, the results are "not significant." Significance levels are usually set at .05, which means that
significant results may actually be due to chance 5 out of 100 times.
Simple Linear Regression
A statistical technique that measure the relationship between a dependent (outcome) variable and
one independent (predictor) variable.
Simulation
A process whereby a researcher uses either a table or a computer program to produce random
digits to be used in studying random phenomena.
Skewness
The tendency of a distribution to depart from symmetry or balance.
Slope
The coefficient of the independent variable indicating the change in dependent variable per unit
change in the independent variable.
Sociogram
A display of networks of relationships among variables, designed to enable researchers to
identify the nature of relationships that would otherwise be too complex to conceptualize.
Spurious Relationship
A statistical association between two variables is produced by a third variable rather than by a
causal link between the two original variables. For example, children start school at the same
time of year that the leaves begin to fall from the trees. This does not mean that leaves falling
from trees affects when children start school or vice versa, instead both leaves falling from trees
and children starting school occur during autumn.
Standard Deviation
A measure of variability or dispersion of a set of data. The standard deviation (SD) is the square
root of the variance. It is calculated based on the difference between each individual observation
and the mean observation.
Standard Error
A measure of the extent to which the sample mean fluctuates. The standard error is the standard
deviation (SD) of the sample means. Conceptually, the standard error of the mean would be
calculated by selecting multiple samples at random from a population, calculating the mean for
each of the samples, then calculating the standard deviation of these sample means. Because only
one sample is generally drawn from a population for a research study, the standard error is
calculated by dividing the sample deviation by the number of the observations in the sample.
Generally speaking, the larger the sample, the smaller the standard error.
Statistic
A measure of the characteristics of a sample (e.g., the mean is a statistic that measures the
average of a sample). It gives an estimate of the same value for the population from which the
sample was selected.
Statistical Analysis
The principle of gathering data from a sample of individuals and using those data to make
inferences about the wider population from which the sample was drawn.

Statistical Significance
If there is a very small probability that a relationship observed in statistical analyses is due to
chance, the results are said to reach statistical significance. This means that the researcher
concludes that there is a real relationship between the observed variables or a real difference
between two groups. See Significance Level for additional information.
T Distribution
A symmetrical bell-shaped distribution that is used for testing samples smaller than 30 or where
the variance is unknown.
T-Test
A statistical test that is used to compare the means of two samples or the mean of one sample
with some fixed value. The test is appropriate for small sample sizes (less than 30).
Target Population
The population to which the researcher would like to generalize her or his results based on
analysis of a sample. The sample is selected from a target population.
Test-Retest Reliability
The degree to which a measure produces consistent results over several administrations.
Theoretical Sampling
The selection of individuals within a naturalistic research study based on emerging findings as
the study progresses to ensure that key issues are adequately represented.
Time Series
A sequence of observations which are ordered in time or space.
Two-Tailed Test
A type of test that is used when a researcher is unsure of whether the independent (predictor)
variable has a positive or negative effect on the dependent (outcome) variable.
Two-Way ANOVA
A statistical test to study the effect of two categorical independent variables on a continuous
outcome variable. Two-way ANOVAs analyze the direct effect of the independent variables on
the outcome, as well as the interaction of the independent variables on the outcome.
Type I Error
An error that occurs when a researcher concludes that a statistically significant relationship
between two variables exists (based on the analysis of the sample), when in fact it the
relationship does not exist in the population from which the sample was selected. The probability
of making a type I error is decided at the outset of the statistical analysis. This probability is also
called a significance level.
Type II Error
An error that occurs when a researcher concludes that no significant relationship between two
variables (based on analysis of sample data) when in fact the relationship does exist in the
population from which the sample was drawn. The probability of not making a type II error is
also called the power of a statistical test.

Univariate Analysis
Examination of the properties of one variable only and not the relationship between variables.
Generally univariate analysis is performed by examining the mean and standard deviation of a
variable.
Variance
A commonly used measure of dispersion for variables. The variance is calculated by squaring the
standard deviation. The variance is based on the square of the difference between the values for
each observation and the mean value.
Z Score
A score that is produced by subtracting the mean value from an individual data value and
dividing by the standard deviation. This standardizes data values and allows for individual data
values from different distributions (distributions with different means and standard deviations) to
be compared.
Z Test
A statistical test that is used to compare the means of two samples or the mean of one sample
with some fixed value. The test is appropriate for larger samples (over 30) and for smaller
samples in which the variance of the population is known.

Unit 2 - Research Aptitude

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Research Aptitude

UGC NET STUDY MATERIAL

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Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve

Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data.

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions.

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A. Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon,

B. Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a

D. Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate

In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

Based on Inquiry Mode:

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It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without

e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of

In many studies, there is a combination of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

Positivism and Post positivism Approach to Research

Positivists believe in five principles which include

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So, we can define it as

Types of Research Design (Brief)

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Research Methods Vs. Research Design

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• Descriptive or Survey Method

Descriptive or Survey Method

(a) Descriptive survey is of four types

• Testing survey method,

a) Documents and various historical sources to which historians have access

The historical method can be classified into three types:

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It is oriented towards the discovery of basic relationship among phenomenon as means of

1 Simple experimental design

Qualitative Methods and Quantitative Methods

Qualitative Research (QR) is way to gain a deeper understanding of an event, organization or

Qualitative research uses non-statistical methods to gain understanding about a population.

Types of Qualitative Research Methods:

Quantitative Research Method is about collecting and analysing data to explain

• What percentage of high school teachers belong to minority groups?

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Methods for Quantitative Research

Differences Between Qualitative Method and Quantitative Methods

Methods include focus groups, in-depth Surveys, structured interviews &

More subjective: describes a problem or More objective: provides observed effects

Unstructured or semi-structured response Fixed response options

No statistical tests Statistical tests are used for analysis

Less generalizable More generalizable

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The research process is like undertaking a journey.

2) How to go about finding their answers?

Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem

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• People: a group of individuals

• Programs: to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention

• Phenomena: to establish the existence of regularity.

Every research study has two aspects:

Considerations in selecting a research problem: