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Chapter 1
Induction heating Basics
1. Introduction

All IH (induction heating) applied systems are developed using electromagnetic induction
which was first discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831. Electromagnetic induction refers
to the phenomenon by which electric current is generated in a closed circuit by the
fluctuation of current in another circuit placed next to it. The basic principle of induction
heating, which is an applied form of Faraday’s discovery, is the fact that AC current
flowing through a circuit affects the magnetic movement of a secondary circuit located
near it. The fluctuation of current inside the primary circuit provided the answer as to
how the mysterious current is generated in the neighboring secondary circuit. Faraday’s
discovery led to the development of electric motors, generators, transformers, and
wireless communications devices. Its application, however, has not been flawless. Heat
loss, which occurs during the induction heating process, was a major headache
undermining the overall functionality of a system. Researchers sought to minimize heat
loss by laminating the magnetic frames placed inside the motor or transformer. Faraday’s
Law was followed by a series of more advanced discoveries such as Lenz’s Law. This
law explains the fact that inductive current flow inverse to the direction of changes in
induction magnetic movement. Heat loss, occurring in the process of electromagnetic
induction, could be turned into productive heat energy in an electric heating system by
applying this law. Many industries have benefited from this new breakthrough by
implementing induction heating for furnacing, quenching, and welding. In these
applications, induction heating has made it easier to set the heating parameters without
the need of an additional external power source. This substantially reduces heat loss
while maintaining a more convenient working environment. Absence of any physical
contact to heating devices precludes unpleasant electrical accidents. High energy density
is achieved by generating sufficient heat energy within a relatively short period of time.
The demand for better quality, safe and less energy consuming products is rising.
Products using IH include electronic rice cookers and pans. Safe, efficient and quick

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heating appliances attract more customers. This document describes induction heating,
power systems, and IH applications.

2. Types of Electric Process Heating

Prior to describing induction heating, some types of electric process heating are explained
below to help you understand normally used heat sources.

The types of electric heating are as follows:

• Resistance Heating
• Conduction Heating
• Infrared Radiation Heating
• Induction Heating
• Dielectric Hysteresis Heating
• Electric Arc Heating
• Plasma Heating
• Electron Beam Heating
• Laser Heating

Resistance heating is the most common type of electric process heating. It uses the
relationship between the voltage and current of resistance in Joule’s Law. Conduction
heating exploits the heat energy generated when an object is placed between two electric
poles, which is another application of Joule’s Law. In this case, however, a different
relationship exists between voltage and current, especially when the circuit current is
high, because the object itself contains both resistance and inductance features. The main
topic of this document is induction heating, which is a combination of electromagnetic
induction, the skin effect, and the principle of heat transfer. In short, induction heating
refers to the generation of heat energy by the current and eddy current created on the
surface of a conductive object (according to Faraday’s Law and the skin effect) when it is
placed in the magnetic field, formed around a coil, where the AC current flows through

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(Ampere’s Law). Detailed descriptions of induction heating are presented in the

following sections of the document.

3. Basics of Induction Heating

Induction heating is comprised of three basic factors: electromagnetic induction, the skin
effect, and heat transfer. The fundamental theory of IH, however, is similar to that of a
transformer. Electromagnetic induction and the skin effect are described in this section.
Figure 3-1 illustrates a very basic system, consisting of inductive heating coils and
current, to explain electromagnetic induction and the skin effect. Figure 3-1-a shows the
simplest form of a transformer, where the secondary current is in direct proportion to the
primary current according to the turn ratio. The primary and secondary losses are caused
by the resistance of windings and the link coefficient between the two circuits is 1.
Magnetic current leakage is ignored here.

When the coil of the secondary is turned only once and short-circuited, there is a
substantial heat loss due to the increased load current (secondary current). This is
demonstrated in Figure 3-1-b. Figure 3-1-c shows a system where the energy supplied
from the source is of the same amount as the combined loss of the primary and
secondary. In these figures, the inductive coil of the primary has many turns while the
secondary is turned only once and short-circuited. The inductive heating coil and the load
are insulated from each other by a small aperture. The next phase of the skin effect
occurring under high frequency is presented in Section 3-2. As the primary purpose of
induction heating is to maximize the heat energy generated in the secondary, the aperture
of the inductive heating coil is designed to be as small as possible and the secondary is
made with a substance featuring low resistance and high permeability. Nonferrous metals
undermine energy efficiency because of their properties of high resistance and low
permeability.

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Figure 3-1: Basics of Induction Heating

3-1. Electromagnetic Induction

As shown in Figure 3-1, when the AC current enters a coil, a magnetic field is formed
around the coil according to Ampere’s Law.

 Hdl  Ni  F (Formula 3-1)

  HA

An object put into the magnetic field causes a change in the velocity of the magnetic
movement. The density of the magnetic field wanes as the object gets closer to the center

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from the surface. According to Faraday’s Law, the current generated on the surface of a
conductive object has an inverse relationship with the current on the inducting circuit as
described in Formula 3-2. The current on the surface of the object generates an eddy
current.

d d
E N (Formula 3-2)
dt dt
As a result, the electric energy caused by the induced current and eddy current is
converted to heat energy as shown in Formula 3-3.

P=E2  R=i2R (Formula 3-3)

Here, resistance is determined by the resistivity (ρ) and permeability (μ) of the
conductive object.
Current is determined by the intensity of the magnetic field. Heat energy is in an inverse
relationship with skin depth which is described in Section 3-2. If an object has conductive
properties like iron, additional heat energy is generated due to magnetic hysteresis. The
amount of heat energy created by hysteresis is in proportion to the size of the hysteresis.
In this document, this additional energy is ignored because it is far smaller (less than
10%) than the energy generated by induction current.

3-2. Skin Effect

The higher the frequency of the current administered to the coil, the more intensive is the
induced current flowing around the surface of the load. The density of the induced
current diminishes when flowing closer to the center as shown in Formula 3-4 and 3-5
below. This is called the skin effect or kelvin effect. From this effect, one can easily infer
that the heat energy converted from electric energy is concentrated on the skin depth
(surface of the object).

iX = ioe –x/ do (Formula 3-4)

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where,
ix: distance from the skin (surface) of the object, current density at x.
Io: current density on skin depth (x=0)
do: a constant determined by the frequency (current penetration depth or skin depth)

2
do  (Formula 3-5)

where,

ρ: resistivity
μ: permeability of the object
: Frequency of the current flowing through the object

Formula 3-5 states that the skin thickness is determined by the resistivity, permeability,
and frequency of the object. Figure 3-2 below is the distribution chart of current density
in relation to skin thickness.

Figure 3-2: Distribution Chart of Current Density and Skin Thickness

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Chapter 2
Theory of Induction Heating

1. Power Transfer: simplified calculation

The load of an induction installation is heated because of the Joule effect as a result of
induced eddy currents. The simple formula P=RIÄ cannot be used because the distribution
of the currents over the conductor is not uniform.
In General, one can state:

    d  h  H 2         r  f  C  F

d : diameter of the cylinder [m]

h : height of the cylinder [m]
H : magnetic field intensity [A/m]
ρ : resistivity [Ω.m]
μo : magnetic permeabity of vacuum
(4π x.10-7 H/m)
μr : relative permeability
f : frequency [Hz]
C : coupling factor
F : power transmission factor

The last two terms in the formula are correction factors:

F (power transmission factor):

Takes into account the relation between the penetration depth and the external
dimensions of the load. F depends on the geometry of the load;

C (coupling factor):

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Corrects for the relative dimensions of the inductor and the load. The correction is
smaller as the inductor is longer and the airgap between the inductor and the load is
smaller.

Conclusions resulting from these formulas:

 the power can be increased by an increase in the magnetic field intensity

H. This means increasing the number of ampere-windings of the inductor;
 an increase of the frequency only leads to a relative small increase in the
power. Moreover, the losses in the supply increase and the penetration
depth gets smaller;
 material characteristics play an important part (ρ and especially μr).
For ferromagnetic materials the added power drops when the Curie
temperature is exceeded (μr=1 if T>TCurie).

2. Electrical efficiency

The electrical efficiency is defined as follows:


e 
  i

P : power, induced in the load

Pi : power, dissipated in the inductor

Also the efficiency is strongly influenced by the relation diameter/penetration depth (in
case of cylindrical load). Finally, also the design of the inductor is important. Here, the
following points of attention apply:
 For the inductor, use a material with small resistance. Usually, electrolytic
copper is applied;
 Use an inductor with a small distance between the windings;
 Provide a good connection between the inductor and the load (limitation
of the airgap, make the inductor sufficiently long).

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3. Power factor

The whole of the inductor and the load usually represents an important reactive power.
On the one hand, there is the air gap between the inductor and the load and on the other
hand, the load itself has an inductive character, depending on the relation d/δ (in case
of a cylinder).
The power factor of the inductor and the load usually lies around 0.05-0.6. In all cases,
compensation by means of condensers is required.

4. Penetration & Current Density

The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a material is affected by the frequency of the
excitation current and the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the
specimen. The depth of penetration decreases with increasing frequency and increasing
conductivity and magnetic permeability. The depth at which eddy current density has
decreased to 1/e, or about 37% of the surface density, is called the standard depth of
penetration (δ). The word 'standard' denotes plane wave electromagnetic field excitation
within the test sample (conditions which are rarely achieved in practice). Although eddy
currents penetrate deeper than one standard depth of penetration, they decrease rapidly
with depth. At two standard depths of penetration (2δ), eddy current density has
decreased to 1/e squared or 13.5% of the surface density. At three depths (3δ), the eddy
current density is down to only 5% of the surface density.

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The penetration depth can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations. For a cylindrical load
with a diameter that is much bigger than δ, the formula is as follows:


 [m]
   f
ρ : resistivity [Ω.m]
μr : magnetical permeability [H/m] (μ=μo.μr)
t : frequency [Hz]

We see that the penetration depth, on the one hand, depends on the characteristics of the
material to be heated (ρ, μ) and, on the other hand, is also influenced by the frequency.
The frequency dependence offers a possibility to control the penetration depth.
The following table gives an idea of the order of magnitude of δ.

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As can be derived from the formula above, the penetration depth is inversely proportional
to the square root of μr.
For non-magnetic materials like copper or aluminum the relative magnetic permeability
is μr=1.
Ferromagnetic materials (iron, many types of steel) on the contrary, have a μr -value that
is much higher. Therefore, these materials generally show a more explicit skin effect
(smaller δ). The magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic materials strongly depends on
the composition of the materials and on the circumstances (temperature, magnetic field
intensity, saturation). Above the Curie temperature μr suddenly drops again to μr =1,
which implies a rapid increase of the penetration depth.

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Chapter3
Different components of induction heater

1. LC Resonant circuit

It comprises of an L and C connected in parallel along with them there is a load is

represented by a resistance connected in parallel to them.

The inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance are given by:

The resonance frequency is given by:

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At the resonance frequency, the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance become
the same, i.e. the capacitive current and inductive current becomes same and current in
the circuit become maximum. The supply frequency for LC circuit is needed to be equal
to resonance frequency because at this frequency Power output is maximum and the
current in the circuit is resistive only supplying power to the load and to the losses
occurring in the circuit.

a) Inductor

The inductor used is air cored hollow copper tube helical coil with 7 turns. The
diameter of the coil is 10cm and the length of the coil is 12cm
The inductance of such type of inductor is given by:

Now N=7

The calculate inductance from the above formula is 2.3μH.

b) Capacitor

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The capacitor used in the circuit is high current 1μF, 2000V rated bipolar
electrolytic type. They employ polypropylene as dielectric and are designed with
double metallic paper as electrodes. The end metallised coils are connected to
outer threaded terminals through sturdy electrical jointing techniques to enable
these capacitors to handle high currents.

c) Frequency

The resonant frequency for this combination of capacitor and inductor is given by:
1
f 
2 LC
Here L=2.3μH.
And C=1.0μF
Hence the frequency comes out to be 104Khz.

2. Current source inverter

In the current-source inverters (CSIs), input current is constant but adjustable. The
amplitude of output current from CSI is independent of the load. However, the magnitude
of output voltage and its waveform from CSI is dependent upon the nature of load
impedance. The dc input to CSI is obtained from a fixed voltage ac source through a
controlled rectifier bridge and a chopper. In order that current input to CSI is almost
ripple free, L-filter is used before CSI.

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A CSI converts the input dc current to an ac current at its output terminals. The output
frequency of ac current depends upon the rate of triggering the SCRs. The amplitude of
ac output current can be adjusted by controlling the magnitude of dc input current.

2-1Single-phase CSI with Ideal Switches

Here is a thyristors is assumed an ideal switch with zero commutation time. Positive
directions for load voltage vo and load current io are indicated in Fig. The source consists
of a voltage source E and a large inductance L in series with it. The function of high-
Impedence reactors in series with voltage source is to maintain a constant current at the
input terminals of CSI. In other words, dc input current I to CSI is constant.
When T1,T2 are on, load current io is positive and equal to I. When T3, T4 are on, load
current io is negative and equal to – I. The output frequency of io can be varied by
controlling the frequency of triggering the thyristor pairs T1, T2 and T3,T4. The output
current io is a square wave of amplitude equal to the dc input current I.

Power circuit diagram

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I
0
io
I

Vo

0
T/2 T 3T/2

Vin
0

Freq 2f

Waveforms for an ideal single –phase CSI

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Chapter 4
Practical Design

1. Circuit
High inductance
fluorescent light choke

S2
S1 IRFP460 IRFP460
1μF,
DC 2000V
Supply

S3 S4
IRFP460 IRFP460

In practical circuit the H-bridge is formed by N-Channel High Current MOSFET

IRFP460.The series inductor is formed using fluorescent lamp choke.

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Switching waveforms:-

Vg1

Overlap
Period

Vg2

S1,S4

S2,S3

Here Vg1 and Vg2 are gate signal.

An overlap period is must in case of CSI because an inductor is employed in series with
the circuit now if an overlap period is not provided then the inductor will act as an open
circuit which could cause over voltage and damage the MOSFET switches.

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2. Inverter operation
During 1st cycle
High inductance
fluorescent light choke

S2
S1

LOAD

S3 S4

During 2nd cycle

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3. Gate triggering circuit:-

Desired waveform

Now you can see that is the desired waveform an overlap is provided now this overlap
can be produced with microcontroller at a very high frequency. Now for this purpose we
have used 8SS51 microcontroller which is an ISP (in system programmable) and
advanced version of 8051.
Two ports of 89551 are being used as output port on which gate signal are being
produced.

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Program
org 0h
Clr P0.0
Clr P0.1

LOOP: Setb P1.0

Setb P1.1
nop
Clr P1.1
nop;1
nop;2
nop;3
nop;4
nop;5
nop;6
nop;7
nop;8
nop;9
nop;10
nop;11
nop;12
nop;13
Setb P1.1
nop
Clr P1.0
nop;1
nop;2
nop;3
nop;4
nop;5
nop;6

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nop;7
nop;8
nop;9
nop;10
nop;11
nop;12
nop;13
sjmp LOOP
end

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