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© 2018 University of South Africa

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Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

PUB2619/1/2019–2021

70472688


ONLY STUDY GUIDE FOR

Public Human Resource management II

CONTENT

Page

PREFACE     
v

HOW TO USE THIS STUDY GUIDE       vi

OVERVIEW OF THIS MODULE    

vii

LEARNING UNIT 1
Integrated human resources 1

LEARNING UNIT 2
Human Resources Strategy and Planning 20

LEARNING UNIT 3
Recruitment 47

LEARNING UNIT 4
Selection 55

LEARNING UNIT 5
Employee training 71

LEARNING UNIT 6
Institutional culture 101

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iv
 Preface

Public management is a dynamic field of study that has to adapt constantly

1

to a range of environmental influences. These environmental influences,

which can be related to the open-systems approach, demand that public
managers be flexible, while at the same time demonstrating accountability
towards the clients they serve.

Public institutions have a responsibility towards their clients. This, in essence,

1

means that public institutions must deliver services and products to the public
in order to improve their welfare and general wellbeing. To put it in another
way, public institutions and the people who work in them are responsible for
creating an enabling environment in which the public can prosper.

The whole course, and this module in particular, was designed and developed
1

to fulfil a need expressed by public institutions operating at local, provincial

and national level in South Africa. The environment in which public
institutions operate has changed, and this has made new qualifications
necessary. Qualifications in public administration and management have
therefore been recurriculated.

The recurriculation of the qualifications in public administration and manage-

1

ment has made the study of different topics necessary. The aim, therefore,
was to develop a complete course that would cover all the knowledge, skills
and competencies that a public manager requires to deliver quality services
to the public. Each module is intended as a unique contribution to the field
of public management and to provide public managers with the necessary
skills and competencies to manage their institutions effectively and efficiently.

1 Lecturers

1 Public Administration and Management

1 2017

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 How to use this study guide

This study guide has been compiled with the goal of providing learners, who
1

may ultimately join the management corps of the public sector, with the
necessary knowledge, information and sensitivity to deal effectively with a
number of issues in South African society. It is intended to serve as a basis and
guideline for the implementation of management functions and processes,
as well as a useful source of information for those who simply wish to orient
themselves with regard to the environment, functions and processes of the
public sector.

The study guide includes the following components to guide and support
1

you in achieving your personal and work objectives in mastering the public
management functions and processes in the South African public sector.

The study guide starts with an overview that shows you the content of the
1

module. This gives you an indication of the module structure.

Units are based on learning outcomes and start with learning objectives
1

in line with SAQA (South African Qualifications Authority) requirements and

compliant with the NQF (National Qualifications Framework) guidelines.
These learning objectives tell you what you should be able to do by the end
of each learning unit and during formal assessment.

In the text you will find activities that will help you focus your attention so
1

that you remain objective with regard to the learning content. These activities
should provide you with some of the answers that you will need in order to
complete the self-assessment questions at the end of each learning unit.
The self-assessment questions are intended to help you to understand and
apply the key aspects of the unit.

The self-assessment questions form an extensive question bank that is used

1

in other forms of assessment during the course. For example, we use the
question bank when we compile your assignments. In other words, if you
work systematically through all the activities and self-assessment questions in
the study guide you should not have any difficulty in answering the assignment
questions. The same goes for the final examinations. The examinations
are set from the self-assessment questions at the end of each learning unit
and are in line with the learning objectives at the beginning of each unit.

vi
 Overview of this module

This module deals with public human resource management. It has

1

been divided into various units to facilitate the learning process.

1These learning units are:

1Learning unit 1: Integrated human resources
1Learning unit 2: Human resources strategy and planning and placement
1Learning unit 3: Recruitment
1Learning unit 4: Selection
1Learning unit 5: Employee training
1Learning unit 6: Institutional culture

The units have all been written in an interactive style to ensure that you
1

are able to follow the content of the module. In order to illustrate the theory,
numerous examples have been provided to explain the information in a
practical way.

Please note that this module is a precursor to Public Human Resources

1

Management IIB (PUB2609), which is partitioned into the following learning

units:

1Learning unit 1: Human resource development

1Learning unit 2: Employee motivation
1Learning unit 3: Performance management
1Learning unit 4: Managing diversity
1Learning unit 5: Leadership
1Learning unit 6: Labour Relations
1Learning unit 7: Change management

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viii
 1
LEARNING UNIT

Integrated human resources

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1 After studying this unit, you should be able to:

ƒƒ explain the basic principles of integrated human resource management

(IHRM)
ƒƒ discuss the influence of each component of IHRM on the other aspects
of human resource management
ƒƒ discuss the historical development of human resource management and
how it changed or influenced current human resource practices
ƒƒ explain how the socioeconomic issues in South Africa affect workplace
practices

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit we will discuss the various aspects which constitute the
1

efficient and effective management of human resources. Human resources

are a vital component in any institution. After policies have been created,
finances made available, job functions organised, procedures determined
and control mechanisms instituted, it is necessary to make provision for
the contracting of staff to carry out all these functions and to make the
vision, mission and goals of the specific institution operational. However,
the employment of human resources to carry out these functions is not an
isolated or a one-off event; it is an ongoing process and needs a holistic or
integrated approach to ensure the optimal utilisation of all staff.

1.2 THE HISTORY OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The forces of change create a complex and dynamic world, one in which
1

decisions must be made quickly and implemented competently. It is a world

where the management of human resources becomes part of everyone’s
job – most important, it is part of the operating manager’s job. There is no
longer time to wait for centralised staff to tell us what to do. The chief human
resource managers must be the line operating managers. They are closest
to the day-to-day activities and know what needs to be done. Staff groups
can provide expertise, but line managers are responsible for understanding

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current human resource management practices and delivering results. The

best way to understand the tools, programmes and procedures available to
manage human resources is to review how they were developed. This will
be discussed in the sections below.

1.2.1 Early institutions

The way in which society and institutions were managed in ancient Rome two
1

thousand years ago provides us with useful lessons today. The management
of people was based on several assumptions.

Specialist training
The Romans assumed that work could be best done by people who were
1

specialists trained in one set of responsibilities. As a result, transportation,

government, supplies and materials, military protection and crafts became the
responsibility of groups who were experts in their respective areas. Institutions
were structured to create job specialists through training.

Institutional hierarchy
Management was the responsibility of specialists. Coordination was done
1

through an institutional hierarchy in which each person reported to a

supervisor, who reported to a manager, who, in turn, reported to an executive.
This formed a chain of command through which all communication and
coordination was carried out.

Reward and punishment

Managers were responsible for motivating people to do the jobs assigned to
1

them. Naturally people would not do the job unless they had reasons to work
in the form of rewards and punishments. The managers motivated people by
controlling the rewards subordinates received for performing their jobs, and
the punishments handed out if subordinates did not do their work. These
elements of human resource management – specialisation by skill, coordination
through hierarchy and motivation by reward and punishment – prevailed
through the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution.

Some of the principles discussed above are still applicable in today’s

1

workplace. In the table below, mark those principles that you think are
obsolete (in other words, no longer applicable) with an “X,” and tick ()
those that you think are still applicable to today’s workplace.

X 1 
There is a need for specific training for some types of jobs.
Specialists should bear the responsibility for management.
Communication can be improved through a hierarchical
structure (chain of command).

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 LEARNING UNIT 1:  Integrated human resources

Managers should reward people if they work well.

If people do not receive feedback in the form of rewards or
punishment, they will not do their work.
Subordinates are managed better through timed and controlled
rewards and punishment.
Coordination through hierarchy is the best management method.

You might have to review your answers after studying the sections below.

1.2.2 The Industrial Revolution

In the early 1800s Western Europe and North America began to change
1

from agricultural to industrial societies. Prior to the Industrial Revolution,

the home and family farm were the centres of activity. All activities were
controlled by the family. Small groups of people worked cooperatively in
small cottage industries and the family farm produced much of what was
consumed. During the 1800s, machinery and factories began to take over
the production of goods and services. Factories could produce faster and
more cheaply than the small home production systems. In order to run the
machinery and the factories, people were brought together and organised
according to the traditional principles of human resource management.

When implemented, these principles forced changes in the way work was
1

done. Professional managers were required to coordinate the work specia-

lists. People had to be available at a predictable time because they had to
work together. Flexible schedules were not possible. Everyone came to work
at the same time and went home at the same time. Work was standardised
to produce predictable results. Rigorous work rules were established for
employees – t h i s wa s in contrast to the farm and cottage industries,
where everyone worked together and no real social distinction existed.
Hierarchies were established in which foremen, supervisors, managers and
executives had to coordinate the work of many people. This increased social
distinction in the institution.

This mode of operation was efficient, but the factory work brought problems
1

with it such as long hours, low wages, child labour, monotony, boredom and

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alienation. Rather than training people in crafts and having them work in small
groups carrying out projects from beginning to end, people now operated
complex machines, did repetitive work and were responsible for only a small
part of any project.

During this period, labour was viewed as a commodity to be bought, used

1

and then discarded when it could no longer contribute to the institution.

People worked long hours in extremely poor conditions. Employees worked
an average of 75 hours per week in the United States and 69 hours in
England. The long hours and poor conditions were probably not dramatically
different from conditions on the farm or cottage, but the difference was
that employees lost the flexibility they had had, control over their own time,
autonomy in making decisions, and the satisfaction of working with family
and close friends. They now worked with and for strangers in a controlled
environment away from home.

You may be aware of other labour relations problems or issues facing employers
in South Africa. Give examples of these problems or issues under the headings
below.

SEXUAL HARASSMENT

HARD LABOUR LABOUR CHILD LABOUR

(WAGE GAPS) RELATED
PROBLEMS

DISCRIMINATION

Many practices we consider inhumane today were common during this period.
1

Slavery and indentured servitude were often used to obtain a workforce.

Some people bound themselves as servants to do whatever their masters
wanted for an average of four years in return for money to pay for their
passage to a new beginning. Among these indentured servants were many
of the carpenters, masons, printers, shipbuilders, tailors and others who were
to become master craftspeople. Their experience and expertise made the
Industrial Revolution possible. Others came unwillingly in slave ships, forced

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 LEARNING UNIT 1:  Integrated human resources

from their homes and families. They became the labour force to replace the
farm workers who had left, and they also took on the undesirable factory jobs.

Children were another source of labour in the factories. They were paid
1

extremely low wages and worked long hours. In the coal mines of England,
adult miners worked 9 to 11 hours a day, and the children worked 14 to 15
hours. In 1829 boys of 7 years and older were employed in Philadelphia
factories from dawn to dusk. Child labour was the first area of abuse of
human resources where government stepped in to improve the situation. In
the early 1800s, both the United States and Britain passed laws forbidding
the employment of children under the age of 9 and restricted the hours that
older children were required to work.

In order to protect themselves against exploitation, workers banded together

1

in associations to demand better working conditions and higher wages.

Initially these associations met with heavy resistance. In 1806, a group of
people in Philadelphia called the Cordwainers were found guilty of criminal
conspiracy in their attempts to improve working conditions and raise wages.
The conspiracy doctrine prohibiting collective action by workers became the
first law of the land. However, this law was overturned in 1842 and the unions
were permitted to strike for higher wages.

How do you think the Industrial Revolution affects the way in which we
1

carry out our work today?

1.2.3 Scientific management

From the Industrial Revolution came scientific management, which focused on

1

machinery and technology. In the 1800s and 1900s machines dominated the
workplace. The key to managing people lay in helping them work as well as
possible with machines. For example, the invention of the combine harvester
revolutionised commercial farming and improved food production. Scientific
management made the production of goods more efficient by finding the
single most efficient way of performing various operations and then making
sure workers employed that method. Frederick W Taylor is regarded as the
father of scientific management. He was an engineer, and his interest lay in
the production of steel. He applied the following four underlying principles of
management. Notice how each principle affects the ways in which people
work.

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The development of a true science: the systematic observation, classification

1

and tabulation of jobs as they are carried out and the division of the job into
the simplest components that can be dealt with by one person.

The scientific selection of workers: select people with the skills and
1

capacities necessary to efficiently carry out the simple components into

which the job was divided.

The workers’ scientific education and development: train the workers how
1

to do the job in the best way. Do not allow them to develop their own way
of doing the job; rather teach them the best way to do the job, which has
been developed from the systematic observation of other people doing
the same work.

Intimate, friendly cooperation between management and the worker:

1

coordinate the worker and the manager. The manager is to plan and organise
work; the worker is to do the job in the way that has been planned and
organised. In order to be successful, the manager and worker must
understand and cooperate with each other.

Scientific management was the dominant approach to managing people

1

until between 1910 and 1920, when managers began to notice that this way
did not always work. Many of the problems and constraints experienced in
institutions arose as a result of employees being forced into standardised
work. They became bored, and many fought back by deliberately reducing
production and destroying equipment.

1.2.4 Industrial psychology

The failures of scientific management brought about recognition of the
1

importance of the individual in the workplace. This principle formed the

foundation of industrial psychology. Industrial psychology is the study of
workplace behaviours and the factors that influence employer/employee
relations. Hugo Munsterberg was an early industrial psychologist who focused
on understanding and measuring individual employees so they could be
properly placed and trained to perform their jobs. He was an experimental
psychologist and physician at Harvard University, who applied what he knew
from these fields to the recruitment, selection and training of workers. His
most notable contributions were methods for analysing jobs in terms of their
mental and emotional requirements and the development of testing devices
to help people perform their jobs better. An example of Munsterberg’s
work is his experiments in the telephone industry. Work at a switchboard
is tedious and tiring. He constructed a series of tests on space perception,
intelligence and dexterity with a group of switchboard operators and found
that those who performed well in the tests also performed better on the job.
The conclusion was that the test could be administered to job applicants
before they were hired, and those who scored well would be hired because
they would be most likely to perform better on the job.

Although industrial psychology shifted the focus of human resource

1

management to the individual, most of the tools and techniques of this

period were still aimed at improving technical efficiency. It was not until the
human relations era that the focus shifted from technology to the needs and
concerns of individuals.

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 LEARNING UNIT 1:  Integrated human resources

Think of your own personal needs in the workplace and how they can be
1

satisfied, and use this information to complete the table below.

PERSONAL WORKPLACE HOW THEY CAN BE SATISFIED

NEEDS

1.2.5 Human relations

The human relations approach to managing human resources developed
1

from the interest in people which was initiated by industrial psychology. If

engineering the job and then moulding people to fit the job was not working,
management could perhaps improve productivity by determining what
people wanted out of work and engineering jobs to suit them. The human
relations approach emphasised improving relationships between supervisors
and subordinates and between employees and their peers. Management
recognised the existence of an informal institution controlled by employees
that influenced much of what happened in the institution.

The human relations era began in the mid-1920s when Elton Mayo, Fritz
1

Roethlisberger, T. North Whitehead and others at the Harvard Business

School were testing the effect of the physical work environment on productivity
at the Hawthorne Works of Western Electric in Chicago. The hypothesis was
that lighting and ventilation were directly related to productivity and that if
the proper amount of each was determined, productivity would increase.
In their research, they found that social factors such as group pressure,
informal group norms, relationships with supervisors and other social factors
played as much of a role in productivity as the physical environment did.
The motto of this period became, “a happy worker is a productive worker”.
Hence management’s focus shifted towards keeping workers happy. However,
management will always have its own interests, which will differ from those
of the employees. This is depicted in the diagram below.

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Figure 1.1: The relationship between the interests of management and

employees

During this period, personnel departments emerged, and with them increasing
1

emphasis on wages, compensation, illness benefits and vacation. Personnel

specialists able to develop and implement personnel programmes in each
of these areas were added to centralised personnel who reported to top
management.

1.2.6 Quality of life

In the 1960s, after 40 years of dominance by the human relations movement,
1

managers began to realise that the solution to the productivity problem did not
lie in either the job or the employee, but in a combination of the two. This
came to be referred to as the quality of life era. During this period, managers
endeavoured to improve productivity by doing the following:

During this period, governments began to exert tremendous pressure on

1

employers to improve the working environment. Laws emphasising the

importance of equal employment opportunities, safety and health and the
protection of retirement income were passed. At the same time, governments
were using laws to influence the nature of work. Employers began to
encourage quality circles, productivity improvement programmes, quality
of work life projects, worker participation projects and worker councils. All of
these were focused on getting the worker involved in solving the productivity

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 LEARNING UNIT 1:  Integrated human resources

Figure 1.2: Quality of life

problems of institutions. Managers became concerned about both the job

1

and the worker, and saw productivity to be the result of the correct match
between jobs and people.

1.2.7 Strategic management

Current demographic, socioeconomic and technological changes require
1

new approaches to the management of human resources. Today we are

moving from an industrial to a service-oriented society. The new industries
and products that are likely to emerge will require that institutions work with
people in innovative ways.

As we move into a service-oriented and information-based society, the

1

management of human resources will take on added significance. We must

anticipate the contributions people can make to our products and services,
and structure institutions in such a way as to encourage their input. The
demands for a quick response, quality and flexibility will require us to organise
project teams, cross-functional work groups, product development groups,
task forces and quality circles. We will have to be constantly concerned with
integrating other functional departments and units. These forces combine
with one another to create a dynamic and fast-moving environment in
which employees will demand much more sophistication in the practices
and procedures that manage them.

In the past, human resource programmes and procedures could be applied

1

in similar ways in all institutions, with minor modifications. As institutions and

employees become more diverse, we will have to tailor our programmes to
meet the unique needs of both the employee and the institution. Also,
as institutions and employees change, programmes and procedures must
also change. We will have to anticipate and prepare for future changes and
design programmes that will accommodate them – we will have to adopt a
strategic orientation.

Adopting a strategic orientation means understanding the needs of the

1

business and using those needs as the basis of all human resource practices

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and procedures. It means that these practices and procedures must suit
both the employees and the institution and must be able to accommodate
change in either. Strategic human resource management also means that
managers participate fully in developing and implementing systems to manage
people with a view towards productivity and institutional accomplishment. The
operating manager becomes the driving force behind good human resource
practices.

1.2.8 Adopting a management perspective

Human resource management is increasingly becoming part of every
1

manager’s job. We support the increasing status and involvement of all

managers in the management of human resources. Everyone will need to
develop people-management skills and understand how to manage the
programmes, practices and procedures on which good human resource
management is based. Managers must become more involved in managing
the most valuable resource they have, and at the same time human resource
professionals must improve their ability to develop and implement the
practices, programmes and procedures that managers use to manage
human resources to meet business needs.

1.2.9 Human resource management

According to Collings and Wood (2009:3), the term “human resource
1

management” became popular in the 1980s, especially in the US and the

UK, when research in the behavioural sciences showed that managing people
as resources rather than as factors of production had the potential to bring
about real benefits for both the institution and the employees. Human resource
management stresses mutuality between managers and subordinates as
embodied in mutual goals, mutual influence, mutual respect, mutual rewards
and mutual responsibility. The theory is that policies of mutuality will elicit
commitment which, in turn, will yield better economic performance and
greater human resource development.

Human resource management is a distinctive approach to employment

1

management that seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the

strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce using
an array of cultural, structural and human resource techniques. The trend
in human resource management is to adopt the human resource approach,
which benefits institutions in two ways: it achieves an increase in institutional
effectiveness and it satisfies employees’ needs (Itika 2011:12).

The emerging approaches focus on the nature of the employment relationship,

1

the management of employment relations and the employees’ commitment

to employment relationships. Contemporary approaches to human resource
management focus on horizontal authority and reduced hierarchy in which
both managers and subordinates have a common interest.

Human resource management has been selected because of the

1

interrelatedness and more holistic approaches in its practice. The institution

should recruit and select employees who possess the abilities, competencies
and skills it requires. The quality of employees will determine the type of

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 LEARNING UNIT 1:  Integrated human resources

training and development that should be provided. Trained and competent

employees will apply effort, competencies and skills to increase their
performance and productivity (Elnaga & Imran 2013:137–138).

According to Tubey, Rotich and Kurgat (2015:146), managers can utilise their
1

subordinates to meet future human resource requirements. Line managers

are becoming increasingly involved in human resource responsibilities
because they harness the skills and abilities of their subordinates to achieve
the institutional goals and objectives for which they are responsible.

Managers are increasingly taking responsibility for the recruitment, selection,

1

development and utilisation of their subordinates because they recognise that

the labour market from which they recruit their employees is diverse. People
differ from one another in terms of age, gender, experience, values, physical
ability, mental capacity, culture, personality and their attitude towards work.

Globalisation and technological advancement have provided institutions

1

with access to global markets and the production and delivery of goods
and services for the global market, all of which requires an increase in
competence. Qualified and competent employees are required to do the
job which human resource management can provide. Line managers must
successfully manage diversity and cross-culturalism, particularly when
dealing with multinational teams.

Internal and external changes in institutions have resulted in a more holistic

1

approach to human resource management. Information technology has

provided new ways of working and new sources of sustainable competitive
advantage, and has provided ways of monitoring and rewarding the
performance of employees. Economic pressures have caused management
to downsize, delay and restructure their institutions. This has led to the
emergence of new institutional structures, for example, the virtual institution
and networking structures.

Institutions have become more flexible in terms of providing permanent

1

(full-time), part-time and short-time employment contracts to employees.

The rise in consumerism and an awareness of rights are also reflected in
the workplace. Subordinates often seek legal recourse if they feel that they
have been badly treated by their managers. Cases of this nature will draw
managers into legal issues – for example, a manager may be expected to
provide key information for disciplinary action.

1.3 INTEGRATED HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

According to Baird (1992:6), integrated human resource management is
1

composed of thirteen building block areas which have been combined

into the following four broad categories:

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Figure 1.3: The four broad categories of integrated human resources

After studying the above diagram, you will realise that one of the objectives of
1

integrated human resource management is to develop a critical understanding

of the interdependency of these components. Managers must understand
the underlying concepts of each of these components and their contribution
to the overall objective or business of the institution.

1 Managers must ask themselves the following questions:

ƒƒ Who are the people who work in these sections?

ƒƒ What are their day-to-day and strategic problems?
ƒƒ What is the state-of-the-art practice?
ƒƒ What are the expected areas of improvement?
ƒƒ What is the latest in technology and how is it going to affect the way the
section functions?

This basic knowledge is very important for understanding potential linkages

1

and joint improvements, but the integration of these linkages is the most
critical, because this will ensure the overall performance of the institution.

1.4 APPROACH TO INTEGRATED HUMAN RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT

1.4.1 People as a basic resource

Managers must keep up with rapid advances in technology, information
1

and knowledge. Customer demand changes constantly, and competition

is no longer with someone across the street, but is instead with people on

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 LEARNING UNIT 1:  Integrated human resources

the other side of the world. The demographics of the workforce are shifting
so quickly that management practices and systems need to be updated
constantly. When combined, these forces create challenges that can be
met only if we recognise the importance of people as a basic resource.
Old assumptions that large numbers of people with the required skills will
always be available are no longer valid. Human resources must be planned
and managed with the same care and attention as are paid to technological,
material and financial resources. People who understand the critical role of
human resources and adopt management practices that are appropriate for
the new environment will have a sustainable competitive advantage. The
following are the changing management environments that we encounter
today and their implications for management practices.

1.4.2 Value changes

Economic and social conditions affect the expectations and values which
1

people bring to work. Consequently, the new generation of workers is likely

to be different from past generations in the following ways:

People have more options to choose from and often make decisions based
1

on individual desires, preferences and circumstances.

Based on their advanced training and on what they have seen other people
1

accomplish, educated workers have very high expectations of what they

should receive from work.

1People will place a higher value on free time.

If institutions continue to follow traditional management practices and methods

1

of organising the work process, people are likely to become dissatisfied with
the government’s ability to deliver the goods they want and to provide the
working environments they expect.

These changes in values and expectations will give rise to the following
1

questions, which managers will be required to answer:

ƒƒ What values do we need in institutions? Should we employ only people
whose values accord with those of the institution, or should we emphasise
flexibility, change and diversity to accommodate different values?
ƒƒ What should we do to accommodate the growing importance people
place on leisure and flexibility in their schedule without sacrificing the old
values of security and predictability?
ƒƒ How should we organise our activities to match the many diverse
values that people bring to the institution?

1.4.3 Socioeconomic changes

Socioeconomic changes also have a tremendous impact on institutions.
1

These changes are beyond the control of management, but require their
attention if they are to be dealt with productively. Managers must monitor,
understand and adjust to the following changes:

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ƒƒ increased government regulation of all forms of economic and social

activity such as labour laws, health requirements and environmental
regulations
ƒƒ slower economic growth and the need to conserve resources
ƒƒ political and financial instability in Africa and the rest of the world
ƒƒ depletion of natural resources and the need to conserve and prioritise
their use

A country like South Africa may have to face even greater socioeconomic
1

challenges. Think of socioeconomic problems other than those listed above

that South Africa faces, and suggest possible solutions to them.

As a result of these changes, managers must seek answers to the following

1

questions:

What effect is the changing economic environment likely to have on our

1

ability to recruit, relocate, train and develop employees?

What implications will a slower economic growth rate have for our human
1

resource management practices?

How will our continued dependence on other countries for energy affect the
1

way we will produce in future?

1.4.4 Information and technology changes

Of all the factors that will affect human resource management in future, none
1

is changing faster than information and communication technology. Baird

(1992:45–54) describes a shift from control-based to information-based
institutions largely devoid of middle management. The knowledge needed
to make informed business decisions will reside primarily at the bottom of
the institution, and be in the hands of specialists who direct their own work.
Information will be issued for self-guidance, not for the purposes of top-
down control. There will be greater reliance on self-discipline and individual
responsibility.

Technology will transform the nature of work and inspire employees to use
1

skills they have never had to use before. Relationships between managers

14
 LEARNING UNIT 1:  Integrated human resources

and employees will be more intricate and collaborative. Authority will depend
more on knowledge than on hierarchical position. As computers integrate
information across institutional units, managers and employees will have
an opportunity to overcome their narrow unit focus and adopt an overriding
concern for the customer. As a result, we are seeing the following:
ƒƒ A greater number of computers that are both faster and cheaper are being
used at work and at home.
ƒƒ Computers and electronic aids are being used in new fields such as
education, banking, the purchasing of food and home management.
ƒƒ Office work has become increasingly automated.
ƒƒ An increasing amount of manual work has become automated, for example
robotics may become more common.
ƒƒ Managers and workers spend an increasing amount of time on integrating
and linking the institution.

Figure 1.4: The influence of technological changes

Technological and informational advances raise important questions such

1

as the following, which future human resource managers have to be able

to answer:

ƒƒ Which jobs must be eliminated and which should be expanded as a result

of technological advances?
ƒƒ How can we design work for people at home?
ƒƒ How can we maintain our institution’s culture as we go through massive
technological changes?
ƒƒ How can we use automation to improve the quality of work in our institutions?
ƒƒ What effect does technological change have on human relations?

Managing people from different multicultural backgrounds is difficult. Drawing

1

from your experiences, what kind of values that are acceptable to everybody
must people bring into their work situations?

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1.5  OMPONENTS OF AN INTEGRATED HUMAN

C
RESOURCES MODEL
The integrated human resources model is made up of seven components.
1

There should be a natural flow of human resource management, beginning

with the objectives or purpose of an institution. We will briefly discuss each
of these components and how they relate to one another, so before we do,
spend a few moments studying the following diagram:

Figure 1.5: Components of the integrated human resources model

1.5.1 Institutional strategy

In order to be successful, human resource management must meet the
1

needs of the institution, and so it is logical for human resource management

to start by understanding those needs. Human resource management
practices, procedures and programmes are developed, implemented and
managed to help the institution accomplish its purpose and reach its objectives.
Institutions that are growing very quickly need help in recruiting and training
employees to sustain their growth. Institutions that are in stable markets with
well-established products and services need help to become more efficient
by cutting costs and increasing productivity. Institutions that are shrinking

16
 LEARNING UNIT 1:  Integrated human resources

need help to retrain and reduce the labour force. As the strategy of the
institution shifts dramatically, it is logical to assume that human resource
management practices and procedures must also shift. No matter what the
strategy is, human resource management has a vital role to play, but only
those human resource professionals and managers who understand the
unique needs of the institution created by the institution’s objectives and
strategy will be effective.

1.5.2 Designing work

Depending on what needs to be accomplished, jobs can be designed to be

1

productive and motivational. Jobs exist to accomplish objectives, and so job

design should be based on those objectives. The way in which people do
their work and whether it is motivational and productive is determined by the
activities of the workers, the resources and technology they have to work with,
and how their jobs relate to other jobs. Each of these components must be
designed so that it contributes to performance on the job. Job design must
also take into consideration the unique educational and cultural backgrounds
of available workers. As the nature of the workforce changes, the nature of
jobs must also change.

1.5.3 Staff provision

The institution must have people to do the jobs that have been designed. In
1

order to be productive, the people hired by the institution must have either the
skills necessary to perform the job, or the capacity to learn the appropriate
skills. It will be your responsibility as a manager to find people who can do the
job, and convince them to accept employment in your institution. Decisions
about staff provision should not be based primarily on performance, race,
sex, nationality or religion but should be made according to employment
equity policies.

1.5.4 Performance management

Work is productive if it contributes to the purpose of the institution. Evaluation

1

identifies possible adjustments and improvements if employee efforts are

not being directed towards the right results, and gives recognition where
performance is good. Evaluation identifies training and development that
has the potential to increase performance. Future performance can be
managed only if one knows what has already been accomplished in relation
to performance goals.

Appraisal and feedback are the basis of all human resource activities.
1

Information from appraisals gives managers an understanding of problems

and opportunities, and it gives them data as a basis for evaluating how
successful they are in managing human resources and what changes need
to be made. Appraisals provide employees with explanations of the jobs they
have to do and how well they are doing them.

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1.5.5 Training and development

Once deficiencies in skills have been identified, training and development
1

activities and programmes can be designed. In modern institutions,

development is a continuous activity because the skills required are constantly
changing. Development activities may range from informal on-the-job training
to formal training programmes presented at universities. The appropriate
training programme should be determined according to the skills and abilities
which need to be developed. The skills and abilities required will, in turn,
affect how the job is designed.

1.5.6 Leadership and motivation

How do all these changes affect you as manager? They mean that now,
1

more than ever before, your ability to lead and motivate people will signify
the difference between success and failure. Human resource management
is everyone’s job to the extent that the better your understanding of the
programmes and procedures available to you, the more you will be able
to help your staff to contribute to accomplishing institutional goals. Human
resource management is not a set of independent activities carried out by
one staff group. It is a set of closely integrated practices and procedures
and programmes for which you, as manager, are responsible.

1.5.7 Labour relations

Human resource management involves a developmental relationship between
1

employee and employer and civil society. It also involves a relationship with
the unions and civic organisations. Legally, the relationship between an
employee and employer is based on the concept of a contract to which both
are equal parties. However, in reality this is almost always a very unequal
relationship, with the individual employee having very little power to influence
or change the actions of his or her employer as compared with the muscle
of the public sector as a whole.

This is where trade unions come to the fore. Through their collective and
1

institutionalised relationship with their members, they enable the individual to

restore a balance of power between employee and employer. It is therefore
wise to recognise this relationship to avoid negative and confrontational
patterns of behaviour.

Many of the problems in the management of effective industrial relations

1

arise from an underlying resentment against unions and the view that they
are a destructive element simply because they challenge the authority of the
public sector. However, effective human resource management demands that
public managers recognise the right of equal interaction between employee
and employer.

1.5.8 Diversity and change management

Changes in the demographic composition of the workforce, the influence
1

of new values and lifestyles, the shift to a global rather than a national

18
 LEARNING UNIT 1:  Integrated human resources

marketplace and the emphasis on team rather than individual management

models have made understanding how to work with and manage diverse
employees very important. In South Africa, various legislative measures have
been introduced to regulate the workforce and to ensure that attention is
paid to managing diversity. Examples of such legislation are the Constitution,
with its Bill of Rights, the Employment Equity Act and the Skills Development
Act. However, state departments must realise that complying with these
regulations is not enough. The institution must recognise the business
necessity of having a diverse workforce and tapping the potential of that
workforce.

1.6 CONCLUSION
In the discussions in this learning unit we have seen that it is very important
1

that human resource managers adopt an integrated approach to managing

human resources, and that they should not treat the activities involved as
separate and independent processes. They must also be in a position to
understand how one activity may influence other activities in the achievement
of institutional goals.

1.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Identify and discuss the four (4) categories that must be taken into
consideration when integrating human resource management.
2. Discuss any five (5) values which you think may influence the way people
perform their jobs.
3. How do you think the socioeconomic environment influences the jobs
and careers we choose today?
4. What is the role of strategic management in human resource management?
5. Discuss the components of the integrated human resources model in
detail and indicate how these components influence one another.

1.8 REFERENCES
Baird, LS. 1992. Managing human resources: integrating people and business
strategy. United States of America: Book Press.
Collings, DG & Wood, G. 2009. Human resource management: a critical
approach. In Human resource management: a critical approach, edited
by DG Collings & G Wood. New York: Routlege:1–16.
Elnaga, A & Imran, A. 2013. The effect of training on employee performance.
European Journal of Business and Management 5(4):137–147.
Itika, JS. Fundamentals of human resource management: emerging
experiences from Africa. Leiden: African Studies Centre.
Tubey, R, Rotich, KJ & Kurgat, A. 2015. History, evolution and development of
human resource management: a contemporary perspective. European
Journal of Business and Management 7(9):139–148.

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2
LEARNING UNIT

Human Resources Strategy and Planning

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1After studying this unit, you should be able to:

ƒƒ explain the concept “strategy”
ƒƒ explain the different levels of strategy
ƒƒ explain how public institutions can benefit from human resource strategies
ƒƒ explain the concept “human resource planning”
ƒƒ explain the challenges of strategic human resource planning
ƒƒ explain the steps to be followed when planning for human resources
ƒƒ explain how public institutions can estimate the demands for human
resources
ƒƒ explain how public institutions can manage the shortage of skills
ƒƒ explain the processes (job design, job analysis, job description, job
specification and job evaluation) in job creation
ƒƒ explain the different aspects of human resource strategies

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the first learning unit we gave you a brief history of human resource
1

management and the different elements that comprise an integrated human

resource management approach. In this learning unit we introduce the
concepts of strategy and we look at the importance of human resource (HR)
strategies and HR planning.

2.2 HUMAN RESOURCE STRATEGY

Public managers must answer three central questions when evaluating their
1

public institution or department:

ƒƒ What is the department’s present situation?
ƒƒ Where does it need to go from here?
ƒƒ How should it get there?
The first question prompts public managers to evaluate industry conditions
1

and competitive pressures, the department’s current performance and market

standing, and its resource strengths, capabilities and weaknesses.

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 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

The second question urges public managers to make certain choices about
1

the direction in which the department should be headed, what new or different
customer groups and customer needs it should endeavour to satisfy, and
what changes are needed in its institutional makeup.

The third question challenges public managers to draft and execute a strategy
1

capable of moving the department in the intended direction, improving its

performance and satisfying customer needs.

Strategy is defined as a “plan or pattern that integrates an organisation’s

1

major goals, policies and action into a cohesive whole” (Itika 2011:30). It sets
out what to do and how to do it. There are three common questions that
encourage an explanation of the strategic process:
ƒƒ Where are we now?
ƒƒ Where do we want to be?
ƒƒ How do we get there?
A strategic plan should have a long-term focus – business plans are usually
1

developed around a five-year perspective. The aim of designing and following

a strategic plan is to create a competitive advantage, and all efforts in the
formulation and implementation process will be directed towards this (Foot
& Hook 2008:36). Strategy can be formulated and implemented at different
levels in an institution, and there are recognised generic strategies that
institutions might adopt.

2.3 LEVELS OF STRATEGY

The levels at which strategy is formulated and implemented are usually
1

identified as corporate, business and operational.

2.3.1 Corporate and business strategies

An institution’s strategy is management’s action plan for running the
1

business and conducting operations. The drafting of a strategy represents

management’s commitment in pursuing a particular set of actions in growing
the institution, attracting and pleasing customers, competing successfully,
conducting operations and improving the institution’s financial and market
performance (Thompson, Strickland & Gamble 2007:3).

Corporate strategy is concerned with the overall direction that an institution

1

would follow. Larger institutions might focus on business levies and the
level of strategies at which divisions might be engaged in producing various
products and services. Business strategy, on the other hand, “is a plan
that indicates the direction of the organisation. It brings the organisational
vision, mission, policies, goals and objectives together” (Itika 2011:29). For
smaller institutions, corporate and business strategies might be the same
thing, because they may deal with only one level of products or services.
Development of a business strategy is determined by thorough knowledge of
the institutional environment, including strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
and threats (Itika 2011:29).

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2.3.2 Functional strategy

The functions represented in an institution depend on the type of business,
1

its size and its structure, which may include production, marketing, sales,
finance, research and development, and HR. These functional areas need
to follow the strategic plans that are in harmony with the corporate and
business plans adopted by the institution.

To ensure the success of the institution, the strategic plan adopted by

1

all these functional departments must be integrated, however. They are

interdependent and cannot be formulated in isolation from one another. The
HR strategy forms an integral part of every department’s functional strategy
(Foot & Hook 2008:36).

2.3.3 Strategy formulation process

You will find throughout the discussion of the strategic planning process that
1

there is a great deal of emphasis on gathering information as a basis for

decision-making. It is necessary to focus on relevant information, but it is
also imperative to be comprehensive so that you do not miss something that
could have an impact. Since planning implies forecasting future actions, there
is always the potential for developments that you may not have foreseen.
Planning therefore becomes a rolling process, and so a five-year plan
developed in 2012 cannot be followed slavishly until the year 2017, but will
probably need to be adjusted as time goes on to account for unforeseen
developments.

A number of factors, such as product life cycle, competition and technological

1

development affect business planning. Information about all these factors will
influence what managers see as threats and opportunities and will, therefore,
affect the strategic choices made and formulation of the strategic plan.

Keeping an eye on all these factors is referred to as environmental scanning.

1

The acronym PEST is commonly used as a reminder of the issues that

businesses need to take into consideration when formulating their strategies.
PEST stands for political, economic, social and technological issues.

A strategic approach implies a long-term view, encompassing global

1

information from all relevant perspectives and focusing on the ultimate goal
of corporate success through achieving and exploring a position of competitive
advantage. A strategic approach also requires the integration of activities and
processes throughout an institution – all aligned with the institution’s goals.

Figure 2.1 provides us with factors that assist in identifying an institutional

1

strategy. In order to do this, we need to do research about the institution’s

actions in the marketplace and business approaches.

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 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

Actions to gain sales

and market share via
lower prices, higher
Actions to diversify performance, features, Actions to respond
the institution’s more appealing design to changing market
revenues and and better quality, conditions and other
earnings by entering customer service, wider external factors
into new businesses production selection or
other such elements

Actions to strengthen
competitive Actions to enter
capabilities and new or existing
correct weaknesses geographic or
The pattern of actions product markets
and business
Actions and approaches that
approaches used defines an institution’s
in managing R&D, strategy
production, sales
and marketing,
finance and other key
activities
Actions to capture
Actions to strengthen emerging market
Actions to strengthen opportunities and
competitiveness via market standing and
competitiveness by defend against
strategic alliances external threats
and collaborative acquiring or merging with
another department or to the institution’s
partnerships business prospects
business (public–private
partnership)
Figure 2.1: Identifying an institution’s strategy – what to do
1 Source:  Thompson et al (2007:8)

2.4 HUMAN RESOURCE STRATEGIES

Human resource (HR) strategies arise from the adoption of a strategic
1

approach to people management which is aligned with the business strategy

and which is reflected in a set of HR policy initiatives specially designed to
achieve the strategic goals of the institution. It implies that an appropriate
HR strategy is derived from the corporate strategy to provide the “best fit”
between two levels of strategy. Ideally, however, HR considerations should
inform the corporate strategy and reflect what is included in it. The cost of
the HR strategies and the probability of their success should have been a
factor in the decision to pursue the particular institutional strategic goal in
the first place (Foot & Hook 2008:38).

HR strategies reflect the philosophy of senior management with regard to

1

the treatment of human resources and incorporate the various activities

related to their management. The HR function supports corporate goals by
developing and implementing people management practices which engage
employees and encourage them to direct their efforts towards the achievement
of institutional goals (Foot & Hook 2008:39; Itika 2011:28). The most tangible

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aspect of strategic HRM is the set of HR policies and processes that exists
in an institution. These policies and processes relate to the various aspects
of people management:
ƒƒ recruitment and selection
ƒƒ training and development
ƒƒ remuneration
ƒƒ employee relations
The main focus of the HR strategies in many institutions is on attracting,
1

developing, maintaining and retaining a high-performance workforce.

Because a people management strategy involves so many elements, the

1

various strategies need to be coherent and supportive of one another as well

as being aligned with the overall business strategy. Other crucial aspects
of successful strategic HRM are effective communication and change
management.

In order to be motivated to achieve an institution’s goals, the employees of

1

that institution need to know what is expected of them and how their efforts
contribute to its success, hence the need for excellent communication
systems. Managing change is another important aspect because strategic
management involves planning for the future and adjusting to a turbulent
business environment. HR practitioners may consider the following questions:
ƒƒ Will line managers support strategy initiatives, and do they have the
competencies to implement them?
ƒƒ How will the employees react to the strategy?
ƒƒ What problems can be anticipated, and how can they be dealt with?
These questions will help HR managers to focus on general aspects of people
1

management, change the management process and develop HR strategies.

2.4.1 Benefits of strategic human resource planning

The process of formulating HR strategies and establishing programmes to
1

implement them is known as strategic HR planning. According to Gómez-

Mejía, Balkin and Cardy (2010:50–51), HR planning helps to achieve the
following:

2.4.1.1 Encouragement of proactive rather than reactive

behaviour
Proactive behaviour involves looking ahead and developing a vision of where
1

the institution wants to be and how it can use human resources to get there.
Proactive institutions are better prepared for the future than reactive ones.
These institutions hold on to their key talent, even if it means having to spend
more money on employee compensation during difficult times, because it is
crucial to retain key employees.

Reactive behaviour involves responding to challenges as they come up.

1

Institutions that are reactive may lose sight of the long-term direction of
their business.

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 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

2.4.1.2 Explicit communication of institutional goals

Strategic HR planning helps institutions to develop a set of focused strategic
1

objectives that capitalise on its special talents and know-how. Institutions such
as Nokia and 3M achieved their strategic goal of being innovative by making
optimal use of their human resources. They provided their employees with
opportunities, excellent institutional culture and market-related remuneration.

2.4.1.3 Stimulation of critical thinking and ongoing examination

of assumptions
Strategic HR planning can stimulate critical thinking and the development
1

of new initiatives if it is a continuous and flexible process. Rigid procedures

with a fixed beginning and specific deadlines for completion are detrimental
to strategic HR planning.

2.4.1.4 Identification of gaps between current and future vision

Strategic HR planning can help an institution to identify the difference between
1

where they are today and where they want to be. Institutions may have to
review, redesign and restructure certain processes and procedures if they
want to root out inefficiencies in their operations and departments.

2.4.1.5 Encouragement of line manager participation

For strategic HR planning to be effective, all line managers must buy into
1

it. If they do not, it is likely to fail. According to the White Paper on Human
Resource Management in the Public Service, both line and HR managers are
jointly responsible for the HR functions and activities, and the management
thereof.

2.4.1.6 Identification of HR constraints and opportunities

The collaboration between business strategy planning and HR strategy
1

planning allows institutions to identify the potential problems and opportunities

involving the people who are expected to implement the business strategy.

2.4.1.7 Creation of common bonds

Research has shown that institutions that have a strong sense of who they
1

are tend to outperform those that do not. A strategic HR plan that reinforces,
adjusts or redirects the institution’s present culture can foster values such as
customer focus, innovation, fast growth and cooperation among employees.

2.4.2 Difficulties associated with strategic HR planning

Institutions face a number of difficulties associated with strategic HR planning,
1

as you will see below.

2.4.2.1 Maintaining a competitive advantage

Any competitive advantage that an institution has tends to be short-lived
1

because other institutions are likely to imitate it. For example, institutions have
imitated the reward programmes introduced by leading technological and
marketing institutions. The difficulty from an HR perspective lies in developing

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strategies that offer the institution a sustained competitive advantage. For

example, an institution may develop programmes that maximise the potential
of employees through developing their careers while at the same time
rewarding them with institutional shares, but employees will forfeit these
shares if they leave the institution before a certain date.

2.4.2.2 Reinforcing overall institutional strategy

Developing HR strategies that support the institution’s overall business
1

strategy is difficult for the following reasons:

ƒƒ Top management may not always be able to communicate the institution’s

overall business strategy clearly.
ƒƒ There may be considerable uncertainty or disagreement concerning which
HR strategies should be used to support the overall business strategy.

Large institutions may have different business units, each with its own
1

business strategy. Each unit should formulate an HR strategy that fits its
business strategy.

2.4.2.3 Avoiding too much focus on day-to-day problems

Some managers are so busy with day-to-day issues that they have no time
1

to focus on the long-term issues. A successful HR strategy demands a

vision tied to the long-term direction of the business. A major difficulty in
strategic HR planning lies in persuading people to step back and consider
the big picture.

2.4.2.4 Developing HR strategies suited to a unique institutional

culture
No two institutions are exactly the same. Institutions differ in terms of their
1

history, culture, leadership approaches, technology, systems and so on. HR

strategies that are moulded or fashioned after institutional characteristics
will fail.

2.4.2.5 Coping with the environment

No two institutions operate in an identical environment. Institutions operate
1

in environments:
ƒƒ where they experience rapid change – think of the computer industry
ƒƒ where they operate in a relatively stable market – think of the food
processing market
ƒƒ where there is a guaranteed demand for their products or services – think
of medical services
ƒƒ where they must deal with turbulent demand – think of the fashion industry
A challenge in developing HR strategies is crafting strategies that will work
1

in the institution’s unique environment to give it a sustainable competitive

advantage.

2.4.2.6 Securing management commitment

HR strategies that originate in HR departments will not succeed without
1

the support of management at all levels. In order to ensure the managers’

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 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

commitment, HR professionals must work closely with them when formulating

policies.

2.4.2.7 Translating the strategic plan into action

The acid test of any strategic plan is whether it makes a difference in practice.
1

If it does not bring about change in practice, employees and managers will
be regarded as all talk and no action. The greatest challenge in strategic
HR planning lies not in formulating a strategy, but in the development of
appropriate programmes that will make the strategy work.

2.4.2.8 Intended strategies

Institutions have both intended and emergent strategies which should be used
1

to their benefit. Intended strategies are proactive, rational and deliberative

plans.

Advantages of intended strategies

ƒƒ They provide a sense of purpose and a guide for the allocation of resources.
ƒƒ They are useful for recognising environmental opportunities and threats.
ƒƒ They allow top management to respond appropriately.
Disadvantages of intended strategies

ƒƒ They lead to a top-down strategic approach.

ƒƒ They prohibit creativity.
ƒƒ They prevent institution-wide involvement.
2.4.2.9 Emergent strategies
Emergent strategies are general patterns collectively moulded by the interplay
1

of power, politics, improvisation, negotiation and personalities in the institution.

Advantages of emergent strategies

ƒƒ They involve everyone in the institution; this fosters grassroots support.

ƒƒ They develop gradually out of the institution’s experiences and are therefore
less upsetting than intended strategies.
ƒƒ They are more pragmatic than intended strategies, because they evolve
to deal with specific problems or issues facing the institution.

Disadvantages of emergent strategies

ƒƒ They may lack strong leadership.

ƒƒ They may fail to infuse the institution with a creative vision.
2.4.2.10 Accommodating change
HR plans must be flexible enough to accommodate change. Institutions with
1

inflexible strategic plans may find that they are unable to respond to change
quickly, and so they may continue devoting resources to an activity that is
of questionable value. The challenge lies in creating a strategic vision and
developing plans to achieve it while staying flexible enough to adapt to change.

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2.5 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

Management is “the process used to accomplish organisational goals
1

through planning, organising, leading, and controlling people and other

organisational resources” (Cox 2016:155). This definition requires managers
to execute the managerial functions of planning, organising, motivating and
controlling. These functions constitute the management process and are
relevant regardless of the type of institution or level of management being
referred to. All managers are engaged to some extent in getting things done
with and through people.

Planning involves setting goals and objectives for the institution and showing
1

how these goals and objectives are to be accomplished. Once plans have
been made, organising becomes meaningful; it brings together resources
– people, capital and equipment – in the most effective way to accomplish
the institution’s goals.

Organising, therefore, is a process of integrating and coordinating resources

1

in order to produce desired results (Marume 2016:41). Motivation plays a

large role in determining the level of the performance of employees along
with planning and organising which, in turn, influence how effectively the
institutional goals will be met. Motivation, communication and leadership
encompass direction.

Control is another function of management. It involves feedback of results and

1

follow-up to compare accomplishments with plans and to make appropriate

adjustments where outcomes have deviated from expectations. Although
these management functions are stated separately, they are interrelated.

Human resource planning is “the usage of predetermined models, tools and

1

techniques to predict, plan and adjust broad staffing, rather than the day to
day implementation of the employment contract, and the nature and extent
of the employee’s involvement and participation in the organization of work”
(Kispal-Vitai & Wood 2009:169). Human resource planning is concerned with
forecasting the future needs of the institution in terms of skills, expertise
and competencies; analysing the availability and supply of people; drawing
up plans to match supply with demand and monitoring the implementation
of the human resource plan (DeNisi & Griffin 2016:98). Human resource
planning is a proactive strategy that anticipates and responds to changes in
the environment and is linked to a corporate strategy designed to enhance
competitive advantage or quality of service (Beardwell 2004:158).

According to these definitions, human resource planning ensures the course

1

or direction and determines the achievement of goals. It facilitates the

implementation of the strategic institutional plan and sets the priorities that
an institution uses to align available or potential resources and programmes
with its strategic institutional plan. It focuses on planned major changes and
crucial issues in the institution, such as the possible external constraints
and requirements, the implications for management selection, management
development and succession planning and the short-term activities needed
to meet medium- and long-term goals.

The human resource planning process should comprise the following

1

components: the institution’s overall policies, goals, objectives and plans;

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 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

the current human resource situation; human resource forecasting and the
implementation of programmes, audits and adjustments.

Human resource planning has to form an integral part of the overall strategic
1

plan and should take cognisance of the environmental influences, including

policy, political trends and legislation affecting the nature and scope of
activities, economic conditions, social trends and technological advances. It
should consider the values and aspirations of institutional leadership, clients,
regulators and suppliers. Attention should be paid to the internal strengths
and weaknesses of the institution’s human, financial and technical resources.
The programmes should be evaluated to determine the progress made, and
corrective steps should be taken.

1In summary, human resource planning allows management to

ƒƒ utilise its employees in appropriate positions optimally
ƒƒ allow internal promotion by promoting suitable candidates to senior
management positions
ƒƒ fill critical positions that cannot be filled internally by means of external
appointments
ƒƒ select candidates who have the required competencies and skills
ƒƒ appoint candidates who adopt the institution’s culture
ƒƒ carry out career and succession planning
According to the human resource planning strategy for the Public Service
1

Strategic Framework Vision 2015, human resource planning can be defined

as an inclusive and dynamic process that involves the identification of current
and future human resource needs as well as potential challenges in order for
the department to achieve its institutional objectives consistently. It is also
the two-way operational link between high-level strategy and action-oriented
implementation that can be monitored and evaluated regularly. Therefore,
human resource planning aims to ensure that an institution has the right
people in the right place at the right time, all the time (Department of Public
Service and Administration 2008).

The purpose of human resource planning is to make sure that people will
1

be available to ensure the continued smooth development of an institution.

We have to assess where we are, where we are going and the implications
of the future supply of and demand for human resources. In other words,
human resource planning is necessary in order for an institution to obtain
sufficient staff of the quality it requires and, therefore, to make optimum
use of its human resources. Human resource planning will contribute to the
management of surpluses and shortages of staff and to the development
of a multi-skilled, representative and flexible workforce which can help the
institution to adapt rapidly to a changing operational environment.

2.6 ESTIMATING THE DEMAND FOR HUMAN RESOURCES

The institution’s goals can only be achieved through the application of the
1

competencies and efforts of employees. One of the primary strategies in the

human resource planning (HRP) process is therefore to estimate what will be
required to achieve institutional goals in terms of the number of employees
and their competencies. According to Foot and Hook (2008:42–46), certain

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factors need to be taken into consideration when making a forecast of

requirements. They are:

ƒƒ the tasks that need to be done

ƒƒ the skills required to complete these tasks
ƒƒ the way in which the tasks could be grouped together to form jobs, with
the skills requirements taken into consideration
ƒƒ the number of employees that would be required to complete the volume
of work

2.6.1 Quantitative estimation of demands

An analysis of tasks to be done and skills needed to complete those tasks is
1

required – in other words, how many employees are needed for the volume
of work? If there is no previous record of how much work the employees
produce, then work study techniques can be used. This involves determining
how the tasks can be performed most efficiently, and timing the operation.
Here is an example: one HR clerk can attend to 300 customers, divided by
the expected 25 000 increase in the number of customers over the next
financial year. You will need 84 HR clerks to do the job.

If prior data does exist, you can use production figures and calculate the ratio
1

and the number of new candidates needed to serve the expected increase in
customers. Another method is to use historical figures – the ratio of various
categories of staff to the volume of sales or the number of customers.

You would need to take into consideration that new employees might not work
1

at full capacity until they are fully trained. You may have to consider changing
work methods or the technology that is used to accommodate reduction in
production. This means that when statistical methods are used to calculate
the demand for HR, managerial judgement should also be a factor. Both
qualitative data based on managerial judgement and quantitative data are
needed when estimating HR demands.

2.6.2 Estimating the internal supply of human resources

As with estimating the demand for HR, institutions need to combine qualitative
1

data based on managerial judgement and quantitative data to assess whether

the requisite resources will be available. The human resource information
system (HRIS) will provide the number of employees in various posts and
levels in the hierarchy. It will also provide employee data, including how long
employees are likely to stay with the institution. The labour turnover rate
enables institutions to forecast fluctuations in their workforce. It represents
the proportion of employees who would leave in a given period of time,
usually a year or more (Foot & Hook 2008:42).

This figure is calculated as a percentage by dividing the number of leavers by

1

the total staff complement and multiplying this figure by 100. If the requirements
for staff vary during this period, the total staff complement can be calculated
as an average of the number required at the beginning of the period and the
number required at the end. This would give an overall turnover rate for the
institution. However, it is better to calculate the rate for specific categories
of staff such as HR clerks, sales staff, computer technicians and so forth.

30
 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

For example, Amazing Connection requires 100 computer technicians

1

throughout the year. Of these employees, 20 have left in one year, which
means that the turnover rate has been (20/100) × 100 = 20%. The average
turnover rate experienced over a period of time can be used as a trend to
forecast requirements for the future.

At the end of 2014, Amazing Connection decides that they will require
1

10 additional technicians in each of the next three years. The additional

technicians are to be recruited at the beginning of each year.

How many technicians will they have to recruit during each year to maintain
1

the workforce? Complete the information for 2017, 2018 and 2019.

End of year Number of Increase over Projected Number to

technicians previous year turnover recruit during
required during year the year

2015 50
2016 60 10 6 16
2017
2018
2019

DISCUSSION OF ACTIVITY
These figures are best calculated by tracking the base figure required
1

each year, the increase in the number of staff members required and an
adjustment for the expected turnover. The institution should not only recruit
the additional 10 employees each year, but also cover the turnover of the
new base figure. With a typical labour turnover rate of 10% in 2014, 5 of the
original employees and perhaps 1 of the new employees may leave.

2.6.3 Assessing external human resources

When analysing the institution’s internal HR supply, you need to be aware

1

of the availability of potential external employees in case the internal supply

falls short of what is required. If the internal supply of employees cannot meet
the demand, managers should know whether there are problems with the
availability of employees from outside the institution (Foot & Hook 2008:45).

The labour force is defined as the number of people aged 18 and older who
1

are either in employment or available for work. People forming part of the
labour force who are not currently employed by a particular employer or
institution are regarded as the external labour force.

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2.6.4 Skills shortage

There is an interplay of many factors in the economy that has an effect on
1

the labour market. Examples of these factors are: demand for goods and
services, the recruitment intentions of employers and how much employers
have to pay to attract potential candidates. The influx of migrants from
one country to another has an impact on the number of people who are
economically active in South Africa.

The shortage of skills fluctuates over time. A shortage of skills was regarded
1

as a serious and widespread issue in the early part of the 21st century. In
2005, few employers experienced a shortage of skilled employees. This
was a result of economic growth and an increase in the influx of migrants.
In 2006, recruitment challenges were experienced. The situation worsened
in 2008 as the world plunged into an “economic meltdown”.

It is important that institutions take the necessary steps to counteract the skills
1

shortage, because it has a detrimental impact on operational effectiveness.

There may be a variety of factors that contribute to a skills shortage. The
baby boomer generation is nearing retirement. The expertise of this workforce
will be lost to institutions unless it is captured in institutional knowledge
management systems. It may be that there is an actual lack of specific
skills available in the labour market. It may be that the conditions and
benefits offered by employers are less attractive than those offered by their
competitors. The image and reputation of institutions might attract some and
not others. It may be difficult to recruit employees in certain regions because
of the high cost of living and exorbitant travel costs.

2.6.5 Solutions to the skills shortage

Training: Institutions need to determine the skills gap and either select current
1

employees (internal supply of HR) or recruit candidates (external supply of

HR) and provide them with the necessary training.

International recruitment: Employers can recruit employees from neighbouring

1

countries and countries further away. South Africa recruits employees from
neighbouring countries to work in the mining industry. These migrant workers
are a source of cheap labour and are recruited to fill the lower-level labour
supply. South Africa recruits labour to fill higher level posts from countries
further away. For example, teachers have been recruited from Cuba and
computer specialists have been recruited from India and China.

2.7  TEPS TO BE FOLLOWED IN HUMAN RESOURCE

S
PLANNING
1Human resource planning consists of three main steps:

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 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

Figure 2.2: Steps to follow when planning for human resources

2.7.1 Assessment of human resource requirements

The assessment of human resource requirements will enable an organisation
1

to identify the number of staff required, the skills they need to have, and
the targets they need to meet in order to attain the goals of employment
equity as these relate to race, gender and disability. This assessment must
also take future institutional and management structure and geographical
location into account.

2.7.2 Assessment of existing human resource capacity

The number of staff who are currently employed in the public service must
1

be assessed in order to identify their skills and potential for meeting future
requirements. Consequently, a relevant intervention in a form of training and
development must be identified to assist staff members. Equally, important,
the gaps in terms of numbers, skills and equity targets, which must be filled,
need to be identified.

2.7.3 Drawing up a human resource strategy/plan

After the gap between the requirements and the existing capacity of the
1

institution’s human resources has been identified, strategies can be devised

to bridge it.

Owing to limited financial resources, strategies usually have to be developed

1

in the budgeting process, involving things like institutional redesign, process

re-engineering, outsourcing and standard human resource management
instruments such as recruitment, training, promotion, redeployment, career
management and even staff reductions.

This strategy or plan will drive all human resource management activities.
1

However, the strategy must be supported by human resource management

information systems which will provide accurate and timely information on
how it functions in practice (Department of Public Service and Administration
1997:6).

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Figure 2.3: The gap between requirements and existing capacity

2.8 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE LINE MANAGER

According to the Public Service Regulations (South Africa 2016:46), an
1

executing authority (human resource practitioner) must do the following:

Assess the human resources that will be needed to carry out the department’s
1

activities with reference to the number of employees required, the competencies

that the employees need to have and the capacities in which these employees
will be appointed.

Assess the existing human resources by race, gender and disability as

1

well as by occupational category, occupational component and grade with

reference to their competencies, training needs and employment capacities.

Plan, within budgetary constraints, funds for the recruitment, retention,

1

deployment and development of human resources, which must include:

realistic goals and measurable targets for achieving representativeness,
targets for the training of employees per occupational category and targets
for the training of specific employees, with the emphasis on the training
needs of those who were historically disadvantaged.

The Public Service Regulations (South Africa 2016:46–47) state that an

1

executing authority must develop and implement an affirmative action

programme, which must contain the following:
ƒƒ A policy statement which will specify the department’s commitment to
affirmative action and how it will be implemented
ƒƒ Numeric targets and time-bound targets for achieving representativeness
Annual statistics reflecting the appointment, training and promotion of people
1

who were historically disadvantaged in each grade of each occupational

category.

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 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

1. Define the concept of human resource planning.

2.  ummarise the three steps to be followed in human resource planning.

S
Complete the table below:

1 Human resource planning

2.9 CREATION OF JOBS/POSTS

2.9.1 Job information gathering

For the human resource department to function properly, information is
1

required about aspects such as the different posts in the institution and the
type of people needed to fill them. The posts must therefore be adequately
designed, and information about the requirements for each post and the
qualities that the job incumbent needs to have must be available.

The Public Service Regulations (South Africa 2016:58) require that, before
1

creating a post or filling a new vacancy, an executing authority must do the

following:
ƒƒ Confirm that the post is required in order for the department’s objectives
to be met.
ƒƒ Evaluate a new job in terms of the job evaluation system.
ƒƒ Evaluate the job in the instance of a vacant post on grade 9 or higher,
unless this was done previously.
ƒƒ Ensure that there are sufficient funds to fill the post.
1We will now look at the following aspects:
ƒƒ job design
ƒƒ job analysis
ƒƒ job description
ƒƒ job specification
ƒƒ job evaluation

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2.9.2 Job design

Job design is the process of organising work into the tasks required to
1

perform a specific job (Gómez-Mejía et al. 2010:88).

According to Gómez-Mejía et al. (2010:88–90), there are three important

1

influences on job design. Work-flow analysis seeks to ensure that each job
in the institution receives work as an input, adds value to that work, and then
passes it on to another employee. The other two influences are business
strategy and institutional structure.

Job design is usually done either just before or during the founding of an
1

institution. At this stage all the activities are divided among the various
departments of which the institution will be made up. Posts are created
according to the activities in each department. Job design does not end here,
however, since the continued existence of the institution may depend on it.
Elements that may lead to a new job design are changes in the institution’s
structure and the purchasing of new equipment, which, in turn, may lead to
new procedures.

Research has shown that the content of a job can help to motivate the job
1

incumbent. The product of this is job enrichment, because job content is

enriched through the addition of more responsible and challenging work to
the post. Job enrichment can be aimed at talented staff who are interested
in more responsible and challenging work and in preparing themselves for
senior posts.

We will examine five approaches to job design: work simplification, job

1

enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment and team-based job design.

FEATURE EXPLANATION
Autonomy Individual employees or groups of employees
must be empowered so that they can be
involved in decision-making with regard to
the planning and execution of their work.
Opportunities for social Opportunities for social interaction can be
interaction included, such as liaison with colleagues.
Complete working units Complete working units will provide the
employee with a sense of fulfilment.
Utilisation of various Skills such as computer literacy can be
skills and abilities utilised.
Feedback of results Feedback provides an opportunity for self-
evaluation of performance.

WORK SIMPLIFICATION
Work simplification assumes that work can be broken down into simple,
1

repetitive tasks that maximise efficiency. This approach assigns most of

the thinking aspects of work (such as planning and organising) to managers
and supervisors. Narrowly defined tasks are given to non-management
employees to perform.

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 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

Work simplification can utilise labour effectively in order to produce a large

1

number of standardised products – think of a vehicle assembly line, where

employees are engaged in highly mechanical and repetitive tasks.

Work simplification can be efficient in a stable environment, but it is less

1

effective in a changing environment where customers demand custom-built

products of high quality. Work simplification often leads to high levels of
employee turnover and low levels of employee satisfaction.

JOB ENLARGEMENT AND JOB ROTATION

Job enlargement and job rotation are used to redesign jobs to reduce fatigue
1

and boredom on the part of employees performing simplified and highly

specialised work.

Job enlargement expands the duties of a job, for example employees in the
1

automotive industry whose specialised job is to lay carpets in vehicles may

have their jobs enlarged to include extra duties such as installing car seats.

Job rotation is the process of rotating employees between narrowly defined

1

tasks without disrupting the flow of work. For example, the employees who
lay carpets would be rotated periodically to a second workstation, where they
would install seats in vehicles. The employees in an assembly line might be
rotated at two-hour intervals between the various workstations during the
course of the day.

JOB ENRICHMENT
Job enrichment is the process of putting specialised tasks together so that
1

one person is responsible for producing a whole product or an entire service.

It makes work more interesting and improves the motivation of employees.

Job enrichment expands both the horizontal and vertical dimension of a

1

job. The employee is allowed to complete the entire product, for example a
kitchen appliance or radio.

JOB ENRICHMENT
ƒƒ gives employees more opportunities for autonomy and feedback
ƒƒ gives employees more responsibilities that require decision-making such
as scheduling work, determining work methods and judging quality
ƒƒ provides increased interaction with customers and other role-players
Team-based job designs focus on giving a team, rather than an individual, a
1

whole and meaningful piece of work to do. Team members are empowered to
decide among themselves how to accomplish the work. They are cross-trained
in different skills and then rotated to different tasks in the team. Team-based
job designs match best with flat and boundaryless institutional structures.

2.9.3 Job analysis

Job analysis is a systematic process of collecting information used to make
1

decisions about jobs. It identifies the tasks, duties and responsibilities of a

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particular job and puts a job under the microscope to reveal important detail
about it (Gómez-Mejía et al. 2010:90).
ƒƒ A task is a basic element of work that is a logical and necessary step in
performing a job duty.
ƒƒ A duty consists of one or more tasks that constitute a significant activity
performed in a job.
ƒƒ A responsibility is one or several duties that identify and describe the
major purpose or reason for the job’s existence.

For example, an administrative clerk may be given the task of completing travel
1

authorisation forms, which is part of a duty to keep track of the department’s

travel expenses, which, in turn, is part of the responsibility of managing the
department’s budget.

In order to explain job analysis, let us use the example of a grade 12 clerk,
1

employed by the Johannesburg TMC. We can ask ourselves: “What does a

clerk do?” We can also ask other questions, such as: “What is the minimum
level of knowledge, skills and abilities that an individual needs to do a clerical
grade 12 job adequately?”

For remuneration purposes, we can ask: “How does the grade 12 job compare
1

with others in the Johannesburg TMC system?” Job analysis will answer all
these questions.

Figure 2.4: The purpose of job analysis

1Source:  Robbins (1982:78)

As you can see, job analysis is the process of getting information; the
1

questions that we ask ourselves are: “What information do we want?” and

“How are we going to get it?”

(a) How is job analysis done?

Job analysis starts with the smallest segment of information, which is called
1

a job element.

A job element can be defined as the smallest unit into which work can
1

be divided. An example of a job element is when a cook puts lettuce on a

hamburger at a fast-food restaurant. It is only one part of the job of making
a hamburger.

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 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

A task is a work activity which is carried out for a distinct purpose. An example
1

of a task is when a letter is typed or when a mail truck is being unloaded.

A duty consists of a number of tasks. An example of a duty is when a
1

psychologist counsels his or her patients.

A position refers to one or more duties which are performed by one person
1

in an institution.
1A job can be defined as a type of position in the institution.
A job family or job class can be described as a group of two or more jobs
1

which either have similar work characteristics or contain parallel work tasks
as determined by job analysis.
An occupation is a group of similar jobs found in an institution. An example
1

of an occupation is accounting or electrical work.

A career can be defined as all the positions, jobs or occupations which an
1

employee occupies during his or her working life.

From the above definitions you can see that job analysis starts with job
1

elements and attempts to build understanding of jobs, occupations and

careers. In other words, job analysis assists in the evolution and development
of jobs.

Figure 2.5: The job analysis information hierarchy

1 Source:  Zaki (2014:9)

To summarise, we can say that a job consists of elements, tasks, duties

1

and positions.

(b) Methods of determining job elements

Managers can use various methods to determine job elements and the
1

knowledge, skills and abilities which are required for successful performance.
Gómez-Mejía et al. (2010:91) list the following methods for gathering job
information:

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1Interviews
A structured interview can be used to gather information from a job
incumbent.

1Observations
Someone observes the job incumbent actually performing the work
and records the core job characteristics from observation. This method
is used in the case of a routine job and the observer is able to identify
the job essentials in a reasonable period of time.

1Diaries
Job incumbents may be asked to keep diaries or logs of their daily
duties/job activities and record the length of time spent on each activity.

1Questionnaires
The incumbent is required to fill out a questionnaire that asks a series
of questions about the knowledge, skill and ability requirements, duties
and responsibilities associated with the job.

These methods must not be viewed as mutually exclusive – usually the best
1

results are achieved when they are combined.

1See Foot and Hook (2008:151–152)

1. In your opinion, which of the job elements can be used effectively for
successful performance?

2. Which job elements can be used for each of the following jobs?

JOB/TASK ELEMENT
1. Observing learners conducting
an experiment in a laboratory
2. Selecting a suitable list of
candidates for appointment
3. Using a portfolio/incident form
4. Using a questionnaire to
determine the skills level of staff

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 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

2.9.4 Job descriptions

Job descriptions define the nature of the job content, the environment and the
1

conditions under which a person is employed. A job description is a written

statement of the content of a job, which is derived from the job analysis. It
states what the job incumbent does; how it is done; under what conditions
it is done and why it is done (Van der Westhuizen, Wessels, Swanepoel,
Erasmus, Van Wyk & Schenk 2011:139).

The job description is an important resource for describing the job to potential
1

candidates; it guides newly hired employees in what they are expected to do,
and it provides a point of comparison when checking that the job incumbent’s
activities are in accord with the stated duties. The Public Service Regulations
(South Africa 2016:57) state that for every post or group of posts, the executing
authority is responsible for establishing a job description and job title that will
indicate the main objectives of the post or posts. The executing authority is
also responsible for establishing the inherent requirements of the job as well
as the requirements for promotion or progression to the next salary scale
in accordance with the relevant career path. The executing authority must
review job descriptions and titles at least once every three years to ensure
that they remain appropriate and accurate.

1Example of a job description

JOB TITLE: Administrative clerk
REPORTS TO: Records supervisor
SUPERVISES: None
OCCUPATIONAL CODE NO: 05561
JOB NO.: 01
GRADE LEVEL: 12
DATE: 1 March 2015

FUNCTIONS:
Creates, processes and maintains records; implements required controls;
collects and summarises data as requested.

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES:

Reviews a variety of documents and summaries for completeness and
accuracy.
Checks records against other sources such as reports or summaries.
Investigates differences and takes action to ensure that records are accurate.
Compiles data into report format as required.
Provides training to lower-level employees.

JOB CHARACTERISTICS:
The job incumbent must have computer word-processing skills such as
MSWord.

1Source:  Foot and Hook (2008:150)

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2.9.5 Job specifications

Job specifications stipulate minimum acceptable qualifications and the
1

knowledge, skills and abilities which a job incumbent must have to do the
job effectively.
A job specification describes the attributes that an employee requires to
1

carry out the job – it identifies the knowledge, skills, level of education,
experience and abilities needed to do the job effectively (Van der Westhuizen
et al. 2011:140).

1Example of a job specification

JOB TITLE: Administrative clerk

EDUCATION: Minimum qualification required is a
matriculation exemption
PHYSICAL AND HEALTH: Good health, emotional stability
APPEARANCE: Neat – refer to institution’s dress code
MENTAL ABILITIES: Good with figures
SPECIAL ABILITIES: Ability to work with and maintain good
interpersonal relations with other employees
PREVIOUS WORK EXPERIENCE: Minimum experience required is
one year, preferably in an academic
institution.
SPECIAL KNOWLEDGE: Knowledge of filing systems, the
validation of records and the
compilation of reports
MATURITY: Must be able to assume increased responsibility
within two years
OTHER: The incumbent should be ready for promotion to
the position of records supervisor within 24 months
1Source:  Gómez-Mejía et al. (2010:100)

2.9.6 Job evaluation

The purpose of job evaluation is to specify the monetary value of each
1

job in the institution. Jobs that have similar demands in terms of skills and
education are placed in common compensation groups. This will make
an equitable compensation programme possible. Job analysis is valuable
because it makes it possible to compare jobs. Job evaluation is the process
of evaluating the relative value or contribution of different jobs to an institution
(Gómez-Mejía et al. 2010:344).
The Public Service Regulations (South Africa 2016:59) state that, in order to
1

ensure that work of equal value is remunerated equally, the public service
will increasingly use job evaluation to assist in achieving a cost-effective
work institution and to determine appropriate remuneration.
The system that is used for job evaluation in the public service is called the
1

EQUATE system, and it comprises a job analysis questionnaire and the

42
 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

EQUATE software. Information obtained during job analysis interviews is

used to complete the questionnaire. The information from the questionnaire
is captured electronically, and EQUATE then calculates the weight of a job.

According to Gómez-Mejía et al. (2010:344–350), job evaluation comprises

1

six steps intended to provide a rational, orderly and systematic judgement of

how important each job is to the institution. The ultimate goal of job evaluation
is to achieve internal equity in the pay structure.

THE SIX STEPS OF JOB EVALUATION

1Step 1:  Conduct job analysis
–– Gather and organise information concerning the tasks, duties
and responsibilities of all jobs being evaluated.
–– Job analysts can use personal interviews with employees, ques-
tionnaires and institutional records to study the what, how and
why of various tasks making up the job.

1Step 2:  Write job descriptions

–– Write the job description, which includes the duties, responsibili-
ties, working conditions and specifications.

1Step 3:  Determine job specifications

–– Job specifications consist of the characteristics that an employee
must have to perform the job successfully. These prerequisites
are drawn from the job analysis. Some may be legally mandated.
For example, electricians must have an electrician’s licence.
–– Job specifications are concerned with years of experience, level
and type of education, vocational training and so forth.

1Step 4:  Rate the worth of all jobs

–– Steps 2 and 3 help to determine the relative value or contribution
of different jobs to the institution. A committee of 3 to 7 people
is responsible for job evaluation. These include managers, su-
pervisors, representatives of the HR department and external
consultants.
–– The point factor system uses compensable factors to evaluate
jobs. Compensable factors are work-related criteria that the
institution considers most important in assessing the relative
value of different jobs.

1Step 5:  Create a job hierarchy

–– Steps 1 to 4 lead to the creation of a job hierarchy, which is a
list of jobs in terms of their relative assessed value (from highest
to lowest). For example, in the HR department it will range from
the HR executive director to the receptionist.

1Step 6:  Classify jobs by grade levels

–– The job hierarchy is reduced to a manageable number of grade
levels. For example, the hierarchy of jobs in the HR department
may consist of five grade levels.

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2.9.7 J ob classification and characteristics of a job classification

system
Employees are divided into groups to ensure that fair conditions of service
1

are established. This ensures that all employees are treated fairly and equally
and are protected against injuries in the workplace. Another reason for job
classification and the division of employees into groups in large institutions is
that it is impossible to negotiate conditions of service on an individual basis.

Division of employees into groups can be seen as “a rational identification

1

and arrangement of positions in terms of what they involve, what they

demand of incumbents and what they are worth to the employer” (Foot &
Hook 2008:336).

We will use an example to explain job classification. Let us take the job title
1

of administrative assistant. We can say that it represents many positions

which are, in turn, known as a job, and this job can be placed in a certain
job class. It is important to emphasise that an acceptable job classification
consists not of jobs, but job classes.

A job class series is arranged hierarchically. An example of such a grouping

1

is the position of lecturer, which is classified into a job class series as follows:

ƒƒ junior lecturer
ƒƒ lecturer
ƒƒ senior lecturer
1A job classification system must comply with the following characteristics:

ƒƒ Intelligibility
The system must be simple; the classes in it must be limited and everyone
must be able to understand it.

ƒƒ Flexibility
There must be enough capacity to adapt the classification to changing
circumstances and needs.

ƒƒ Comparability
Occupations in the public sector must be comparable with occupations
in the private sector.

ƒƒ Accountability
Job classification must be done thoroughly and judiciously so that all
employees are treated in a fair and just way.

Advantages of job classification

–– simple to operate
–– easy to understand
–– it is easy to fit new jobs into the classification structure

Disadvantages of job classification

–– the process is not analytical
–– it is difficult to use in a wide range of jobs

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 LEARNING UNIT 2:  Human Resources Strategy and Planning

1Summarise the differences between a job description and a job specification.

JOB DESCRIPTION JOB SPECIFICATION

2.10 CONCLUSION
We have seen that human resource strategy and planning is one of the most
1

important components that support the institution’s strategy planning. Without

human resources, institutions cannot achieve their operational or strategic
goals. It is therefore imperative that public institutions appoint competent
and qualified candidates who will use their abilities and competencies to
achieve government’s goals.

2.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Define the concept of strategy.
2. Describe the different levels of strategy.
3. Discuss how public institutions can benefit from human resource
strategies.
4. Define the concept of human resource planning.
5. Describe the difficulties that public institutions could face when
implementing strategic human resource planning.
6. Describe the steps to be followed when planning for human resources.
7. Discuss how public institutions can estimate the demands for human
resources.
8. Explain how public institutions can manage the shortage of skills.
9. Discuss the different processes in job creation (job design, job analysis,
job description, job specification and job evaluation).
10. Describe the different aspects of human resource strategies.

2.12 REFERENCES
Beardwell, J. 2004. Human resource planning. In Human resource
management: a contemporary approach, edited by I Beardwell, L
Holden & T Claydon. London: Prentice Hall:157–188.
Cox, JA. 2016. Leadership and management roles: challenges and success
strategies. AORN Journal 104(2):155–160.
Department of Public Service and Administration (DPSA). 1997. Managing
People in a Transformed Public Service: White Paper on a New

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Employment Policy for the Public Service, 2nd draft. Available at: http://
www.dpsa.gov.za/dpsa2g/documents/acts&regulations/frameworks/
white-papers/pubemploy2.pdf.
Department of Public Service and Administration (DPSA). 2008. Human
Resource Strategic Framework Version 1.1 Draft 03. Pretoria: DPSA.
DeNisi, AS & Griffin, RW. 2016. Human resources. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Foot, M & Hook, C. 2008. Introducing human resource management. New
York: Prentice Hall.
Gómez-Mejía, LR, Balkin, DB & Cardy, RL. 2010. Managing human resources.
6th edition. New York: Pearson.
Itika, JS. Fundamentals of human resource management: emerging
experiences from Africa. Leiden: African Studies Centre.
Kispal-Vitai, Z & Wood, G. 2009. Human resource planning. In Human
resource management: a critical approach, edited by DG Collings &
G Wood. New York: Routlege:169–187.
Marume, SB. 2016. Organisation and organising in public administration.
Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Science 4(6):39–43.
South Africa. 2016. Public Service Regulations. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Thompson, A, Strickland, AJ & Gamble, JE. 2007. Crafting and executing
strategy: text and readings with online learning center with premium
content card. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Van der Westhuizen, E, Wessels, J, Swanepoel, B, Erasmus, B, Van Wyk,
M & Schenk, H. 2011. South African human resource management for
the public sector. 2nd edition. Cape Town: Juta.
Zaki, KG. 2014. Human resource management: job analysis. Available at:
https://www.slideshare.net/karamgomaazaki/job-analysis-42238180

46
 3
LEARNING UNIT

Recruitment

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1 After studying this unit, you should be able to:

ƒƒ explain the concept of recruitment

ƒƒ explain how public institutions can benefit from internal recruitment
ƒƒ explain how public institutions can benefit from external recruitment
ƒƒ explain the different external recruitment methods that public institutions
can use to attract candidates
ƒƒ explain how public institutions can benefit from using both internal and
external recruitment
ƒƒ discuss the advantages and disadvantages of both internal and external
recruitment

3.1 INTRODUCTION
There are four components in the process of hiring candidates: recruitment,
1

selection, placement and socialisation.

Recruitment is the process of generating a pool of competent and qualified

1

candidates for a particular job. Selection is the process of making a “hire”

or “no hire” decision regarding each job applicant. Placement is the process
whereby a candidate is appointed to a specific position in the institution’s
hierarchy. Socialisation orients new employees to the institution and to the
department or unit in which they will be working. In this learning unit we
discuss recruitment.

3.2 DEFINITIONS
According to Van der Westhuizen, Wessels, Swanepoel, Erasmus, Van
1

Wyk and Schenk (2011:206), recruitment can be defined as those activities

in human resource management which are undertaken in order to attract
sufficient job candidates who have the necessary potential, competencies and
traits to fill job needs and to assist the public service institution in achieving
its objectives.

According to Itika (2011:192), recruitment is about attracting and finding a

1

suitably qualified substitute for an employee who is no longer working for

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an institution owing to death, retirement, transfer, promotion, dismissal or

resignation. Ineffective recruitment means that there cannot be effective
candidate selection, because when recruitment falls short, selection must go
ahead with a pool of inadequately qualified candidates. The task of recruitment
is to generate a sufficiently large pool of suitable applicants to ensure that
there are people available with the necessary skills and requirements to fill
positions as they arise.

Recruitment can also be defined as the process of exhausting all the sources
1

for finding prospective employees. It is the process of finding suitable

employees and encouraging them to apply for jobs in the institution. The
objective of recruitment is to increase the selection ratio, that is, the number
of applications per job opening (DeNisi & Griffin 2016:140–141).

1From the definitions above it is evident that recruitment is a means:

ƒƒ to create a pool of competent and qualified candidates from which
management can select candidates who meet the job requirements.
ƒƒ by which the public service can meet its HR capacity requirements.
3.3 RECRUITMENT POLICIES
A policy is a statement of intent on the part of an institution. It authorises the
1

approach every person is expected to adopt and the standards they should
achieve in carrying out the institution’s business. A recruitment policy allows
those who are involved in the process to direct their efforts and energies
towards achieving the institution’s goals. A recruitment policy should include
at least the following statements about the institution:
ƒƒ the overall goal of recruitment
ƒƒ affirmative preference
ƒƒ equality of opportunity
ƒƒ gender mainstreaming
ƒƒ preference for internal candidates
A recruitment policy is a means of indicating how recruitment procedures
1

are carried out and may be developed in future.

Recruitment is the process of finding and attracting capable applicants

1

for employment. In our context, it is the process through which suitable

candidates are introduced to compete for appointments to the public service.
In large institutions, the process of recruitment is the responsibility of a human
resource department, and use is made of specialists called recruiters. The
process of recruitment begins when new recruits are sought, and ends when
a pool of applicants submit their applications.

In South Africa the government plays an important role as producer of goods

1

and services, as a regulator of private enterprise and a complementary asset

of private production. Society cannot be strong without able and dedicated
public servants. The government requires adequate staff to provide goods
and services on a sustained basis. The recruitment process is made up of
the interrelated activities of recruitment, selection and placement, and can be
summarised as the means of placing suitable individuals in institutions. The
ways in which recruitment is accomplished have implications for many other
HR practices such as workforce planning, training performance, evaluation,

48
 LEARNING UNIT 3:  Recruitment

job design and career development. Once a pool of suitable applicants has
been created through recruitment, the process of selecting applicants begins.

This process involves a series of steps that add time and complexity to
1

the hiring decision. The placement process follows selection. This process
involves placing applicants in positions they are qualified for, and orienting
them. Because recruitment is the first step in the employment process, it is
important that it be done properly. In the discussion that follows, the various
methods used for recruitment, the constraints on and problems associated
with recruitment and the implications and effects of human resource systems
on recruitment in the public sector will be analysed.

3.4 RECRUITMENT PROCESS

The recruitment process can help the institution meet its human resource
1

capacity requirements, since it assists in the achievement of employment

equity by opening up the institution to all sectors of society. The recruitment
policy of the institution must also provide for race, gender and disability
employment equity so that the institution’s labour force is representative of
the community.

The recruitment process consists of the following twelve steps (Van der
1

Westhuizen & Wessels 2011:220–227):

ƒƒ Determine the exact need – is it really necessary to fill the post?

ƒƒ Obtain approval to recruit in terms of the HR budget and level of
appointment.
ƒƒ Compile or update job descriptions and job specifications.
ƒƒ Determine the key result areas for the job (these refer to those aspects of
the job which are crucial for its success; they normally focus on outputs
and not on job activities).
ƒƒ Consult the recruitment policy and procedure.
ƒƒ Choose the recruitment source(s) – must the person be recruited internally
or externally?
ƒƒ Decide on a recruitment method.
ƒƒ Implement the decision – apply the recruitment method.
ƒƒ Allow sufficient time for responses.
ƒƒ Screen responses.
ƒƒ Draw up an initial shortlist of candidates.
ƒƒ Advise applicants of the outcome.
ƒƒ Proceed to selection – applicants are now invited for interviews.
3.5 RECRUITMENT METHODS
According to the Public Service Regulations (South Africa 2016:79),
1

an executing authority must determine the composite requirements for

employment in any post on the basis of the inherent requirements of the
job. He or she must ensure that the requirements for employment do not
discriminate against people who were historically disadvantaged and that
they comply with statutory requirements for the appointment of employees.

There are a number of recruitment sources available to institutions. We

1

discuss the most common of these below.

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3.5.1 Internal recruitment

This source consists of employees who are already in the service of the
1

institution and who are interested in being transferred or promoted to another

position.

3.5.1.1 Current employees

Many institutions have a policy on informing current employees about
1

vacancies before trying to recruit from other sources. The human resource
department usually informs employees of vacancies through e-mail, circulars
and departmental notice boards, and employees are invited to apply for them.

Internal job posting gives current employees the opportunity to move into the
1

institution’s more desirable jobs. An internal promotion automatically creates

another job opening that can be filled.

3.5.1.2 Referrals from current employees

Research has shown that employees appointed through referrals from current
1

employees tend to stay with the institution longer and display greater loyalty
and job satisfaction than employees recruited by other means (Gómez-
Mejía, Balkin & Cardy 2010:193). Some institutions offer incentives to their
employees for successful referrals. Employee referrals can be an effective
recruitment tool, because employees have a good sense of what it takes
to be a successful worker and member of the institution. However, current
employees tend to refer candidates who are demographically similar to
themselves, which may create problems in terms of equal employment
opportunities and get in the way of transformation.

3.5.1.3 Advantages of internal recruitment

With internal recruitment the qualities of the institution’s human resources
1

are already known, whereas with external applicants the qualities of the
prospective human resources have yet to be determined. The knowledge
and experience of internal applicants are known because of their previous
and ongoing involvement in the accomplishment of the institution’s goals.
In other words, it is possible to maintain institutional knowledge and culture
(DeNisi & Griffin 2016:141).

Internal recruitment will lead to a stable workforce, since employees will

1

see opportunities for career development and permanent employment in

the institution. Tremendous cost savings will also occur, as staff turnover
and the need for orientation and training will decrease. At the same time,
employee motivation may increase substantially (DeNisi & Griffin 2016:141).

3.5.1.4 Disadvantages of internal recruitment

First, internal recruitment reduces the likelihood of introducing innovation
1

and new perspectives.

Second, the authority of employees who are being promoted to higher-level

1

jobs may be undermined; former colleagues may, for instance, expect special
treatment from a manager who used to be a colleague.

50
 LEARNING UNIT 3:  Recruitment

Third, internal recruitment may exacerbate any existing equality problems

1

(Gómez-Mejía et al. 2010:193). For example, if the institution has not previously
appointed candidates from the designated groups, internal recruitment will
not advance transformation, and it may in fact hinder employment equity in
the workforce instead (DeNisi & Griffin 2016:141).

3.5.2 External recruitment

External recruitment occurs when no suitable candidate can be found in the

1

institution, or it could occur simultaneously with internal recruitment to find

the most suitable candidate for the vacancy.

1The following external recruitment methods can be utilised.

3.5.2.1 Advertisements
Depending on the level of the vacancy, advertisements can be placed in
1

newspapers and in magazines, or broadcast on radio and television. The

advertisement must include an accurate description of the duties to be
undertaken and the qualifications required. If qualifications are essential, they
must be set at the minimum level. The language and style of the advertisement
must be clear and simple in order to attract candidates from all sectors of
society in order to achieve employment equity. If there are additional health
or security requirements, these must be clearly stated in the advertisement
(South Africa 1997:9).

According to the Public Service Regulations (South Africa 2016:79), an

1

executing authority must ensure that vacancies are advertised in such a

way as to reach the entire pool of potential candidates, especially those who
were historically disadvantaged. An advertisement must specify the inherent
requirements of the job, the job title and core functions. Vacant posts on grade
13 or higher must be advertised nationwide, and other vacant posts must
be advertised in the department as a minimum requirement, but may also
be advertised elsewhere in the public service, either nationwide or locally.

Here is a list of the elements an advertisement must include (South Africa

1

1997:37–38; South Africa 2016:80):

ƒƒ an accurate description of the duties to be undertaken

ƒƒ the criteria that will be applied in selection
ƒƒ the academic qualifications, competencies and relevant experience
required

The fact that the public service is committed to employment equity and that
1

applications from designated groups (black people, women and people with
disabilities) are encouraged to apply.

The advertisement should be designed to reach the largest possible number

1

of people in all the target groups in the most cost-effective way. Innovative
methods of advertising should be followed in order to reach those unlikely
to respond to traditional newspaper advertisements.

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3.5.2.2 Employment agencies

Employment agencies usually advertise the vacancy and screen applicants
1

against criteria specified by the employer. The employer is given a shortlist

of candidates, and selects the most suitable candidate after interviewing all
those shortlisted.

Many institutions use external contractors to recruit and screen applicants

1

for positions. The employment agency is offered a fee based on the salary
offered to the new employee. Agencies can be effective when an institution
is looking for an employee with specialised competencies (DeNisi & Griffin
2016:143–144).

3.5.2.3 Educational institutions

Institutions usually target university and college students as a pool from which
1

to recruit. Students majoring in accounting, engineering, computer science,

information technology, business and law are often considered the most
desirable candidates because of the applied training they have received.

Institutions visit job fairs and offer opportunities such as internships, which
1

are likely to be of longer duration. Competent and qualified employees are

vital to small businesses. Hiring an unsuitable person can be catastrophic
for small businesses, which do not have the luxury of reassigning workers
who are not well suited to the positions to which they were appointed.

The employer may offer a student a bursary, in exchange for which the
1

student will have to work for the employer for certain period on completion
of his or her studies. Educational institutions are an excellent source of
potential employees, particularly graduates who can be recruited for entry-
level positions in institutions.

3.5.2.4 Former employees

An institution may recruit employees who have worked for the institution
1

before. Former employees can be a source of employee referrals because

they are familiar with the institution’s culture and values.

3.5.2.5 E-recruiting
Institutions are using the web as a recruitment tool because online
1

advertisements are relatively cheap, more dynamic, and can often produce
results faster than newspaper advertisements. The web is not only an
economical and efficient means of recruitment, but it is also a convenient tool
for job seekers. E-recruiting is a paperless tool that provides institutions with
instant responses from suppliers, stakeholders, customers, candidates and
jobseekers. The internet allows public institutions to compete in the labour
market for talented candidates. E-recruiting allows the human resource
department to reach out to a wide variety of jobseekers and recruitment
agencies, it allows employees to access information, including internal
vacancies, and it allows jobseekers generally to view a variety of vacancies
across a wide range of institutions. It also allows jobseekers to respond
immediately to job advertisements (Brewster, Carey, Dowling, Grobler, Holland
& Wärnich 2007:234, 298–299; DeNisi & Griffin 2016:145).

52
 LEARNING UNIT 3:  Recruitment

3.5.2.6 Temporary workers

Temporary workers provide institutions with the flexibility to meet fluctuating
1

demands quickly. They allow institutions to bypass the time-consuming

hiring process involving job interviews and background checks, and they can
also be used over a trial period to see whether they would be suitable for
permanent employment. Temporary workers also provide a buffer between
the changing business environment and the permanent workforce.

3.5.3 Internal and external recruitment compared

External recruitment provides institutions with the advantage of fresh
1

perspectives and different approaches. It sometimes makes economic sense

to search for external specialists rather than bearing the expense of training
current employees in a new process and technology. The disadvantage of this,
however, is that current employees may see externally recruited employees
as “rookies” and therefore discount their ideas and perspectives, which
will limit their impact. It may take weeks before a new recruit has learnt the
job. Appointing someone from outside may also cause difficulties if current
employees resent the recruit for filling a job that they feel should have gone
to a qualified internal employee (Gómez-Mejía et al. 2010:193).

Internal recruitment usually takes the form of promotion and transfers. It also
1

has its advantages and disadvantages. Advantages are that it is less costly
than external recruiting, it provides a clear signal to current employees that
the institution extends opportunities for advancement, and internal recruits
are already familiar with the institution’s policies, procedures and culture.

Disadvantages, however, include the fact that it prevents new candidates from
1

entering the institution, and that it may keep out fresh ideas, perspectives
and strategies that could improve the institution’s competitiveness in the
market place (Gómez-Mejía et al. 2010:194).

3.6 CONCLUSION
We have seen that there are advantages to using both internal and external
1

recruitment methods to attract competent and qualified candidates. The

challenge lies in deciding when to appoint someone from outside the institution
and when to appoint someone internally. Everything hinges on the fit between
the candidate’s competencies and attitude, the job requirements and the
institutional requirements.

3.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Define the concept of recruitment.
2. Discuss how public institutions can benefit from internal recruitment.
3. Discuss how public institutions can benefit from external recruitment.
4. Describe the different external recruitment methods that public institutions
can use to attract candidates.
5. Discuss how public institutions can benefit from using both internal and
external recruitment.
6. List the advantages and disadvantages of internal and external recruitment.

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3.8 REFERENCES
Brewster, C, Carey, L, Dowling, P, Grobler, P, Holland, P & Wärnich, S. 2007.
Contemporary issues in human resource management: gaining a competitive
advantage. New York: Oxford University Press.
DeNisi, AS & Griffin, RW. 2016. Human resources. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Gómez-Mejía, LR, Balkin, DB & Cardy, RL. 2010. Managing human resources.
6th edition. New York: Pearson.
Itika, JS. Fundamentals of human resource management: emerging
experiences from Africa. Leiden: African Studies Centre.
South Africa. 1997. White Paper on Human Resource Management in the
Public Service. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South Africa. 2016. Public Service Regulations. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Van der Westhuizen, EJ & Wessels, JS. 2011. South African human resource
management for the public sector. Cape Town: Juta.

54
 4
LEARNING UNIT

Selection

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1 After studying this unit, you should be able to:

ƒƒ explain the concept of selection

ƒƒ explain the different selection methods that can be used to select
candidates
ƒƒ discuss the typical interview errors that members of the selection committee
tend to make
ƒƒ explain how members of the selection committee can avoid making typical
interview errors
ƒƒ explain how to use supplementary selection techniques in selecting
candidates
ƒƒ discuss the characteristics that are assessed during selection
ƒƒ discuss the questioning techniques that can be used during interviewing
ƒƒ explain how the law ensures that candidates are treated fairly during
selection

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Selection is the second step in the employment process. During selection,
1

it is determined whether candidates comply with the job requirements, and

attempts are made to select candidates who are competent and qualified.

4.2 DEFINITIONS
Selection is the process of making a hire or no hire decision regarding each
1

applicant for a job. The process involves determining the characteristics

required for effective job performance and measuring applicants on those
characteristics, which are based on a job analysis (Gómez-Mejía, Balkin &
Cardy 2010:189). In the view of DeNisi and Griffin (2016:146), selection is
concerned with identifying the best candidate or candidates for a job from a
pool of qualified applicants developed during the recruiting process.

In the context of the public sector, Van der Westhuizen, Wessels, Swanepoel,
1

Erasmus, Van Wyk and Schenk (2011:233) define selection as “the process
of trying to determine which individuals may best match particular jobs in the

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public sector institutional context, taking into account individual differences,

the requirements of the job and the institution’s internal and external
environments.” Selection is based on individual differences between human
beings, with acknowledgement of the fact that attributes differ widely from
person to person. Each individual possesses unique traits and abilities, and
so selection is the prediction of the future in terms of individual differences.

Selection requires information about the job or work in question and about
1

the knowledge, skills and abilities needed to do the job successfully. The
selection decision, therefore, requires one to know how such knowledge, skills
and abilities can be assessed, which makes the proper use of predictors in
selection very important. Obviously, this is not an easy task. In view of the
complexity of the task, public service employers need to take precautions
to avoid the enormous costs that may be incurred through faulty employee
selections.

4.3 POLICY AND PROCEDURES

A sound selection policy and properly designed procedures provide guidance
1

and support to line managers and others involved in the selection process
in carrying out this duty successfully. Selection policies are a statement of
the institution’s intentions, and are intended to achieve the following:

ƒƒ equality of opportunity
ƒƒ the provision of information about targeted groups
ƒƒ the appointment of candidates who will be productive and committed staff
ƒƒ opportunities for candidates to develop their full potential
ƒƒ the appointment of candidates on merit
ƒƒ selection procedures should help with decisions about the following:
ƒƒ the stages and techniques that should be used
ƒƒ who is to be involved in assessing candidates
ƒƒ administrative processes
ƒƒ composition of a shortlisting panel and selection committee
ƒƒ guidelines on non-discriminatory questioning
ƒƒ the appropriateness of testing
ƒƒ whether references should be taken up and when
4.3.1 Shortlisting
The first step is to reduce the group of applicants to a manageable size, which
1

is a process known as shortlisting. This is based on the written information

that applicants have supplied.

(a) Screening applications

On their applications, applicants often provide information which is either not
1

relevant or not required for making a selection decision. Shortlisting makes it

possible to record information that is relevant for making a selection decision,
such as educational qualifications, skills, work experience, race and gender.
Shortlisting allows selectors to refer to the notes instead of the original
application, which assists in eliminating any unconscious biases as well as
avoiding criteria that have been designated as unlawfully discriminatory.
Furthermore, it allows selectors to avoid considering any other criteria that
are not related to the candidate’s ability to do the job (Foot & Hook 2008:177).

56
 LEARNING UNIT 4:  Selection

(b) A shortlisting checklist

Foot and Hook (2008:179) make the following suggestions regarding
1

shortlisting:

ƒƒ At least two people should shortlist applicants independently.

ƒƒ Note where applicants meet and/or fall short of the person specifications
or competency profile.
ƒƒ On the basis of agreed criteria, divide all applications into the categories
of suitable, possible or unsuitable.
ƒƒ Rank the suitable applications.
ƒƒ The people who do the shortlisting should only compare person
specifications or competency criteria, and select a suitable number of
applicants to call for an interview.
ƒƒ Use the IT system with caution.

4.3.2 Selection committee

In terms of the Gender Equity Act, the selection committee must be
1

representative of the management team and must also reflect gender and
race in the particular institution. For instance, if 60% of the managerial
positions in the department are held by women, this must be reflected in
the selection committee. If not, this might create doubts about the choice of
candidates that will be selected by the committee – employees will perceive
the committee as leaning more towards their own gender and race choices
of candidates.

The Public Service Regulations (South Africa 2016:82) state that an executing
1

authority must appoint a selection committee to make recommendations

on appointments to posts. This committee must consist of at least three
members who are on the same or a higher grade level than the vacancy in
question. The chairperson must be an employee and must be on a higher
grade level than the post to be filled. The committee must be adequately
representative of historically disadvantaged people.

The selection committee must make a recommendation on the suitability of

1

a candidate after considering the following (South Africa 2016:84):

ƒƒ information based on valid methods, criteria or instruments for selection

that are free from discrimination
ƒƒ the training, skills, competence and knowledge necessary to meet the
requirements of the post
ƒƒ the need of the department to develop human resources
ƒƒ the representativeness of the component where the post is located and
the department’s affirmative action programme

According to Van der Westhuizen et al. (2011:234), the following guidelines

1

should direct the selection committee:

ƒƒ Gather as much relevant information as possible about a candidate.

ƒƒ Use suitable systems to organise and evaluate the information gathered.
ƒƒ Assess each candidate objectively, considering equal employment
opportunities and affirmative action policies.

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ƒƒ Make relevant information about the institution available to suitable

candidates to help them decide whether or not to accept an offer of
employment.
ƒƒ Consider aspects such as qualifications, experience, competencies,
abilities, employment equity and affirmative action policies.
ƒƒ Consider the interpersonal skills of candidates – are they team players?
ƒƒ Consider the answers supplied and conduct of candidates during the
interview.
ƒƒ Consider the values and behaviour of candidates.
ƒƒ The rationale behind this thinking is that skills can be taught, but values
and behaviour are far more difficult to change, as they reflect the intrinsic
orientation of people.

In the public sector, values and behaviours are considered important in the
1

achievement of the institutional goal of service delivery. Important legislation

and government policies include the South African Constitution (in particular
Chapter 2, the Bill of Rights) and Batho Pele – “People First”, the White
Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery.

4.4 SELECTION METHODS

According to Cook (2009:23), assessment methods should be assessed
1

against the following six criteria, because a selection method does not
automatically possess all these qualities:

Reliability : giving a consistent account of applicants

Validity : selecting good applicants and rejecting poor ones
Fairness : complying with equal opportunities legislation
Acceptability : to applicants as well as the institution
Cost- : saving the institution more than it costs to use
effectiveness
Ease of use : fitting into the selection process

According to Gómez-Mejía et al. (2010:200–210), some of the above qualities

1

can be observed in the following selection methods, which can be used to

fill vacancies.

4.4.1 The application form

The application form is a quick method of obtaining personal information
1

about a candidate. Application forms must be designed in such a way that

they are easy to complete. They should also convey a good impression, be
physically robust and be well designed so that they can be used unchanged
over a number of years.

Application forms should make provision for applicants to supply the following
1

information:

ƒƒ the vacancy for which the applicant is applying

ƒƒ biographical information about the candidate such as his or her initials,
surname, address and telephone numbers

58
 LEARNING UNIT 4:  Selection

ƒƒ information about the applicant’s previous employer

ƒƒ information about the applicant’s training and qualifications
The main purpose of an application form is to gather information which
1

can be used to decide whether or not a candidate is suitable for a vacancy.

Preliminary selection of all the candidates who have applied for a vacancy
occurs after all application forms have been received (DeNisi & Griffin
2016:149). In other words, the information on the application forms can help
to determine whether or not candidates comply with the requirements of the
vacancy. You can contact previous employers to verify whether a candidate
possesses characteristics such as honesty and reliability and certain skills.

Candidates who do not comply with the requirements of the vacancy are
1

rejected and not tested any further. All the unsuccessful candidates are
notified of the outcome of the selection process. The candidates who have
complied with the requirements of the vacancy are shortlisted and subjected
to other selection criteria such as interviews and selection tests.

4.4.2 Curriculum vitae analysis

Asking applicants to submit a curriculum vitae (CV) ensures that information
1

is provided in a standardised way, and this can be used when making

a comparative analysis of candidates. As in the case of an application
form, information such as biographical details, qualifications and previous
experience is normally reflected in a CV. Some institutions require candidates
to complete an application form when applying for a vacancy, and state that
the applicant must submit their CV together with the application form.

4.4.3 References
Some interviewers do not pay any attention to references, feeling that they
1

cannot be trusted. However, whether they are false or true, references should
be checked by making direct enquiries and noting the responses.

4.4.4 Written assessment

The more senior the management position, the more relevant the assessment
1

method. The ability to write concise and clear reports is a key skill for most
managerial jobs and written tasks can assist in the assessment of originality
and clarity of thought. Administrators involved in service delivery will often
be expected to respond in writing to a complaint about services or the lack
thereof.

4.4.5 Selection tests

A selection test or employment test is an instrument or technique for measuring
1

characteristics such as intelligence, personality and aptitude (DeNisi & Griffin

2016:149). There is a wide range of selection tests which psychologists and
their trained assistants can employ to assess many things, and various
aptitude tests exist for particular types of work such as draughtsmanship,

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computer programming, and statistical and clerical work. There are also
tests of intellectual capacity and personality assessments.

Most of the above tests are described as psychometric tests, since they
1

measure personality traits or intellectual capacity. These tests should never

be used by untrained managers or HR practitioners. They are sensitive,
complex tools and should always be validated by trained psychologists, even
though they may be administered and interpreted by the HR practitioner.

Candidates should be assured of confidentiality in the tests and debriefed

1

sensitively regarding the results.

4.4.6 Interviews

The purpose of the interview is to gather more information about the applicant
1

and to select the best candidate for the vacancy in question. In the case of
most interviews, the interview panel will include one or more staff members
of the institution, for instance staff members from the human resources
department, the head of the department and other staff from the department
where the vacancy exists, as well as union members.

There are three types of interviews, namely structured, semi-structured and

1

unstructured interviews.

4.4.6.1 Structured interviews

The interviewer using the structured approach prepares a list of standardised
1

questions in advance and does not deviate from it. The applicant’s responses
are noted on a standard form. The questions are of a forced-choice nature,
and the interviewer notes the response simply by making a check mark on
the form (DeNisi & Griffin 2016:154).

This type of interview is restrictive, since the information gathered is narrow

1

and the interviewer cannot adapt the questions to the applicant. Furthermore,
the applicant is denied the opportunity to elaborate on his or her answers
to the questions.

4.4.6.2 Semi-structured interviews

Only the major questions to be asked are prepared in advance. This approach
1

is more flexible because the interviewer is free to explore those areas which
seem to merit further investigation (DeNisi & Griffin 2016:154).

4.4.6.3 Unstructured interviews

According to DeNisi and Griffin (2016:154), the interviewer conducting an
1

unstructured interview may or may not prepare a list of questions to be

asked during the interview. An advantage of this type of interview is that
the interviewer has the freedom to adapt to the situation and to individual
applicants. In other words, any type of question can be asked, since there
are no predetermined questions.

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 LEARNING UNIT 4:  Selection

4.4.7 The interview process

The interview process consists of five stages: interviewer preparation, creating
1

a rapport, information exchange, termination and evaluation.

INTERVIEWER PREPARATION
The interviewer needs to prepare questions, and the applicants’ answers will
1

determine whether they are suitable for the vacancy. The interviewer must
remember that applicants will probably ask questions about the position for
which they have applied, and the interviewer must be able to answer these.

Good advice to any interviewer is to review the job description applicable

1

to the position being advertised. Interviewers may not ask questions about
an applicant’s age or religion, since such questions are discriminatory.
Always remember to make the interview process efficient and comfortable
for the applicant. If the interviewer does not show courtesy to the applicant,
misperceptions may result, and it is likely that a strong and lasting negative
opinion of the institution will be formed.

You might like to share some of your experiences of interviews with your fellow
1

students. How were you selected for your last job? Discuss any problems
you may have had relating to the interviews.

CREATING A RAPPORT
It is the responsibility of the interviewer to establish a rapport with the
1

candidate, as this will help to put the applicant at ease. General questions
such as, “Did you experience any parking problems?” can be used as an
icebreaker. The interviewer can use body language such as smiling, shaking
hands, nodding and adopting a relaxed posture to help the applicant relax.

INFORMATION EXCHANGE
Some interviewers start the interview by asking the candidates whether they
1

have any questions. Doing this will help to establish a rapport and will allow
two-way communication. The interviewer can then evaluate the candidate
on the type of questions asked.

The interviewer will ask questions in such a way as to gather as much

1

information as possible from the candidate. Questions starting with “how”,

“what”, “why”, “compare”, “describe” or “tell me more about” will provide a

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more open response, while questions starting with “Are you ...” or “Did you
...” often elicit only “yes” or “no” answers.

TERMINATION
The interviewer must draw the interview to a close, and non-verbal
1

communication is useful here too. Examples of non-verbal communication

which can be used to indicate that the interview has come to an end are
glancing at a watch or clock, turning towards the door, or sitting upright. The
interviewer can also terminate the interview by asking, “Do you have any
final questions?”

An interviewer must never give an applicant an indication of what their

1

prospects of getting the job are. The final step is to explain to applicants
that they must wait for the outcome of the selection decision, and how this
will be communicated to them.

EVALUATION
The interviewer must record specific answers and general impressions of
1

the candidate immediately after the interview. The reliability of interviews can
be increased if a checklist is used to rate each applicant on aspects such
as their experience, training, ability to perform the job, and attitude towards
their previous job.

4.5 INTERVIEWER ERRORS

Foot and Hook (2008:179–181) identify the following interviewer errors that
1

may occur during interviews.

4.5.1 The halo effect

Certain candidates make a very strong impression on the interviewers as
1

soon as they enter the room. They are well dressed and attractive, and appear
comfortable and confident. Research has shown that the good impression
tends to influence their interpretation of everything else that happens in the
interview positively, and the interviewers will seek more positive information to
confirm their initial judgement – this is known as the halo effect. The opposite
can occur, however, if a candidate makes an initial negative impression – this
is known as the horns effect.

4.5.2 Hiring people like yourself

It is a human tendency to identify with people who are like you and share
1

some of your characteristics. Research has shown that interviewers tend

to award higher scores to applicants whom they perceive to be similar to
themselves in terms of unimportant issues such as hobbies or favourite foods.
These are known as similar-to-me errors. For example, an outgoing person
may feel more comfortable with someone who is an extrovert. However,
these characteristics do not equate with the ability to perform a job. It will
be detrimental to an institution to employ only like-minded people.

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 LEARNING UNIT 4:  Selection

4.5.3 Stereotyping
Some interviewers allow their stereotyped images of people to influence
1

selection decisions. This occurs, for example, when an interviewer identifies

a candidate as belonging to a certain group, race or ethnic group, or gender,
and simply assumes that the candidate has a range of characteristics
generally accepted as common to all members of that group – for example,
the interviewer may classify all students as irresponsible and lazy. However,
interviewers must remember that members of a group do not all automatically
have the same characteristics.

4.5.4 Making snap decisions

Research has shown that some interviewers make up their minds about a
1

candidate in the first five minutes of the interview, and do not subsequently
change their assessment of the person’s suitability.

4.5.5 Making assumptions

The halo effect, making snap decisions and stereotyping are all forms of
1

assumptions based on limited information. For example, an interviewer may

assume that a woman would not move her family to take up a new position
elsewhere.

4.5.6 First-impression error

There is a tendency for interviewers to make up their minds at the beginning
1

of the interview. This is known as a first-impression error.

4.5.7 Contrast effect

A contrast error occurs when an interviewer is overly influenced for or
1

against an applicant by the interviews conducted with other applicants. For

example, when a qualified applicant is followed by an exceptional applicant,
the first applicant’s qualifications tend to pale by comparison, and as a
result the evaluation of the qualified applicant may be lower than it should
be. Interviewers must also avoid making decisions which are based on an
applicant’s physical attractiveness.

4.6 ELIMINATING INTERVIEWER ERRORS

Foot and Hook (2008:181–183) propose a number of ways to eliminate
1

interviewer errors.

4.6.1 Gather sufficient information

The interviewers should make a decision on the suitability of a candidate only
1

once all the relevant information has been considered. Gathering information
allows interviewers to make better decisions which allow them to:

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ƒƒ resist the halo/horns effect

ƒƒ make an effort to gather more information
ƒƒ give candidates every opportunity to present themselves fully
4.6.2 Structured interviews
Structured interviews will allow interviewers to gather sufficient information
1

about all candidates. Structured interviews involve the following steps:

ƒƒ design a set of questions to elicit information relevant to the selection

decision
ƒƒ provide all candidates with the opportunity to answer the complete set
of questions

4.6.3 More than one interviewer

Research has shown that there should be at least two interviewers involved in
1

the selection process. The trend is to delegate the responsibility for selection
to line managers because they are familiar with the work to be done and are
well placed to judge whether candidates have the appropriate knowledge, skills
and personal qualities. However, human resource management specialists
should be involved in the selection process, because they are responsible
for the institution’s equal opportunity programmes. Involving other members
of the department or members from other departments should increase the
acceptance of the new employee. However, the opposite may also happen
– people might gang up against the candidate.

4.6.4 Have only trained people conduct interviews

The purpose of the selection process is to select the best person for the
1

post in a fair and objective manner. All interviewers should be trained to be

more aware of equal opportunity issues, and their questioning skills must
be developed.

4.6.5 Allow sufficient time for interviews

Sufficient time must be allowed to complete the interview. Research has
1

shown that it takes more than a few minutes to get a good sense of the
candidate’s personality, and this is extremely important, as the intention
is for the candidate to be part of the organisation for many years to come.

4.7 SUPPLEMENTARY SELECTION TECHNIQUES

Interviews are not likely to be replaced as a selection method. Supplementary
1

selection techniques allow institutions to complement the information gained

from the interview and to integrate these additional measures into their
selection and decision-making processes.

Foot and Hook (2008:205–209) propose the following supplementary selection

1

techniques that can assist managers in making selection decisions.

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 LEARNING UNIT 4:  Selection

4.7.1 Psychological testing

Psychological testing is sometimes referred to as psychometric testing. It
1

is a method of acquiring objective information about a range of individual

activities and traits. Psychological tests have the following characteristics:
ƒƒ They are professionally developed and checked for reliability and validity.
ƒƒ They test maximum performance and habitual performance.
ƒƒ They result in scores that can be compared against norms for relevant
populations.

1Psychological testing adds the following to the selection process:

ƒƒ an element of objectivity
ƒƒ greater predictive validity of selection decisions
ƒƒ measurement of some factors that cannot be assessed through the
application form and interviews

Psychological tests cover a range of human characteristics and may assess

1

ability, intelligence, interests, motivation and personality.

4.7.2 Personality questionnaire

Personality questionnaires measure personality characteristics, and consist
1

of questions for which there are no right or wrong answers. This type of
questionnaire examines aspects of personality that have been shown
through research to correlate with performance at work. The best-known
personality questionnaire is Cattle’s 16 personality factor test (16PF), which
makes use of 16 elements to describe the whole spectrum of an individual’s
personality. Characteristics such as reserved–outgoing, tough-minded–
sensitive, conservative–experimenting and relaxed–tense are included.

4.7.3 Intelligence tests

General intelligence tests assess ability with regard to a range of skills such
1

as verbal, arithmetical and diagrammatical reasoning, producing an overall

score.

4.7.4 Ability tests

These tests focus on specific mental abilities and produce separate scores
1

for the different skills. Attainment tests assess skills and knowledge that
have been acquired through experience and learning, whereas aptitude tests
measure the person’s potential to develop ability. There are aptitude tests
for specific occupations such as computer programming. Work sample tests
or school exams are examples of attainment tests – these do not require
special training.

4.7.5 Interest and motivation tests

Interest tests can be used for career guidance and counselling, while
1

motivation tests can be used for decisions about how best to manage people
and enhance their performance by responding to what motivates them.

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4.8 WHAT IS ASSESSED IN HUMAN RESOURCE SELECTION?

A short answer to this question is: the ability to do the work. Cook (2009:10–
1

12), DeNisi and Griffin (2016:149–153) identify a number of characteristics

that should be assessed during the selection process.

4.8.1 Mental ability

Mental ability is divided into general mental ability (GMA or intelligence) and
1

applied mental skills – for example, problem-solving, practical judgement,

clerical ability or mechanical comprehension. For the purpose of assessing
or measuring mental skills, cognitive ability tests ought to be conducted.
Some jobs need sensory abilities, keen hearing, good balance and good
hand–eye coordination – one thinks here of careers in medicine, or sport.

4.8.2 Physical characteristics

Some jobs need specific physical abilities such as strength, endurance
1

and dexterity – one thinks here of the work of fire fighters, disaster-control
personnel, soldiers and policemen and women. In this regard, psychomotor
ability tests play an important role in assessing hand–eye coordination,
strength and manual dexterity.

4.8.3 Personality
Personality traits should be taken into consideration when appointing
1

candidates. These have the potential to yield relevant information about

an individual’s tendencies to behave in a specific way. These tendencies
should be matched with job requirements. For example, it might make more
sense to appoint an extrovert as a sales person or to sell insurance because
extroverts like to meet people, and feel at ease when engaging with strangers.

4.8.4 Knowledge and attitude

All work requires a degree of knowledge. Knowledge can be acquired through
1

training. Attitude is a person’s disposition, in this case towards the institution

and its employees, and it is something that cannot be acquired through
training. It is an inherent process that starts at home during childhood. Of
course, people can cultivate the appropriate attitude, but in general it may be
better to appoint a candidate with a suitable attitude rather than knowledge,
since knowledge is something that can be acquired. There are different
types of knowledge:
1Declarative – knowing that the Department of Public Service and
Administration is responsible for human resource policies
in the public sector
1Procedural – knowing how to process an application for political asylum
1Tacit – knowing how and when to take decisive measures to
prevent corruption within a public sector institution

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 LEARNING UNIT 4:  Selection

4.8.5 Work skills

Skills are the ability to do something quickly and efficiently: examples
1

are driving a car, painting a house, nursing a patient and scoring a goal.
Institutions sometimes select for skills and sometimes train for them. Social
skills are essential in many jobs. These include communication, persuasion,
negotiation, influence, leadership and teamwork.

4.9 INTERVIEW QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES

There are various questioning techniques that can be used during the
1

selection process (Foot & Hook 2008:186–196):

ƒƒ silence, conversational sounds, non-verbal cues

ƒƒ paraphrasing and asking for clarification
ƒƒ closed questions
ƒƒ open-ended questions
ƒƒ leading questions
ƒƒ situational and behavioural questions
ƒƒ situational interview questions
ƒƒ behavioural interview questions
ƒƒ questions that probe
ƒƒ questions to be avoided
ƒƒ discriminatory questions
ƒƒ questions for candidates with little or no work experience
ƒƒ encouraging candidates to talk

4.10 THE LAW AND SELECTION

1Section 9 of the Constitution emphasises the equality of all South Africans.

Section 9(1) describes the position of every South African in relation to the
1

law: everyone “is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection
and benefit of the law”.

Section 9(2) explains the practical implications of this concept as “the full
1

and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms”.

Section 9(3) prohibits direct and indirect unfair discrimination on the basis of,
1

among other things, race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or
social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience,
belief, culture, language and birth. These provisions of the Constitution of
1996 thus imply that neither the state nor any other person or entity can use
the above to discriminate against a candidate during the selection process.

4.10.1 The Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998

According to the Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998, equity in the workplace
1

can be achieved through:

ƒƒ promoting equal opportunity and fair treatment in employment through
the elimination of unfair discrimination

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ƒƒ implementing affirmative action measures to redress the disadvantages

in employment experienced by designated groups in order to ensure their
equitable representation in all occupational categories and levels in the
workforce

4.10.2 The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair

Discrimination Act 4 of 2000
According to the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination
1

Act 4 of 2000, equity is the full and equal enjoyment of rights and freedoms,
which include de jure and de facto equality and also equality in terms of
outcomes. These provisions include the promotion of equality through
legislative and other measures designed to protect or advance people
disadvantaged by past and present unfair discrimination. The provisions of
the Act apply not only to people who have been disadvantaged, but also to
those who are currently being disadvantaged.

These laws state that discrimination in all terms and conditions of employment
1

is illegal. This affects selection as well as other institutional practices such

as employee training and performance management.

4.11 SELECTION AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

Affirmative action must be considered in the selection process. According
1

to the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act, all

government institutions are required to have affirmative action programmes in
place. The purpose of these programmes is to eliminate any underutilisation
that might occur in an institution’s employment practices. Selection committees
must make selection decisions without discriminating against designated
groups.

Each of the interview errors we discussed earlier may have serious implications
1

for selecting the right people for the job. Fill in the information missing from
the table below to suggest ways in which each error could be avoided.

ERROR HOW TO AVOID IT

1. Contrast error

2. First impression error

3. Making assumptions

4. Physical attractiveness error

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 LEARNING UNIT 4:  Selection

ERROR HOW TO AVOID IT

5. Halo effect

6. Hiring people like yourself

7. Stereotyping

4.12 CONCLUSION
We have discovered that selection is one of the most important steps in
1

the recruitment process. It is here that the selection committee’s integrity is

tested in appointing competent and qualified candidates or following their
own agenda. We have spoken about the various techniques that managers
can use to ensure a good fit between the competencies of candidates and
job requirements.

4.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Define the concept of selection.
2. Describe the different methods that can be used to select candidates.
3. Discuss typical interview errors that are made during interviews.
4. Describe how members of the selection committee can avoid typical
interview errors.
5. Discuss how supplementary selection techniques can be used in selecting
candidates.
6. Describe the characteristics that are assessed during the selection of
candidates for a position.
7. Discuss the questioning techniques that can be used during interviewing.
8. Discuss how the law ensures that candidates are treated fairly during
selection.

4.14 REFERENCES
Cook, M. 2009. Personnel selection: adding value through people. West
Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.
DeNisi, AS & Griffin, RW. 2016. Human resources. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Foot, M & Hook, C. 2008. Introducing human resource management. New
York: Prentice-Hall.
Gómez-Mejía, LR, Balkin, DB & Cardy, RL. 2010. Managing human resources.
6th edition. New York: Pearson.
South Africa. 1995. Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995. Pretoria: Government
Printer.
South Africa. 1996. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa of 1996.
Pretoria: Government Printer.

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South Africa. 1997. White Paper on a New Employment Policy for the Public
Service. Pretoria: Government Printer
South Africa. 1998. Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998. Pretoria: Government
Printer.
South Africa. 2000. Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair
Discrimination Act 4 of 2000. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South Africa. 2016. Public Service Regulations. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Van der Westhuizen, E, Wessels, J, Swanepoel, B, Erasmus, B, Van Wyk,
M & Schenk, H. 2011. South African human resource management for
the public sector. 2nd edition. Cape Town: Juta.

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 5
LEARNING UNIT

Employee training

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1 After studying this unit, you should be able to:

ƒƒ explain the concept of staff training, the reasons for staff training, the steps
in the training process as well as the various training methods
ƒƒ explain the concepts of career planning and career development and the
components of the career stage model
ƒƒ identify and discuss the skills that public servants must have
ƒƒ discuss the implications of the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998 for the
career development of employees
ƒƒ define lifelong learning according to the NQF
ƒƒ explain how affirmative action employees can benefit from training
ƒƒ explain the concept of learning
ƒƒ explain how public managers can strengthen management development
in their institutions
ƒƒ explain the macrofactors which affect training in South Africa
ƒƒ explain how the Higher Education Act creates an environment in South
Africa that enhances training and encourages lifelong learning
ƒƒ explain the training tools that public managers can use to improve training
in their institutions

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning, training and development equip employees with skills to perform
1

their functions and allow institutions to build capacity. Learning increases

the competencies and skills of employees and their employability. We will
discuss the steps which are required in the training process as well as the
various training methods which can be used to build capacity.

We will look at the various development methods and management

1

development, as these elements equip managers with the competencies and

skills to deal with the ever-changing processes that influence the productivity
and effectiveness of the institution.

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5.2 TRAINING OF HUMAN RESOURCES

5.2.1 The public sector’s education and training policy vision

“The development of a dedicated, productive and people-centred public
1

service staffed by public servants whose performance is maximised and

whose potential is fully developed via the comprehensive provision of
appropriate and adequate training and education at all levels” (South Africa
1998b:14).

5.2.2 The public sector’s education and training policy mission

“The creation of a co-ordinated framework for ensuring the provision of
1

appropriate and adequate public service training and education that will meet
the current and future needs of public servants and contribute positively to
the realisation of the above vision” (South Africa 1998b:14).

5.2.3 Values and principles underlying the vision and mission

The public service’s vision and mission rest on the following foundational
1

principles:

ƒƒ equal access to training opportunities for all staff at all levels

ƒƒ the empowerment of previously disadvantaged and marginalised groups
ƒƒ democratic, non-racist and non-sexist policies, practices and values
ƒƒ lifelong learning through the National Qualifications Framework (NQF)
ƒƒ effective career paths for all public servants
ƒƒ broad participation and involvement by all relevant stakeholders
ƒƒ mutual understanding, respect and tolerance of diversity
ƒƒ quality and cost-effectiveness in human resource utilisation
ƒƒ efficiency, effectiveness and a professional service ethos
ƒƒ flexibility and decentralisation with regard to national norms and standards
5.2.4 Definitions of training
Training is the creation of an environment where employees may acquire
1

specific work-related behaviours, knowledge, skills, abilities and competencies.

Training is a systematic imparting of skills, rules, concepts or attitudes which
enhance effectiveness and efficiency and increase employee performance.
Development is the process of teaching managers and professionals the skills
required for current and prospective vacancies (DeNisi & Griffin 2016:161).
Therefore, work in itself should be instructive, and the employee has to
experience the job as a learning opportunity.

According to the Public Service Regulations (South Africa 2016:95),

1

supervisors must provide training opportunities for employees under their

supervision and control in accordance with the departmental training plan.
Supervisors must ensure that sufficient funds are available for training, and
senior management must make themselves available to train employees in
the public service or to present training.

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

5.2.5 Value of training

According to Aguinis and Kraiger (2009:453), training results in improved job
1

performance and other positive changes such as acquisition of new skills.

Training activities “provide benefits for individuals, teams, and organizations
that improve a nation’s human capital, which in turn contributes to a nation’s
economic growth”.

There should be commitment to investing the necessary resources to train the

1

workforce. Training is an investment of time and money in the development of

employees. It should, therefore, be supported by top and senior management.
Managers should create a culture of learning in which subordinates are trained
and developed to meet the institution’s demands and keep abreast of rapid
technological advancement, particularly in information and telecommunication
technology.

5.2.6 Learning
Learning is a process by means of which employees acquire skills and
1

proficiency in a task which, in turn, allows them to perform the specific task
more productively (Colling 2004:273). Learning is influenced by numerous
factors: for instance, the learner might have poor learning skills or limited
learning styles; may have poor communications skills; may be unwilling to
take risks, or may be prone to fear or a sense of insecurity. Anxiety and
lack of confidence are frequently emphasised as significant impediments
to learning (Colling 2004:287).

Continuous learning is self-directed, conscious and reflective learning from

1

experience which is consciously managed in the institution. The basic principle

of reflective experiential learning is contained in Kolb’s (1984) Concept
Learning Cycle. In this learning cycle managers learn through a process
of implementation, reflection, making changes and initiating further action.

Action learning has been given fullest expression in the work of Revans (1983),
1

who viewed learning (L) as a combination of what he terms programmed

knowledge (P) and questioning insight (Q): thus L = P + Q. When facing
unprecedented changes, managers cannot know what programmed
knowledge they will need. Instead, they need to understand the subjective
aspects of searching the unfamiliar or learning to pose useful and searching
questions. Therefore, action learning becomes a simple device for setting
them to tackle real problems that have so far defied solution.

Managerial learning has to embrace both “know-how” and “know-that”, and

1

has to be rooted in real problem-solving, because managers need both past

experience and to acquire fresh knowledge. In finding solutions to current
problems, they may prefer to work with colleagues who are engaged in the
same process rather than with non-managers who are not exposed to real risk.

Action learning principles include the fact that management development

1

should be based on real work projects, which should be owned and defined
by senior managers as having a significant impact on the future success
of the enterprise, and that managers should aim to achieve a real return
on the cost of the investment, work together and learn from one another,

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achieve real action and change, study the content and process of change
and publicly commit themselves to action (Collin 2004:302).

According to Colling (2004:276–279) and Park and Jacobs (2011:440), the

1

outcomes of learning are:

ƒƒ skills
ƒƒ competencies
ƒƒ “know-how”, or tacit knowledge
ƒƒ employability
Skills are the performance of any task which, for its successful and rapid
1

completion, requires employees to use a range of skills and talents to

complete a variety of work activities.

Competency is the ability to perform the activities in an occupational area to

1

the levels of performance expected in employment. Competency integrates

knowledge and skills that are assessed by performance.

Know-how is the tacit knowledge of how to execute something. This knowledge

1

is acquired through practical experience rather than through instruction

(Colling 2004:276–278; Kaymaz 2010:73).

According to McShane and Von Glinow (2007:7), employability is the

1

employment relationship in which the job is a temporary event and employees

are expected to continuously learn skills that will keep them employed in
a variety of work activities. Employability replaces the job-for-life contract.
It makes employees more flexible in dealing with downsizing, restructuring
and the outsourcing of non-core activities.

Learning implies that employees have mastered the subject to be learnt

1

and are ready to apply their knowledge and skills to a work activity. It
equips employees with skills to complete different work activities; it equips
employees with competencies to deal with complex corporate challenges by
using their conceptual and analytical skills; it stimulates employees to use
their experiences and exposure to find solutions to complex problems and it
enables employees to achieve self-actualisation by providing opportunities
for training and development.

5.2.7 Steps in the training process

According to Erasmus and Van Dyk (2005:155–162), there are seven steps
1

in the training process.

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

Figure 5.1:  Steps in the training process

1Source:  Erasmus and Van Dyk (2005:155)

5.2.7.1 Identify training needs

1Possible methods for determining training needs are:
(a) Observation
Supervisors can directly observe the limitations of their subordinates,
and these can be corrected through training.
(b) Questionnaires
Questionnaires can be sent to employees to determine their training
needs.
(c) Consultation and interviewing
Training needs can be identified through the process of consultation.
(d) Tests
Having employees undergo tests makes it possible to identify
shortcomings, which can be corrected through training.
(e) Technological developments
Employees must undergo training in the latest technological developments,
for example the latest software packages.

5.2.7.2 Determine training objectives

Any training must be outcomes-based, in other words, it must be directed
1

at what staff will be expected to be able to do on completion of the training

course. Training objectives must be formulated so that they can serve as
criteria to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of the training programme.

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5.2.7.3 Identify the training group

Identify aspects of the group such as participants’ level of competence,
1

their education, their experience and whether they have received any form
of relevant training before.

5.2.7.4 Determine the training programme

The aim of the training programme is to increase staff productivity and to
1

improve their skills. The length of the training programme is important, and a
decision must be made about whether the training will be conducted over a
short or long period of time. Another decision that must be made is whether
internal or external trainers will be used. The trainer must choose from among
the training methods available, and a budget for the implementation of the
training programme must be determined.

5.2.7.5 Orientation of staff

Staff must be informed in advance of what they can expect from the training,
1

and they must be allowed to ask questions and participate in discussions.

5.2.7.6 Implement the training programme

This phase involves aspects such as acquiring the services of trained training
1

officers, facilities such as venues and informing those who are to undergo
training. In other words, those who are responsible for providing training
within an institution must see to it that training takes place without a hitch
(Holden 2004:326–327).

5.2.7.7 Evaluate training effectiveness

The purpose of evaluating training is to see whether the training needs that
1

were identified have been met and whether the feedback obtained is useful
for future training.

5.2.8 P
 rinciples affecting the formulation, implementation and
evaluation of public service training
According to the White Paper on Public Service Training and Education, the
1

formulation, implementation and evaluation of public service training and

education must be carried out in accordance with the following principles
(South Africa 1998b:41).

5.2.8.1 Access and entitlement

All public servants are entitled to ongoing and meaningful opportunities for
1

training, both when they are first recruited and throughout their careers.

5.2.8.2 Needs analysis

Programmes for training must be based on a detailed assessment of the
1

needs of individuals and employers, and the programmes must be designed

to ensure proper integration between these two sets of needs.

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

Complete the table below by filling in some of the needs of employers and
1

employees that would be fulfilled through training.

EMPLOYER’S NEEDS EMPLOYEES’ NEEDS

5.2.8.3 A competency-based approach to learning outcomes

The focus must be on outcomes rather than inputs with reference to the
1

competencies required at different levels to build individual and institutional

capacity.

5.2.8.4 Integration between policy formulation, strategic

planning and transformation
Government departments must link training to the broader processes of policy
1

formulation, strategic planning and transformation at national, departmental

and provincial levels, particularly in relation to service delivery, institution
building, human resource development, representativeness and affirmative
action.

5.2.8.5 Adequate resources

Adequate resources are vital for the success of the training system, and
1

these must be integrated with plans for training as a central element in the
budget planning process at national, departmental and provincial levels.

5.2.8.6 Flexibility and decentralisation

Training programmes must be designed to be flexible so as to meet the
1

changing needs of departments and provinces, and responsibility should

be decentralised in accordance with agreed national norms and standards.

5.2.8.7 Career paths

Training programmes must facilitate career paths for all staff to promote
1

productivity and vertical and lateral progression, and they must relate
positively to policies on recruitment, promotion, remuneration and performance
appraisal.

5.2.8.8 Lifelong learning

Training must be linked to the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) to
1

promote lifelong learning and the development of skills and competencies.

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5.2.8.9 Learning institutions

Training will encourage public service institutions to become learning
1

institutions capable of continuous development and adaptation through the

creative integration of learning with work at all levels.

5.2.8.10 Quality and cost-effectiveness

Training will be promoted through the effective utilisation of resources so as
1

to avoid duplication, and through the introduction of improved ways of setting

standards, accreditation and the targeting of activities which will add value
by developing skills, knowledge and attitudes, which will be transferred to
the job.

5.2.8.11 Equity and empowerment

Training will be linked to promoting employment and occupational equity and
1

the empowerment of historically disadvantaged groups.

5.2.8.12 Consultation and participation

Public service unions and other stakeholders will be involved when training
1

programmes are planned, formulated, implemented and evaluated.

5.2.8.13 Information and communication

Information about training opportunities must be collected, collated and
1

disseminated at all levels throughout the public service.

5.2.8.14 Monitoring and evaluation

Effective mechanisms for the ongoing evaluation of training in the public
1

service must be introduced to ensure that training programmes are carried

out throughout the public service in accordance with the above principles.

5.2.8.15 Elevating the status of training and trainers

The position, role and status of trainers as human resource specialists must
1

be redefined and enhanced so that human resource development will play an

increasing and integral role in building a new public service in South Africa.

1An approach known as CIRO can be used to evaluate training.

As you can see from figure 5.2, CIRO stands for context, inputs, reaction
1

and outcomes:

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

Figure 5.2:  CIRO

5.2.9 Methods of evaluating training

1 The following methods can be utilised to evaluate training.

5.2.9.1 Questionnaires
Questionnaires can be handed out to candidates at the end of the training
1

session. It is important that participants state possible problems and

suggestions for improvement regarding the content of the training course,
the presenter, the venue and training aids.

5.2.9.2 Event lifeline

The trainer draws a horizontal line across the mid-
1

dle of each of a number of sheets of flip chart paper.

1

He or she writes one of the events making up the

course along the line on each page, and delegates
are encouraged to comment on each event. The
positive comments are written above the line and
the negative comments below the line.

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5.2.9.3 Talking wall

The trainer writes a series of questions on a sheet of flip chart paper and
1

encourages delegates to answer them. Examples of such questions are:

ƒƒ What did you enjoy most about this course?

ƒƒ How could this short course/workshop be improved?

ƒƒ What would be a good follow up for this short course/workshop?

This information obtained from delegates will be valuable when the next
1

course or workshop is presented, since any problems can be attended to

before the next course takes place.

5.2.10 Training methods

1Training methods can include those discussed below.

5.2.10.1 Orientation training

The purpose of orientation training is to introduce a new employee to the
1

following:
ƒƒ the history, institutional structure and services provided by the institution
ƒƒ conditions of service
ƒƒ training policy and facilities
ƒƒ codes of conduct
ƒƒ safety measures
ƒƒ the various departments, heads of departments and colleagues
ƒƒ the physical working environment
5.2.10.2 On-the-job training
On-the-job training is probably the most common approach to training. It can
1

range from relatively unsophisticated “observe and copy” methods to highly

structured courses built into workshop or office practice. The use of different
on-the-job training techniques motivates employees to use their competencies
and skills optimally in order to execute their tasks. It also changes employees’
attitudes to monotonous work. Training may have a practical component to

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

help trainees practise their skills. Planned and structured training takes place
mainly at the trainee’s normal workstation, although instruction may also be
provided in a special training area on site. A supervisor, trainer or colleague
may spend a significant period of time with a trainee to teach a set of skills
that has been specified in advance (Alipour, Salehi & Shahnavaz 2009:65).

Mentoring is another on-the-job training method. It is a system in which senior

1

or experienced employees take charge of the training and development of

a new employee. Job rotation is a means of training by switching roles. It
helps to relieve boredom and in that way increases the performance and
productivity of employees (Kaymaz 2010:71–72).

5.2.10.3 Off-the-job training

Raheja (2015:36) explains that off-the-job training includes lectures,
1

conferences, workshops and simulations. Off-the-job training is sometimes

necessary to get employees away from the hustle and bustle of the working
environment (Grobler, Wärnich, Carrel, Elbert & Hatfield 2006:314).

Off-the-job training sometimes allows employees to interact and exchange

1

ideas, knowledge and information with employees from other institutions.

This gives them the opportunity to network, and broadens their respective
world views. However, off-the-job training is often viewed by both recipients
and fellow employees as a waste of time and money.

Attendance of a course can be interpreted by the trainee as a sign of either

1

official approval or disapproval. For example, a sign of approval would be to

send two employees on a course that is necessary for promotion or to improve
their performance. However, employees may hold the negative perception
that they are being sent on a course because they are not very good at
their job. Managers should clearly communicate why staff are being sent for
training. This will help employees to prepare themselves psychologically for
the learning process (Erasmus and Van Dyk 2005:217–218).

5.2.10.4 Lecture and video presentations

The training officer can either present material verbally or provide trainees
1

with printed study material. Participation and feedback are usually low in
this case, but can be improved when discussions are allowed during the
lecturing process. Video presentations via satellite communications are
encouraged as a way of making courses from other sources available in
the working environment.

5.2.10.5 Laboratory training

The purpose of laboratory training is to enhance interpersonal skills, and
1

it can be used to develop desired behaviour for future job responsibilities.

Delegates can improve their human relations skills by achieving a better
understanding of themselves and others. This training involves sharing
experiences and examining the feelings, behaviour and perceptions of
others. A trained professional serves as a facilitator, and the process relies
on participation, feedback and repetition by all delegates in the group. A
popular form of laboratory training is sensitivity training, where delegates
are trained to improve their sensitivity towards the feelings of others.

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5.2.10.6 Group discussions

The purpose of group discussions is to allow individuals to express their
1

opinions of selected topics presented by the instructor. An advantage of

group discussions is that delegates develop self-confidence as well as the
ability to speak in front of a group of people.

5.2.10.7 Vestibule training

Vestibules or separate areas, for example a mock-up of the actual working
1

environment, are set up with the same equipment which is normally used in
the actual working environment. There trainees undergo job training involving
repetition and participation.

5.2.10.8 Internships
Internship training is used to train people in professional, managerial and
1

clerical capacities. Students are selected and trained according to an

academic training programme, and work in different sections of a department
to gain experience and improve their skills.

5.2.10.9 Simulation
There are two types of simulations. The first involves a mechanical simulator
1

which replicates major features of a working environment. An example of this

training is when driving simulators are used in driver-education programmes.

The second type is computer simulation. This method often takes the form of
1

a game, where players must make decisions and the computer determines
the outcome in terms of specific conditions. This method is commonly used
to train managers who would otherwise have to use trial and error to learn
decision-making skills.

5.2.10.10 Programmed training

As far as programmed training is concerned, the course participants are
1

trained in small steps, are given the answer immediately, and learn at their
own pace.

This method of training provides unlimited possibilities for training because

1

the course participants are directly and actively involved in the learning
process, and the standard remains constant. However, this training method
is expensive and must not be seen as a way of replacing the training officer.

5.2.10.11 Lifelong learning

Employees must be encouraged to take an active interest in their own
1

development. Management’s role is to provide an appropriate environment

for the training of its employees as well as a working environment that
promotes their development. The idea that training is part of self-development
emphasises the importance of seeing it as a continuous process that benefits
both the individual and the institution for which the employee works.

5.2.10.12 Other modes of training

Other modes of training include radio, television and/or distance learning
1

courses, for example diplomas or degree courses offered at distance

education institutions.

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

According to the Public Service Regulations (South Africa 2016:96), a head

1

of department may grant financial or other assistance for training or research

if the employee was asked to undertake the training or research or if the
employee requested this type of assistance. The head of the department may
grant assistance for training interventions such as short courses, seminars,
workshops and conferences. If employees fail to complete the qualification,
they will redeem the obligation in terms of the contract through service or
repayment with interest at a rate determined by the Treasury.

1. D
 o you think training can offer solutions to all job-related problems?
Give reasons for your answer.

2. D
 iscuss each of the seven steps in the training process in your own
words.

3. Explain why training should be evaluated.

5.3 MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT

Management development is a conscious and systematic process which
1

focuses on training staff members for future managerial roles and positions
rather than on the provision of specific training for an immediate task (DeNisi
& Griffin 2016:164). Management development refers to preparing and training
managers to manage their subordinates successfully while at the same
time developing the strategies of the enterprise and achieving its objective
(Erasmus & Van Dyk 2005:224).
According to these definitions, management development is a process the
1

institution can use to educate and develop managers and leaders to deal

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with the ever-changing processes that influence the management of the

institution’s resources. It enables managers and leaders to deal with internal
and external changes.

The need to develop effective managers originates from major environmental

1

shifts in the corporate world. Institutions are globalising in their quest for markets
that will bring new opportunities for growth and prosperity. Development in
technology, especially in information technology and telecommunications,
is leading to greater efficiency, reduced costs and greater opportunities to
launch new products and services.

The nature of institutional life is changing. Institutions are becoming more

1

complex and diverse. Adaptability and flexibility are the essential characteristics
for survival and success. Institutions have come to realise that the quality of
their human resources represents a critical success factor. However, if human
resources are to become a critical success factor, institutions need to be
prepared to develop individual managers and management teams that are
not only flexible, adaptable and innovative in technical, financial and business
issues, but also skilled in human resource management. Institutions should
be prepared or committed to implement policies relating to management
development ( Doyle 2004:364).

Institutions that fail to invest in the development of their human resources

1

are unlikely to exploit future opportunities and potential, adapt successfully

in the face of major change, develop new markets and products, retain and
motivate employees, create and sustain an effective management team
and survive and prosper in an increasingly unstable and competitive global
environment (Holden 2004:315).

Management development should, therefore, be viewed as a strategic

1

imperative. At individual level it can assist managers to unlearn their old ways,
change attitudes, modify their management styles and update technical and
professional skills. At institutional level, it can operate as a catalyst and a
vehicle for change and development. It encourages managers to be innovative
in their area of responsibility and provides them with the knowledge and
skills they need to manage complex and radical change processes (Doyle
2004:368-369).

5.3.1 Coaching
Management can use action learning, coaching, counselling and mentoring
1

to complement management development programmes. Coaching is used

to enhance the performance of a staff member who already has a certain
degree of competence rather than establishing competence in the first place.
The coach should be willing to share tasks and assignments with the person
being coached. Each task should have scope, responsibility and authority
to challenge and test the person.

Coaching usually begins with a period of instruction and shadowing to

1

allow the person being coached to grasp the essential aspects of the task.
The responsibility of the task is then transferred to the individual. There is
discussion throughout the process, with regular feedback on performance
in the form of constructive criticism and comments. The effectiveness of this
feedback is dependent on a sound working relationship. In most institutions,

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

coaching is done on an informal basis and is dependent on the coach having

the inclination, time and motivation to do it, as well as the necessary expertise
and judgement for it to succeed (Foot & Hook 2008:307–308).

5.3.2 Counselling
Beardwell and Holden (2001:539) describe counselling as any activity in the
1

workplace where one individual uses a set of skills and techniques to help
another individual to take responsibility for and to manage his or her own
decision-making, whether work-related or personal. Counselling is central
to the management and development of employees. All managers engage
in some activity that could be termed counselling as part of their normal
working life.

One of the difficulties that managers face is getting subordinates to accept

1

much of the responsibility for their own self-development. However, managers

should ensure that subordinates have the necessary training and guidance
to enable them to meet their expectations. Managers should do as much as
possible to help their subordinates to help themselves, because this is the
best way for subordinates to learn.

5.3.3 Mentoring
According to Grobler et al. (2006:314), mentoring represents a powerful
1

form of management development for both the mentor and protégé. It allows
individuals to discuss confusing, perplexing or ambiguous situations and
their innermost feelings and emotions with somebody they can trust and
respect. They gain the benefit of accumulated wisdom and experience
from somebody who is knowledgeable and street-wise in the ways of the
institution, especially its office politics.
Mentoring represents an ideal development opportunity for older managers
1

who are looking for new challenges and stimulation in their managerial role.
It gives them an opportunity to achieve satisfaction and personal reward by
contributing to the growth and maturity of another individual. The mentoring
relationship is a developmental one that serves to enhance the career of the
protégé while also benefiting the mentor (Armstrong 2002:129–130).
Mentoring contributes to the meaning-making process in the institution
1

while meeting the developmental needs of protégés. Mentors offer support,

challenge and vision to their protégés. Senior staff can mentor junior and
new staff by listening, providing structure, expressing positive expectations,
serving as advocates and sharing their experience with them. Senior staff
offer challenges by setting tasks, engaging in discussion, drawing attention to
dichotomies, constructing hypotheses and setting high standards. They offer
vision by modelling, keeping tradition and mirroring acceptable behaviour.

The mentor, counsellor or coach is not necessarily the subordinate’s immediate

1

supervisor. An older, more experienced manager who is not connected to the

subordinate’s immediate work context is normally selected or agrees to act
as mentor. Mentoring is about developing and sharing relationships rather
than engaging in specific activities. Coaching and mentoring represent the
most tangible, practical and useful forms of on-the-job development (Collin
2004:299–300).

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Institutions should develop employees because they increasingly require

1

them to have the following qualities and attributes (Armstrong 2002:129–130):

ƒƒ a high level of education, possibly up to degree level, so that employees
can operate new technology, understand the contribution of their role to
the company and take decisions appropriate to their jobs
ƒƒ the ability to learn new skills and adapt to changing circumstances by
taking responsibility for their own learning, updating their skills and learning
new processes
ƒƒ the ability to work in institutions with flatter structures and fewer management
levels, which implies the ability to work without supervision, setting their
own objectives, monitoring their own performance and correcting failures
ƒƒ the ability to manage the interface with customers and between
departments, which requires a good level of interpersonal skills
ƒƒ the ability to solve problems, think creatively about future possibilities and
contribute to their own unique ideas

5.4  ACROFACTORS THAT AFFECT TRAINING IN SOUTH

M
AFRICA
Training and education are two macrofactors that positively influence
1

economic growth, political stability and social success. Erasmus and Van
Dyk (2005:14–15) identify the following macrofactors as influencing the
training of employees:

5.4.1 Population growth

The training efforts of the South African Public Service should focus on the
1

population groups that constitute the highest percentage of the population.

These are blacks (79,5%), followed by whites (9%), coloureds (9%) and
Asians (2,5%). The total population in 2011 amounted to approximately 50,59
million (South Africa 2012:2–3).

The training programmes of the diverse workforce should focus on literacy,

1

numeracy, conflict management and supervisory skills. It is therefore important

that training programmes focus on the adult learner and create a culture of
lifelong learning so that older employees are able to adapt to the changing
external influences.

According to Erasmus and Van Dyk (2005:6–13), the following factors would
1

influence population growth:

ƒƒ emigration of South Africans
ƒƒ rapid population ageing
ƒƒ HIV/AIDS
ƒƒ urbanisation and the impact on social services
ƒƒ immigration to South Africa
5.4.2 Education
In South Africa, the literacy rate among people over the age of 20 years rose
1

from 91.9 % to 93.7% in the year 2015. However, research indicates that adult
literacy is still below par in KwaZulu-Natal (92.4%) and Eastern Cape (90.7%)
respectively (Statistics South Africa 2015:2). If South Africa intends to become

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

a competitive country, it has to increase its education levels. Thousands of

Grade 12 school leavers are unable to enter higher education institutions
because of a lack of capacity to accommodate them; moreover, they cannot
be absorbed into the labour market because of insufficient market growth
and inadequate job creation. Voluntary community work programmes in
collaboration with the Department of Public Works, the Department of Small
Business Development and of the National Youth Development Agency could
create partnerships to solve this problem.

5.4.3 Unemployment
High unemployment levels in South Africa can be ascribed to high population
1

growth, low economic growth and a decline in the number of skilled people.

1Ways to overcome unemployment would include:

ƒƒ Creating more job opportunities by increasing productivity and producing
products of higher quality at lower prices.
ƒƒ Giving people opportunities to create jobs for themselves in the informal
and formal sectors, considering the deregulation of certain industries,
and providing other incentives in this regard.
ƒƒ Encouraging foreign capital investment for economic growth and job
creation.
ƒƒ Presenting education and training programmes designed to encourage
self-employment and the establishment of new small businesses in the
informal and formal sectors.

5.4.4 Supply of and demand for labour

South Africa is experiencing a shortage of managers in executive and other
1

senior management positions, as well as professional, technical and highly

skilled people. A shortage of highly skilled people is envisaged, but the
current shortage of graduates may soon be overcome. An ever-growing
number of Grade 12 school leavers are preparing to enter higher education
institutions, even though the majority of them may not gain access to these
institutions because of the lack of capacity to accommodate them. This is a
serious problem for the country, since school leavers have high expectations
that cannot be met. Whereas South Africa has sufficient unskilled labour, it
needs more skilled and highly skilled labour.

The economy must generate about 1000 000 new jobs in net terms to ensure
1

that the new entrants are absorbed into the labour market and to prevent
unemployment from rising.

5.4.5 Technological acceleration

Technology enables people to drive faster, communicate better over greater
1

distances and to live in better conditions. It also allows people to produce

better clothing, food, shelter and other sophisticated services and products
at greater speed.

Some of the technologies in use today are the internet, social networking,
1

satellites, microchips and biotech. In the next decade we can expect to

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experience even more dramatic changes in the way we live, work and play
as a result of the impact and speed of the development of new technologies.

Training is the tool by means of which knowledge to implement technology

1

is conveyed. However, technological innovation not only increases the

importance of training new entrants – it also necessitates continuous retraining.

HR specialists in institutions need to keep abreast of changes in technology

1

and how they will affect the productivity, effectiveness and competitive
advantage of institutions.

5.4.6 HIV/AIDS
South Africa has one of the highest HIV/AIDS prevalence and infection rates
1

in the world and one of the highest percentages of adult deaths attributable
to AIDS-related diseases. HIV/AIDS increased from about 9% in 1995/1996
to about 40% in 2000/2001 (Erasmus & Van Dyk 2005:13).

The impact of HIV/AIDS on the lives of South Africans in general, particularly

1

in the workplace, is severe, and is affecting labour supply. A substantial

percentage of the economically active population is dying as a result of
HIV/AIDS, and labour demand could therefore decline because institutions
may opt to invest in capital production in the face of anticipated reduced
productivity as a result of workforce losses.

1The causes of the high level of AIDS-related deaths are:

ƒƒ social and family disruptions owing to apartheid and labour migration

ƒƒ inadequate knowledge about how to avoid AIDS
ƒƒ high-risk sexual behaviour
ƒƒ high levels of poverty, high levels of inequality and the low status of women
in many communities
ƒƒ crime and rape

5.5 EMPLOYEE TRAINING AND THE LAW

This section deals with legislation that has a direct bearing on employee
1

training.

5.5.1 The Skills Development Act 97 of 1998

In this section we will discuss the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998 in terms
1

of its background, aim and purpose. The Act was drafted in response to the
need to provide an institutional framework to devise and implement national,
sector and workplace strategies in order to develop and improve the skills
of the South African workforce. These strategies should be integrated with
the National Qualifications Framework contemplated in the South African
Qualifications Authority Act 58 of 1995 to provide for learnerships that lead to
recognised occupational qualifications. The financing of skills development
could be achieved by means of a levy-grant scheme and a National Skills
Fund.

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

5.5.2 Purposes of the Skills Development Act

1This Act is intended to
ƒƒ develop the skills of the South African workforce by improving the quality
of life of workers, productivity in the workplace and the competitiveness
of employers and to promote self-employment and the delivery of social
services
ƒƒ increase the levels of investment in training and education in the labour
market and to improve the return on investment
ƒƒ encourage employers to employ people who find it difficult to find
employment and to use the workplace as an active learning environment
to provide employees with opportunities to acquire new skills
ƒƒ encourage workers to participate in learnerships and other training
programmes
ƒƒ improve the employment prospects of those who were previously
disadvantaged by unfair discrimination and to redress those disadvant-
ages through training and education
ƒƒ ensure the quality of training and education for the workplace
ƒƒ help job seekers to find work, retrenched workers to re-enter the labour
market and employers to find qualified employees

The Act further states that its purposes can be achieved by the establishment
1

of an institutional and financial framework which will comprise the National

Skills Authority, the National Skills Fund, a skills development levy-grant
scheme as contemplated in the Skills Development Levies Act, Sector
Education and Training Authorities (SETAs), labour centres and the Skills
Development Planning Unit. The Act also states that partnerships between
the public and private sectors should be encouraged so that training in and for
the workplace can occur in cooperation with the South African Qualifications
Authority, SAQA (South Africa 1998a:8).

5.5.3 Functions of the National Skills Authority

In terms of the Skills Development Act (South Africa 1998a:10), the National
1

Skills Authority contributes in terms of the following:

ƒƒ provide advice on a national skills development policy and strategy and
set guidelines on the implementation of the skills development strategy
and the allocation of subsidies from the National Skills Fund
ƒƒ liaise with SETAs on the national skills development policy and strategy
and report on progress made regarding the implementation of the national
skills development strategy

5.5.4 Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs)

The minister of labour can establish a sector education and training authority
1

(SETA) with a constitution for any national economic sector. When establishing
a SETA, the minister must take into account the training needs of employers
and employees using similar materials, processes and technologies and
rendering similar services. The financial and institutional ability of the sector
to support a SETA must also be taken into account. Consensus between
organised labour, employers and government departments on the definition
of a sector is also important.

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A SETA may consist only of members representing organised labour and

1

employers including small businesses, relevant government departments and

any interested professional body or bargaining council that has jurisdiction in
the sector should the minister of labour, after consultation with the members,
make such a decision (South Africa 1998a:16).

1A SETA must

ƒƒ develop a sector skills plan within the framework of the national skills
development strategy
ƒƒ implement its sector skills plan by establishing learnerships and approve
workplace skills plans. It must also allocate grants to employers, train
providers and workers and monitor education and training programmes
in the sector
ƒƒ promote learnerships by identifying workplaces for practical work
experience, support the development of learning materials, improve
the facilitation of learning and assist in the conclusion of learnership
agreements
ƒƒ apply to SAQA for accreditation and become accredited within 18 months
ƒƒ collect and disburse the skills development levies in its sector
ƒƒ liaise with the National Skills Authority on the national skills development
policy and strategy and its sector skills plan
ƒƒ report to the director-general on its income and expenditure and the
implementation of its sector skills plan

5.5.5 Learnership agreements

A learner, an employer or group of employers and a training provider who
1

must be accredited by SAQA enter into an agreement for a specific period.

The employer must employ the learner for the period stated in the agreement,
provide the learner with the specified practical work experience and release
the learner to attend the education and training specified in the agreement.
The learner must work for the employer and attend the specified training.
The service provider must provide the education and training as well as the
learner support specified in the agreement. The learnership agreement must
also be registered with a SETA.

The learnership agreement may not be terminated before the expiry of

1

the period specified in the agreement unless the employee has complied
successfully with the requirements of the learnership, the SETA approves
of such termination, or the learner is fairly dismissed for a reason relating
to his or her conduct or capacity as an employee (South Africa 1998a:22).

1 hat are the benefits of a learnership agreement to learners and employers

W
respectively? Complete the table below by filling in the missing information.

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

LEARNERSHIP
AGREEMENT

BENEFITS TO BENEFITS TO
LEARNER EMPLOYER

5.5.6 Skills programmes

A skills programme must be occupationally based and must count as a
1

credit towards a qualification registered in terms of the NQF and defined by

the SAQA Act as soon as it is completed. Any person who has developed
a skills programme may apply to a SETA which has jurisdiction for a grant
or to the director-general for a subsidy. The SETA or the director-general
may fund the skills programme if it is in accordance with the SETA’s sector
skills development plan or the national skills development strategy and if
funds are available.

The SETA or the director-general will monitor the skills programmes they
1

fund and may withhold or recover funds if they are of the opinion that the
funds are not being used for the intended purpose or if the training is not up
to standard (South Africa 1998a:26).

5.5.7 Skills development planning unit

According to the Skills Development Act, the director-general of the
1

Department of Labour must establish a skills development planning unit

that will have the following functions:
ƒƒ to research and analyse the labour market in order to determine the
skills development needs of South Africa as a whole, each sector of the
economy and organs of state
ƒƒ to assist with the formulation of the national skills development strategy
and sector skills development plans
ƒƒ to provide information on skills to the minister of labour, the National Skills
Authority, SETAs, education and training providers and organs of state

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5.5.8 Employment services

In terms of the Skills Development Act, the director-general of the Department
1

of Labour must establish labour centres, which have the following functions:

ƒƒ to provide employment services to workers, employers and training

providers, such as registering job seekers and registering vacancies for
work opportunities
ƒƒ to help prescribed categories of people to enter special educational and
training programmes, find employment, start income-generating projects
and participate in special employment programmes

5.5.9 Financing skills development

According to the Skills Development Act, as from 1 April 2000 each public
1

service employer in the national and provincial spheres of government

must budget at least 1% of its payroll for the training and education of its
employees, and may contribute to a SETA.

The minister of labour may, in consultation with the minister of finance and the
1

minister for provincial affairs and constitutional development, impose a skills

development levy on every municipality as defined by the Local Government
Transition Act 209 of 1993. The leviable amount refers to the total amount
of remuneration paid or payable by the employer to its employees during
any month.

According to the Skills Development Levies Act of 1999, the aggregate of

1

levies collected from a municipality and the budgetary allocations for training
purposes must be:

ƒƒ less than 0,5% of the leviable amount from 1 April 2000

ƒƒ less than 1% of the leviable amount from 1 April 2001
ƒƒ not less than 1% of the leviable amount from 1 April 2002

1 hat do you think the government wants to achieve through the Skills
W
Development Levies Act? Give your own opinion, or discuss this with your
fellow students.

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

5.6 THE HIGHER EDUCATION QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK

The Higher Education Qualifications Framework is set out in the Schedule
1

as policy in terms of section 3 of the Higher Education Act 101 of 1997.

Separate and parallel qualification structures for universities and technikons
in the past hindered the articulation of programmes and transfer of students
between programmes and higher education institutions. Education White
Paper 3: A Programme for the Transformation of Higher Education of 1997
acknowledges the need for a single qualifications framework applicable to
all higher education institutions.
This new qualifications framework was designed to meet the demanding
1

challenges facing the higher education system in the 21st century, and
guides higher education institutions in the development of programmes
and qualifications that provide graduates with intellectual capabilities and
skills to enrich society and empower themselves and enhance economic
and social development.

5.6.1 The National Qualifications Framework (NQF)

A qualification is the formal recognition and certification of learning
1

achievement awarded by an accredited institution. SAQA requires that the

learning outcomes of all South African qualifications include critical cross-field
or generic skills to promote lifelong learning as well as discipline-specific,
domain-specific or specialised knowledge, skills and reflexivity.
The format for qualification specification, where appropriate, should include
1

the title and purpose of the qualification, its NQF level, credits, rules of
combination for its learning components, exit-level outcomes and associated
assessment criteria, entry requirements, forms of integrated assessment
and arrangements for the recognition of prior learning and moderation of
assessment.
The recognition of prior learning should enable potential students, including
1

those who have suffered disadvantage in the past, to be admitted to particular

higher education programmes, depending on their assessed knowledge
and skills.
A programme is a purposeful and structured set of learning experiences that
1

leads to a qualification. Programmes may be discipline based, professional,

career focused, and trans-, inter- or multi-disciplinary in nature.
A programme has recognised entry and exit points. All higher education
1

programmes and qualifications must have a core component and may have
a fundamental and/or elective component, depending on the purpose of the
programme or the qualification. The credit allocation for core, fundamental and
elective learning will depend on the purpose of the programme or qualification.
The internal institution of programmes is otherwise not prescribed by this
document.

5.6.2 Work-integrated learning

Some qualifications are designed to incorporate periods of required work
1

that integrate with classroom study. Where work-integrated learning (WIL) is

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a structured part of a qualification, the volume of learning allocated to WIL

should be appropriate to the purpose of the qualification and to the cognitive
demands of the learning outcome and assessment criteria contained in the
appropriate level descriptors.

It is the responsibility of institutions which offer programmes requiring WIL

1

credits to place students in WIL programmes. These programmes must be

appropriately structured, and properly supervised and assessed.

5.6.3 Number of levels and level descriptors

The NQF has ten levels. Higher education qualifications occupy six levels of
1

the NQF, namely levels 5 to 10. Levels 5 to 7 are undergraduate levels and
levels 8 to 10 are postgraduate levels. Each NQF level has a level descriptor,
which provides guidelines for differentiating the varying levels of complexity
of qualifications on the framework.

The level descriptors are the outermost layer of qualification specification.

1

At each level they describe the generic nature of learning achievements and
their complexity. Level descriptors are thus broad qualitative statements
against which more specific learning outcomes can be developed, compared
and located.

The positioning of two or more qualifications on the same NQF level simply
1

indicates that the qualifications are broadly comparable in terms of the

general level of learning achievements. It does not indicate that they have
the same purpose, content or outcomes (except at the generic level of critical
cross-field outcomes), nor does it demonstrate equivalence of qualifications.

1QUALIFICATION TYPES

NQF LEVEL BAND QUALIFICATION TYPE

10 Doctorates
 9 Master’s degrees
 8 Honours degrees
Postgraduate diplomas
HIGHER
 7 EDUCATION Professional qualifications
AND TRAINING Bachelor’s degrees
 6 Advanced diplomas
 5 National diplomas
Advanced national certificates
FURTHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING CERTIFICATE
 4 National certificates
FURTHER
 3 EDUCATION
 2 AND TRAINING

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

NQF LEVEL BAND QUALIFICATION TYPE

GENERAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING CERTIFICATE

 1 GENERAL Grade 9 ABET Level 4

EDUCATION
AND TRAINING National certificates

5.6.4 Progression in the framework

The framework is designed to facilitate vertical, horizontal and diagonal
1

progression. Vertical progression is the norm, and the minimum requirements

for such progression between qualification types and are stipulated in the
qualification-type descriptors. Students may progress horizontally between
qualifications if they meet the minimum requirements for admission to the
target qualification.

Students may progress diagonally between qualifications by presenting a

1

completed qualification or credits towards a qualification in a cognate study

area, and they must meet the minimum requirements for admission to the
target qualification, which they will often do by virtue of the credits obtained
towards a cognate qualification. The general principle is that the admitting
institution must be satisfied that the applicant is competent in the appropriate
field of intended study at the appropriate entry level of the target qualification.

The point of entry in the target programme must be such that at least 120 or
1

180 credits, for undergraduate and postgraduate programmes respectively,

are undertaken at the exit level.

For example, a student may present a higher certificate for admission to the
1

second year of a cognate diploma programme, or may be admitted to the

second year of a cognate bachelor’s degree programme after completing the
first year of study of a diploma programme, or a student who has obtained
academic credits towards one qualification may be exempted from certain
requirements in a cognate qualification, or a master’s student’s candidature
may be upgraded to a doctoral programme. In all cases, the admitting
institution must be satisfied that the applicant has the necessary competence.

With due regard for the policies, requirements and guidelines of the Higher
1

Education Qualifications Council (HEQC), institutions may recognise other

forms of prior learning as equivalent to the prescribed minimum admission
requirements and may recognise other forms of prior learning for entry to
given programmes. In this regard, vertical progression is possible, where a
person with a given qualification adds to that which is required to gain entry
to a higher qualification type. In all instances, the admitting institution must
be satisfied that the applicant has the necessary competence.

In the interest of transparency, each higher education institution must clearly

1

stipulate the requirements that must be satisfied for admission and make
these requirements publicly accessible. In the case of a student who fails
to meet the requirements for a qualification, the general principle is that
the student may not be awarded an early-exit qualification. For example, a

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student who fails to meet the requirements for a master’s degree may not
be awarded a postgraduate diploma in lieu of the master’s degree.

5.6.5 The South African Qualifications Authority

SAQA must advise the ministers of education and labour on NQF matters in
1

terms of the National Qualifications Framework Act. The Board is required

to perform its tasks after consultation and in cooperation with all bodies and
institutions responsible for education, training and certification of standards
which will be affected by the NQF. It must also comply with the various rights
and powers of bodies in terms of the Constitution and Acts of Parliament. The
office of SAQA is responsible for implementing the policies and decisions
of the Board.

1SAQA has the following role with regard to qualifications:

1. After consultation with the qualifications councils (QCs), SAQA must

develop and implement policy and criteria for the development, registration
and publication of qualifications and part-qualifications which must include
the following requirements:
–– The relevant sub-framework must be identified on any document
relating to the registration and publication of a qualification or
part- qualification.
–– Each sub-framework must have a distinct nomenclature for
its qualification types which is appropriate to the relevant sub-
framework and consistent with international practice.

2. SAQA must register a qualification or part-qualification recommended

by a QC if it meets the relevant criteria.
3. After consultation with the QCs, SAQA must develop policy and criteria
for assessment, recognition of prior learning and credit accumulation
and transfer.

1SAQA has the following role with regard to professional bodies:

ƒƒ to develop and implement policy and criteria for recognising a professional
body and registering a professional designation for the purposes of the
National Qualifications Framework Act, after consultation with statutory
and non-statutory bodies of expert practitioners in occupational fields
and with the QCs
ƒƒ to recognise a professional body and register its professional designation
if the relevant criteria have been met

5.6.6 The SETAs

The Skills Development Act provides a framework for the development of skills
1

in the workplace. The Act makes provision for skills development by means
of a levy-grant scheme and the establishment of 27 sector-specific SETAs.

The SETAs are responsible for disbursing the training levies payable by
1

all employers. The levies will be collected by the South African Revenue
Service via the Department of Labour, which is the overseeing government
body. They are disbursed through a management system motivated by skills
requirement assessment and monitoring.

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

The SETAs are responsible for ensuring that the skills requirements of the
1

sector are identified and that the adequate and appropriate skills are readily
available. The SETA will contribute to the improvement of sector skills through
achieving a more favourable balance between supply and demand and will
ensure that education and training:

ƒƒ is provided subject to validation and quality assurance

ƒƒ meets agreed standards in a national framework
ƒƒ ensures that new entrants to the labour market are adequately trained
ƒƒ acknowledges and enhances the skills of the current workforce
The main function of a SETA is to contribute to the raising of skills, and
1

to bring skills to those employed or those wanting to be employed in their

sector. It does this by helping to implement the National Skills Development
Strategy and ensuring that people learn skills that are needed by employers
and communities.

Training must be done according to the agreed NQF standards wherever

1

possible. All training, wherever it is provided, should be subject to quality

control and, where appropriate, be compared with best practices.

Each separate economic sector has one SETA. There are 27 SETAs, which
1

cover all the work sectors in South Africa, including government sectors.
The members of SETAs include trade unions, government and bargaining
councils from appropriate industries. A SETA must develop and implement
a skills development plan, be responsible for quality control and pay out
development grants in its own sector.

The SETAs are to ensure that the skills requirements of the various sectors
1

are identified and that the adequate and appropriate skills are readily available.
They are required to ensure that training is of the appropriate quality, meets
agreed standards as laid out by the national framework, and caters for the
training needs of both new entrants to the labour market and the currently
employed workforce.

The SETAs are also responsible for a learnership programme and the
1

implementation of strategic sector skills plans. They have discretionary

funds drawn from their levy income that can be used for projects designed
to assist in the achievement of sector priorities, including the design and
implementation of learnerships.

A compulsory skills-development levy was introduced on 1 April 2000,

1

payable by employers who are registered with the South African Revenue
Service (SARS) for employees’ tax purposes or by employers with an annual
payroll in excess of R250 000.

The levy rate is 1% of the total payroll and the collection of the funds is
1

administered by SARS. The levies paid to SARS are put into a special fund.
80% of the money from this fund is distributed to the SETAs, and the other
20% is paid into the National Skills Fund. The SETAs then pay grants to
employers who appoint a skills development facilitator. The National Skills
Fund funds skills development projects that do not fall under the SETAs.

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5.6.6.1 Appointment of a skills development facilitator

In order to be eligible for grants, an employer must appoint a skills development
1

facilitator. This person can be either a full-time or part-time employee or a

contracted consultant. The facilitator is responsible for developing and
planning a company’s skills development strategy. This will include the
development and implementation of an annual workplace skills plan and
the submission of an annual training report.

The facilitator also serves as a resource to the employer with regard to

1

the criteria required for accreditation of courses, skills programmes and

learnership development. Once a facilitator has been appointed, employers
can develop the skills of their staff and reclaim the funds in three ways.

5.6.6.2 Workplace skills plan

In the first year of the levy-grant scheme employers can recover a minimum
1

of 50% of the levy they have paid in grants. The grants, referred to as grants
A, B, C and D, are governed by certain conditions.

1For the appointment and registration of a skills development facilitator –

1Grant A: employers will be able to recover 15% of the levy they have paid.
The appointment of a facilitator is necessary before applications
for grants B, C and D will be considered.
1Grant B: An employer will be able to recover 10% of the total levy payment for
preparing, submitting and obtaining approval from the appropriate
SETA for a workplace skills plan.
1Grant C: An employer will be able to recover a further 20% of the total levy
payment by preparing and submitting an annual training report
based on the approved workplace skills plan.
1Grant D: Each SETA makes available grants equivalent to 5% of the total
levy payment by the employer for specific sector skills initiatives.
The criteria will be made available by the employer’s SETA.

5.6.7 The National School of Government

South Africa requires a public service that is professional, accountable,
1

efficient and effective. Appropriate capacity building on a large scale is

required to transform, improve and sustain this sector.

The National School of Government (formerly known as the Public

1

Administration Leadership and Management Academy, or PALAMA) has

been identified as the “training arm” of government to professionalise, build
capacity and support career advancement in the public service. The National
School of Government has the statutory responsibility to arrange or oversee
management and develop training for the public service at national, provincial
and local government level.

The National School of Government works with departments and external

1

training providers to ensure that students from across government are able
to receive the best, most relevant training relating to their jobs in the public
service. The training offered by the National School of Government is tailored

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 LEARNING UNIT 5:  Employee training

to the management competencies required at different operational levels in

government.

The courses are accredited by the Public Sector Education and Training
1

Authority (PSETA) or through it by the various other SETAs. In addition,

those enrolled for some of the National School of Government courses
may receive diplomas and certificates from prestigious training institutions,
including universities, if they are credit-bearing or professional programmes.
The National School of Government also complements in-house training by
departments. Training can become a stepping stone for career progression
in the public service.

The rollout of public service training and development requires the support
1

and partnership of a full range of service providers such as universities,

further education and training colleges, provincial and local government
academies, NGOs and the private sector. Their offerings are cumulatively
oriented to government requirements by the learning framework of accredited
curricula and materials, and the monitoring of provision, administered by the
National School of Government.

In terms of its new two-stream strategy, it focuses on the 10 000 members

1

of the Senior Management Service (SMS) and it ensures that the 250 000
junior and middle managers (JMMS) undergo at least one week of formal
professional development per year.

The mission of the National School of Government is to provide, directly and

1

through suitable partnerships, management development and training for all

management levels across all three spheres of government that is

ƒƒ of high quality in that it is accredited and monitored

ƒƒ relevant to government delivery needs
ƒƒ practical in that it covers “hard” and “soft”, generic and specific skills
ƒƒ aligned to MPSA competency frameworks

5.7 CONCLUSION
Employee training is a crucial mechanism that safeguards the institution’s
1

intellectual capital, thus giving the institution a competitive advantage in

the form of knowledge that is unique to it. Therefore, managers need to
train and develop subordinates to acquire competencies and skills in order
to increase their performance and productivity. Managers can use a range
of training techniques (lectures, case studies, role-playing and on-the-job
training using existing notes) to train subordinates.

Learning motivates employees to change their environment and to improve

1

their social conditions. It equips employees with skills, competencies and

tacit knowledge, in that way enhancing their employability. Human resource
development also makes provision for the development of managers.
Managers need to be developed so that they are able to manage diversity and
corporate challenges and increase the institution’s effectiveness, performance
and productivity.

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5.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Define the concept of employee training.
2. Discuss the reasons for staff training, and the steps in the training
process.
3. Describe the various training methods.
4. Describe the implications of the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998 for
staff training.
5. Define the concept of lifelong learning according to the NQF.
6. Define the concept of learning and explain how public institutions can
become learning institutions.
7. Discuss how public managers can strengthen management development
in their institutions.
8. Describe how the macrofactors in South Africa affect training in public
institutions.
9. Discuss how public managers can use the Higher Education Act to
create a training environment in public institutions.
10. Describe the different training tools that public managers can use to
improve training in their institutions.

5.9 REFERENCES
1Armstrong, M. 2002. Performance management: key strategies and practices.
London: Kogan Page.
1Beardwell, I & Holden, L. 2001. Human resource management: a contemporary
approach. 3rd edition. United Kingdom: Pearson Education.
1Erasmus, BJ & Van Dyk, PS. 2005. Training management in South Africa.
Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
1Foot, M & Hook, C. 2008. Introducing human resource management. New
York: Prentice-Hall.
1McShane, SL & Von Glinow, M. 2007. Organizational behavior: essentials.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
1South Africa. 1997. Higher Education Act 101 of 1997. Pretoria: Government
Printer.
1South Africa. 1998a. Skills Development Act 97 of 1998. Pretoria: Government
Printer.
1South Africa. 1998b. White Paper on Public Service Training and Education.
Pretoria: Government Printer.
1South Africa. 2012. South African Statistics. Mid-year population estimates
for 2011. Pretoria: Government Printer.
1South Africa. 2016. Public Service Regulations. Pretoria: Government Printer.
1Statistics South Africa. 2015. General household survey. Pretoria: Statistics
South Africa.

100
 6
LEARNING UNIT

Institutional culture

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1 After studying this unit, you should be able to:

ƒƒ explain the concept of institutional culture

ƒƒ explain the artefacts of institutional culture that you would find in a typical
public institution
ƒƒ explain the nature of institutional culture that is visible in most public
institutions
ƒƒ explain how institutional culture influences institutional performance
ƒƒ explain the role that public managers can play in institutional cultural
change
ƒƒ explain the benefits of institutional culture to public institutions

6.1 INTRODUCTION
What we have discussed thus far depends on the effectiveness of the
1

institutional culture of the institution. In this learning unit we will explore

factors that influence institutional culture and employees’ attitudes and
behaviour. We will look at how the adaptive culture motivates employees to be
customer oriented. We will also focus on how culture creates an environment
where employees can experience a sense of belonging and being part of
the institution. This unit ends with a discussion of how institutional culture
influences employee performance and the role of managers in cultural change.

6.2 HISTORY OF INSTITUTIONAL CULTURE

According to the literature, there are at least three distinctive cultural forms.
1

First, there is the Latin type, exemplified by French, Italian and Spanish
institutions. These are characterised by relatively high centralisation, rigid
stratification, sharp inequalities among levels and conflict associated with
areas of uncertainty.

Second, there is the Anglo-Saxon type, exemplified by British, American and

1

Scandinavian institutions. These are characterised by more decentralisation,

less rigid stratification and more flexible approaches to the application of rules.

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Third, there is the traditional type. This is found in developing countries, and
1

it is characterised by paternalistic leadership patterns, implicit rather than

explicit rules, and the absence of clear boundaries separating institutional
from non-institutional roles. Institutions in this category focus more on the
wellbeing of the workforce than on rewarding the individual performance of
employees. (Hellriegel, Jackson, Slocum & Staude 2001:101–102).
According to Thompson and Strickland (2003:420–421), the origins of an
1

organisation’s culture lie with the founders of the institution, their value
systems, attitudes, beliefs and philosophy. The leadership creates the
symbols and the rituals that constitute the daily practices of the institution’s
workforce. Since management determines institutional culture, managers
should demonstrate clear, visible actions in support of the cultural values and
beliefs. Consistency should be the watchword. Management has to provide
interpretations of events without ambiguity, confusion and conflicting results.
The appropriate use of symbols and ceremonies is necessary, and should
focus on the extrinsic and intrinsic aspects of the job and create a sense of
belonging to the institution.

6.3 DEFINITIONS
Institutional culture is a form of ideology, a pervasive set of shared beliefs,
1

values and norms. It is the learnt product of the workforce, which has stood
the test of time and has served as a collective guide to future adaptation and
survival (Katz 1997:54, 382). McShane and Von Glinow (2007:255) agree
that institutional culture is the basic pattern of shared assumptions, values
and beliefs considered to be the correct way of thinking about and acting
on problems and opportunities facing the institution. These characteristics
operate beneath the surface of institutional behaviour.

Institutional culture is the level of autonomy that exists in departments and

1

the degree of loyalty expressed by the workforce. It is the way in which the
institution transacts business and the manner in which it treats customers
and its workforce. It is an institution’s values, beliefs, business principles,
traditions, ways of operating and internal working environment (Thompson
& Strickland 2003:420).

The assumptions, values and beliefs that represent institutional culture

1

operate beneath the surface of institutional behaviour. They are not directly
observed, yet their effects are visible everywhere. Assumptions represent
the deepest part of institutional culture because they are unconscious and
taken for granted. Assumptions are the shared mental models that influence
employees’ worldviews and guide their perceptions and behaviours.

Beliefs represent the individual’s perceptions of reality. Values are more

1

stable, long-lasting beliefs about what is important. They help employees

define what is right or wrong, or good or bad, in society.

6.4 ARTEFACTS OF INSTITUTIONAL CULTURE

According to McShane and Von Glinow (2007:254–256), artefacts are
1

observable symbols and signs of an institution’s culture. They include the

following:

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 LEARNING UNIT 6:  Institutional culture

6.4.1 Institutional stories and legends

Stories permeate strong institutional cultures. Some tales recount heroic
1

deeds by employees, while others ridicule past events that deviated from the
institution’s core values. The stories and legends serve as powerful social
prescriptions of the way things should, or should not, be done. They provide
human realism to corporate expectations, individual performance standards
and the criteria for getting fired. Stories also create emotions in listeners
which tend to improve their memory of the lesson in the story.

6.4.2 Rituals and ceremonies

Rituals are programmed routines of daily institutional life through which the
1

institutional culture is played out. They include how visitors are greeted,
how often senior managers visit subordinates, how people communicate
with one another, how much time employees take for lunch and so forth.
Ceremonies differ from rituals in that they are formal artefacts. They are
planned activities conducted specifically for the benefit of an audience, such
as publicly rewarding or punishing employees or celebrating the launch of
a new product.

6.4.3 Institutional language

How employees address colleagues, describe customers, express anger
1

and greet stakeholders are all verbal symbols of cultural values. Language
reflects the long-term and deep relationships among employees and the trust
that staff have in their clients. Language also highlights the values held by
institutional subcultures.

6.4.4 Physical structures and symbols

The size, shape and age of buildings might suggest the institution’s emphasis
1

on teamwork, environmental friendliness, flexibility or any other set of values.

Many of our government buildings are a reminder of the Old Dutch era. The
desks, chairs, office space and wall hangings or lack thereof are just a few
elements that might convey cultural meaning.

1 ach of the above artefacts has an influence on the behaviour of employees.

E
The table below suggests ways in which each artefact can have positional
influences on employees.

ARTEFACTS OF ARTEFACTS OF YOUR

INSTITUTIONAL CULTURE INSTITUTION
Stories

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ARTEFACTS OF ARTEFACTS OF YOUR

INSTITUTIONAL CULTURE INSTITUTION
Legends

Rituals and ceremonies

Language

Physical structures

Symbols

Others

6.5 NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL CULTURE

1In this section, we deal with various elements of institutional culture.

6.5.1 Adaptive culture

According to Thompson and Strickland (2003:428), an adaptive culture helps
1

employees to share a feeling of confidence in the institution’s abilities to deal

with whatever threats and opportunities confront them. The employees are
receptive to risk-taking, experimentation, innovation and changing strategies
and practices whenever necessary to satisfy the interests of stakeholders. An
adaptive culture focuses the attention of employees on the changing needs
of customers and other stakeholders and supports initiative and leadership
to keep pace with these changes.
An adaptive culture is outwardly rather than inwardly focused. This means
1

that senior management is more interested in the satisfaction of stakeholders

than in their own wellbeing.
The underlying mental model is that the institution will survive and succeed
1

through continuous change. Institutions with adaptive cultures are readily

identifiable by their uncanny ability to shift direction with the market (McShane
& Von Glinow 2007:258).

6.5.2 Work lifestyle

Institutional culture changes behaviour and instils a work lifestyle in new
1

employees, and is also influenced by their behaviour. Therefore, the workforce

adapts their personal values to align with the institutional culture, but only

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 LEARNING UNIT 6:  Institutional culture

to a limited extent. The quality and style of leadership are crucial in shaping
perceptions that will support cultural values and institutional strategy.
Managers’ words should reflect their actions. What they say in public and
state in magazines should be the experience and stories of the workforce.
Management should lead by example, practise what they preach and motivate
1

the workforce to follow their example. Culture creates a sense of corporate

belonging and directs employees to react and respond in ways that are
consistent with institutional expectations. Employees want to belong and be
accepted, and so they abide by the institutional culture. The institutional culture
should fit in with societal culture. This will foster adaptation, change, and moral
and ethical values which will help employees to make the transition between
institutional and societal cultures (Thompson & Strickland, 2003:420–421).

6.5.3 Ethical conduct

According to Carroll and Buchholtz (2003:35–40, 214–215), the culture of
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the institution has the potential to influence ethical conduct. Kickbacks and
other forms of corruption in the corporate world have been attributed to the
American institutional culture. With considerable effort and persistence,
leaders can develop a culture that supports ethical conduct.
Institutions have adopted the following six core values on which to build their
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institutional culture and ethical standards:

ƒƒ honesty
ƒƒ integrity
ƒƒ respect
ƒƒ trust
ƒƒ responsibility
ƒƒ citizenship
Although institutional culture can support ethical values, it can also become
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the source of ethical problems: corporate culture is a form of control, because

it guides employee decisions and behaviour.
All institutions require some degree of control to ensure that employee
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actions are aligned with institutional objectives (McShane & Von Glinow
2000:506–507). However, strong cultural values may cause employees to
risk becoming part of a corporate culture that robs them of their individualism.
Thus, an institution’s culture should be consistent with the ethical values of
society, and should not be so strong that it undermines individual freedom.
Institutional culture is a means to deal with corporate corruption when
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institutions carry out their social responsibilities as good, responsible corporate

citizens. This requires managers to be ethical and morally responsible, to
reward positive behaviour and to punish negative behavior, which in turn
ensures that the conduct of employees reflects the required institutional
behaviour (Thompson & Strickland 2003:431–432).

6.5.4 Sense of belonging

According to Kahn (2005:325–328), culture which is deeply embedded in
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institutional policies, practices, rules and procedures instils in employees a

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sense of belonging, of being accepted and of being part of the institution. A

more pragmatic view of the relationship between an institution’s culture and
chief executives gives rise to the practice of drawing on the pool of current
managerial employees in order to fill senior management positions rather
than making appointments from outside the organisation. This ensures that
those in control of the institution are fully familiar with the institution’s culture.

Promotion from within the institution provides stability and lessens uncertainty.
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It ensures that other activities are instituted to maintain a given culture. It is,
for example, much better to promote someone in the institution to a senior
position than to appoint someone from outside who is not familiar with the
institution’s culture.

There are formal and informal instruments that an institution can use to
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introduce, reinforce and perpetuate institutional culture. The former include

recruitment, selection, assessment centre, interviews, promotion criteria,
performance appraisal, control measures, discipline and motivational policies,
all of which bring new employees into direct contact with the institutional
culture. The latter include social events, a company newspaper, and company
clothing – for example, the wearing of a uniform.

Culture is crucial in developing and maintaining levels of intensity and

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commitment among employees. Institutional commitment is an individual’s

psychological bond with the institution, which includes a sense of job
involvement, loyalty and a belief in the values of the institution.

Commitment includes compliance – an employee accepts the influence of

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others, mainly to obtain something from them; identification – an employee

accepts influence in order to maintain a satisfying, self-defining relationship;
internalisation – an employee finds the values of the institution to be intrinsically
rewarding and congruent with personal values.

6.5.5 Benefits of institutional culture

1Institutional culture influences the beliefs and behaviour of the workforce.

It is the institution’s way of directing and guiding the behaviour of employees

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to achieve institutional goals and objectives.

It demonstrates the institution’s way of life, and how it conducts business,

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reacts to growth and responds to society.

Human resource management policies and practices can be used to reinforce

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and perpetuate institutional culture.

Managers use internal recruitment to appoint employees to senior executive

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positions. This strengthens the superior–subordinate relationship between

employees and management.

Managers also use motivational policies to motivate and encourage employees

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to behave in ways that are acceptable to the organisation; this leads to the
achievement of institutional goals and stimulates employees to increase their
performance and productivity.

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 LEARNING UNIT 6:  Institutional culture

6.6 INSTITUTIONAL CULTURE AND PERFORMANCE

The relationship between culture and performance and the manager’s role
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in cultural change as a means to encourage increased productivity needs

to be explored in more depth.

According to Thompson and Strickland (2003:427), institutional culture

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serves three important functions. First, culture is a deeply embedded form

of social control that influences employee decisions and behaviour. Culture
is pervasive and operates unconsciously. This means that culture directs
employees in ways that are consistent with institutional expectations.

Second, culture is the social glue that binds employees together and makes
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them feel part of the institutional experience. Employees are motivated to

internalise the institution’s dominant culture because it fulfils their need
for social identity. This is increasingly crucial in institutions with global
workforces, because culture is one of the few means of tying employees
together (McShane & Von Glinow 2000:505).

Third, culture helps employees to understand institutional events and

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processes. They can simply get on with their work rather than spending time
trying to figure out what is expected of them. They can also communicate
efficiently and cooperate more fully with one another because they share
common mental models of reality.

Institutional culture is an important means to achieve institutional effectiveness.

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First, one should understand that institutional culture, the system of shared
values, beliefs, and norms, is the product of the interaction between selection
processes, the managerial functions, the institution’s behaviour, structure,
and processes, the larger environment in which the institution operates,
and the removal process (resignation or being fired) (Hersey, Blanchard &
Johnson 2001:343).

Second, institutional culture encompasses managerial functions and

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institutional characteristics. Management is both a cause and a part of

institutional characteristics. The existing culture of any institution reflects past
and present managerial planning, organising, leading and controlling activities,
for example an institution values operational efficiency (quality of output,
customer satisfaction, efficient use of resources) because management has
stated missions, goals and objectives in those terms.

These managers evaluate employees in terms of accuracy, for example a

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minimum number of errors made. Management has created the culture by

virtue of their own managerial actions, and they hire employees and socialise
them to adopt and accept the important beliefs and values of that culture.
Employees who are not well matched with or suited to the institutional culture
will leave either voluntarily (through resignation) or involuntarily (through being
fired). These employees are often isolated and not involved in traditions,
and they are usually identified through performance management systems
(McShane & Von Glinow 2007:226–228).

1Institutional culture influences institutional performance by:

ƒƒ attracting, recruiting, selecting and appointing candidates who possess
the abilities, competencies and skills that the institution requires.

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ƒƒ allowing management to formulate policies and institute practices that

reinforce and perpetuate behaviour that increases performance.
ƒƒ creating an environment that allows management to use motivational
approaches that stimulate employees to achieve self-actualisation, improve
their standard of living and quality of life and increase their performance
and productivity.

6.7 ROLE OF MANAGERS IN CULTURAL CHANGE

One finds subcultures located throughout the various divisions, geographic
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regions and occupational groups of an institution. Subcultures enhance the

dominant culture by espousing parallel assumptions, values and beliefs.
Subcultures help the institution to align its culture with the needs of customers,
suppliers, society and other stakeholders as departments and divisions
interact with stakeholders. However, one may also find countercultures,
which directly oppose the institution’s core values (Thompson & Strickland
2003:422–423).

6.7.1 Cultural change

Cultural change is a lengthy process, which may take 10 to 15 years before
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being accepted and becoming a practice and way of life. It can only be
instituted through moderate change facilitated by the empowerment of the
workforce. Empowerment seeks to eliminate all the unnecessary rules and
procedures that prevent the employees from achieving institutional goals and
objectives effectively. It also removes the limitations that slow the response
of employees and constrain their actions.

The empowered workplace is characterised by job enrichment and job

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enlargement. It increases the abilities, skills and competencies of employees

and allows them to use their innovative and creative skills to increase
performance and productivity to achieve institutional goals and objectives.
It also allows employees to produce new and better goods and offer new
and better services which, in turn, provide customers with more options to
choose from, satisfying their needs and wants. It provides employees with
greater control over decisions about work, allowing them to complete the
whole task rather than just a portion of it.

The empowered workplace emanates from the creation of a new relationship

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between supervisors and subordinates. Subordinates are now partners

and have ownership of the institution; they are decision-makers, not simply
followers; they operate in a working environment where they are exposed
to ever-changing conditions (Thompson and Strickland, 2003:378–379).

Cultural change may only be implemented in a changing environment,

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the main elements of which are a change in management and working

environment, including regulations, policies and practices. The former will
affect the current workforce, but not dramatically, since the function of the
institution will continue without initial major changes. The changes that occur
will be gradual and unnoticed. The latter implies that the new employees will
adapt to the culture of the institution. The interaction between employees
may cause them to influence one another’s behaviour. This means that a
heterogeneous workforce has more influence on the institutional culture than

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 LEARNING UNIT 6:  Institutional culture

a homogeneous workforce. Training and development provide employees

with the appropriate competencies and skills to meet challenges that are
continuously changing.

According to Thompson and Strickland (2003:378–379), cultural change is a

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process that takes years to undo traditions, assumptions, values and norms
that have become part of the lifestyle of employees. Management should
eliminate unnecessary policies, procedures and rules that prevent employees
from increasing their performance and productivity. Management needs
to start by embracing change and then create an institutional culture and
working environment that are conducive to cultural change. The workforce
will then follow the new trend set by management.

6.7.2 Approaches to strengthen institutional culture

According to McShane and Von Glinow (2007:260–262), there are five
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approaches that management can follow to strengthen institutional culture,

namely the action of founders and leaders; introducing culturally consistent
rewards; maintaining a stable workforce; managing the cultural network, and
selecting and socialising employees.

ACTION OF FOUNDERS AND LEADERS

Founders develop the systems and structures that support their personal
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values. They are often visionaries whose energetic style provides a powerful
role model for others to follow. The founder’s cultural imprint often remains
with the institution for decades. However, succeeding leaders can steer the
institution away from founder’s values that no longer have relevance if they
make use of transformational leadership applications.

Transformational leaders strengthen institutional culture by communicating

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and enacting their vision of the future. A change in leadership or a change

in the approach of leadership may be needed to change and strengthen
the institution’s culture. Transformational, transactional, instrumental or
institutional leadership is needed to communicate their vision and inspire
employees to achieve beyond their expectations.

INTRODUCING CULTURALLY CONSISTENT REWARDS

Reward systems strengthen institutional culture when they are consistent
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with cultural values. Cultural values are reinforced when leaders behave in
ways that are consistent with the vision. For example, the best research for
the year may be rewarded by means of the Principal and Vice-Chancellor’s
award. Aggressive cultures may offer more performance-based individual
incentives, whereas paternalistic cultures are more likely to offer employees
assistance programmes, medical insurance and other benefits that support
the wellbeing of employees (Thompson & Strickland 2003:429).

MAINTAINING A STABLE WORKFORCE

Institutional stories are rarely written down: rituals and celebrations do
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not usually exist in procedure manuals. Institutions therefore depend on a

stable workforce to communicate and reinforce the dominant beliefs and
values. The institution’s culture can literally disintegrate during periods of

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high turnover and downsizing because the corporate memory leaves with
departing employees.

Corporate culture also weakens during periods of rapid expansion or mergers

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because it takes time for new employees to learn about and accept the
dominant corporate values and assumptions. Leaders need to maintain a
motivated workforce who will remain with the institution and instil the cultural
values, norms and traditions in younger and new employees

MANAGING THE CULTURAL NETWORK

The institution’s culture is strengthened when it hires candidates whose
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beliefs, values and assumptions are similar to those of the institution. A good
fit between personal and institutional values makes it easier for employees
to adapt to the corporate culture. A good person–institution fit also improves
job satisfaction and institutional loyalty because new hires whose values are
compatible with the corporate culture adjust more quickly to the institution.

SELECTING AND SOCIALISING EMPLOYEES

Institutions can maintain strong cultures through the effective socialisation
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of new employees. Institutional socialisation is the process through which

individuals learn the values, expected behaviours, and social knowledge
necessary to assume their roles in the institution. If the institution’s dominant
values are communicated clearly, candidates and new employees are more
likely to internalise these values quickly and sincerely.

Management should encourage networking and use the grapevine to test

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the feelings and reactions of employees prior to implementing or introducing

cultural or policy changes.

1 n a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 representing good performance and 5 representing

O
poor performance, how would you rate the institutional culture of your
institution or organisation?

INSTITUTIONAL CULTURE RATING

Creates an environment in which disadvantaged employees
can be trained, developed and motivated.
Creates an environment in which disadvantaged employees
can use their potential to increase their performance and
productivity.
Creates an environment that establishes practices that
positively influence the behaviour of employees.
Creates a culture that allows employees to improve their
standard of living and quality of life.
Creates an environment in which disadvantaged employees can
use their competencies and skills to achieve self-actualisation
and corporate advancement.

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 LEARNING UNIT 6:  Institutional culture

INSTITUTIONAL CULTURE RATING

Demonstrates the institution’s way of life, how it conducts
business, reacts to growth, responds to society and treats its
employees.
Creates an environment in which diverse employees can use
their potential to achieve self-actualisation and enjoy corporate
advancement.
Creates an environment in which diverse employees can be
trained, developed and motivated.
Creates an environment in which honest and fair performance
appraisal takes place.
Creates an environment in which employees are remunerated
and rewarded according to their performance.
Creates an environment in which participative management
takes place.
Creates an environment in which career development takes
place.
Creates an environment in which cultural and religious
differences are tolerated and respected.
Creates an environment in which transformation and
reorganisation can take place.
Creates an environment in which managerial functions and
institutional effectiveness can take place.
Creates an environment in which effective human resource
management, motivation, leadership and increased productivity
can take place.
Allows management to appoint the most competent employees
to the most appropriate positions.
Allows managers to create systems, policies and practices
that inculcate in employees the desired behaviour that enables
them to increase their performance and productivity.
Allows management to preserve the institution’s image and
reputation as being the best in the industry.
Overall rating

6.8 CONCLUSION
Institutional culture is made up of the shared assumptions, beliefs, traditions
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and values of the workforce of the institution. From our discussion, it is

evident that HR policies and practices influence the behaviour of employees,
because they want to align themselves with the institution’s culture and to
be accepted by the institution.

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6.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Define “institutional culture”.
2. Discuss the artefacts of institutional culture that you would find in a
typical public institution.
3. Describe the nature of institutional culture that is visible in most public
institutions.
4. Explain how institutional culture influences institutional performance.
5. Discuss the role that public managers can play in cultural change.
6. Discuss the approaches that public managers can use to strengthen
their institution’s culture.

6.10 REFERENCES
1Carroll, A & Buchholtz, A. 2003. Business and society: ethics and stakeholder
management. Stamford: Cengage Learning.
1Hellriegel, D, Jackson, SE, Slocum, J & Staude, G. 2001. Management.
Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
1Hersey, P, Blanchard, K & Johnson, DE. 2001. Management of organizational
behavior. 8th edition. New York: Prentice Hall.
1Kahn, SB. 2005. Managing the South African National Defence Force:
towards productivity: a human resource management perspective.
An unpublished dissertation submitted for the degree of Doctorate
in Philosophy, University of Stellenbosch.
1Katz, R. 1997. The human side of managing technological innovation. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
1McShane, SL & Von Glinow, MA. 2000. Organizational behavior. Boston:
Irwin McGraw-Hill.
1McShane, SL & Von Glinow, M. 2007. Organizational behavior: essentials.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
1 Thompson, AA Jr & Strickland, AJ. 2003. Strategic management concepts
and cases. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
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