Article

Social Psychological and

Personality Science
Immersed in Virtual Worlds and Minds: 1-7
ª The Author(s) 2015
Reprints and permission:
Effects of In-Game Storytelling sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1948550615578177
on Immersion, Need Satisfaction, spps.sagepub.com

and Affective Theory of Mind

Daniel Bormann1 and Tobias Greitemeyer2

Abstract
Past research on video game effects was often limited to explaining effects of game content and mode, leaving structural and
contextual game elements scarcely investigated. The present research examined the yet unclear role of narration in video games,
by adapting concepts and methodology from video game research based on self-determination theory as well as past research on
the effects of literary fiction. Results provided evidence for the facilitation of immersion and an immersion-mediated enhancement
of autonomy and relatedness need satisfaction through in-game storytelling, suggesting a mutual enhancement of immersion and
need satisfaction. Moreover, in-game storytelling enhanced affective theory of mind. Perspectives on future research, connecting
in-game storytelling and game content to complement current knowledge of video game effects on various real-world outcomes,
are discussed.

Keywords
video games, in-game storytelling, self-determination theory, theory of mind

Given the ever-growing economic impact (NPD, 2014) and Theoretical Perspectives
the immense number of video game consumers (Interactive
Effects of video game exposure can be explained by referring
Software Federation of Europe, 2012), a sustained interest
to the General Learning Model (GLM) proposed by Buckley
in the consequences of video game play is not surprising.
Arguably, the predominant research on video game effects and Anderson (2006; for a recent overview, see Gentile,
Groves, & Gentile, 2013). As its predecessor the General
can be described as concern focused (Przybylski, Rigby, &
Aggression Model (e.g., Anderson & Bushman, 2002), the
Ryan, 2010), examining potential negative effects of gaming
GLM proposes that person (such as trait aggression) and situa-
such as the effects of violent video games on aggression
tion variables (such as video game exposure) may affect a per-
(Anderson et al., 2010; Greitemeyer & Mügge, 2014, for
son’s internal state, consisting of cognition, affect, and arousal.
meta-analyses). But there is also recent research showing that
This internal state influences how the person perceives and
playing video games may benefit social relations. For exam-
interprets an event, which in turn shapes the person’s behavior
ple, prosocial game content was shown to increase prosocial
outcomes (Prot et al., 2014) and reduce aggression (Greite- in a social encounter. Importantly, the GLM suggests that the
content of the video game determines whether negative or pos-
meyer, Agthe, Turner, & Gschwendtner, 2012). Likewise,
itive effects are to be expected. In fact, a recent meta-analysis
cooperative game modes decrease aggression (Velez, Greite-
(Greitemeyer & Mügge, 2014) showed that whereas violent
meyer, Whitaker, Ewoldsen, & Bushman, IN PRESS) and
increase cooperative behavior (Greitemeyer & Cox, 2013).
That is, given game content and mode, either negative or pos-
itive effects on the player’s social behavior are to be expected. 1
Institut für Psychologie, Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Freiburg im
In contrast, less is known about the impact of narrative game Breisgau, Germany
2
elements. The present research examined potentially facilitat- Institut für Psychologie, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
ing effects of in-game storytelling on immersion, psychologi-
Corresponding Author:
cal need satisfaction, and affective theory of mind, Daniel Bormann, Institut für Psychologie, Albert Ludwigs Universität Freiburg,
introducing new potential pathways in explaining video game Engelbergerstr. 41, D-79085 Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.
influences. Email: [email protected]

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2 Social Psychological and Personality Science

video game play increases aggression and decreases prosocial character identification, arousal, and game enjoyment, can be
outcomes, prosocial video game play has the opposite effects. enhanced by the presence of a story (Schneider, Lang, Shin,
Likewise, cooperatively playing a video game in a team (rela- & Bradley, 2004).
tive to playing the same video game alone) decreases aggres- Thus far, the extent to which a game provides basic need
sion and increases prosocial outcomes (e.g., Greitemeyer, satisfaction has proven to significantly predict immersion
2013; Greitemeyer, Traut-Mattausch, & Osswald, 2012; Velez (Przybylski et al., 2010). We propose a new potential pathway
et al., IN PRESS). through which in-game storytelling might enhance need satis-
Overall, it appears that depending on what video game is faction via immersion. Intuitive game controls help players
played (the content) and how the video game is played (the overcome the mediation barrier posed by the lack of proprio-
context), video game exposure may not inevitably harm but ceptive feedback of the control interface, thus making the con-
also benefit social relations. However, Gentile (2011) pointed trols more naturalistic and easier to master and, as a
out that not only the dimensions of content and context may consequence, unlocking the game’s need satisfactory potential
have an influence on the player. In the present research, we (Przybylski et al., 2010).
focus on the effects of narrative video game elements, namely, Research on in-game storytelling might also benefit from a
in-game storytelling. We predicted that in-game storytelling growing body of work on the potential effects of literary fiction
would foster immersion, player’s experience of need satisfac- on empathic responses (e.g., Mar, Oatley, Hirsh, dela Paz, &
tion (PENS), and affective theory of mind (ToM). Peterson, 2006). Beyond mammalian, rudimentary social abil-
The consideration of motivation and immersion in studying ities like state matching and emotion contagion (De Waal,
comprehensive mechanisms underlying video game effects has 2012), humans are equipped with the capacity to represent oth-
proven rather fruitful (Przybylski et al., 2010, for a review). er’s mental states (Singer, 2006). This ability, to attribute
Ryan, Rigby, and Przybylski (2006) documented that the basic beliefs, intentions, and thoughts to another person, has been
psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and related- referred to as mentalizing, mind reading, cognitive perspective
ness as theorized by self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & taking, or ToM (Hein & Singer, 2010). Research has segmen-
Ryan, 2000) are associated with the appeal of a respective ted this capacity in affective ToM (the ability to determine and
video game and its potential impact on well-being. SDT con- apprehend other’s emotional states) and cognitive ToM (the
ceptualizes those needs as empirically derived, organismic, attribution of other’s thoughts and intentions through perspec-
psychological nutriments of well-being, and key determinants tive taking; Sebastian et al., 2010).
of human motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2012, for a review). For This set of capabilities may not only underlie the very basis
instance, satisfaction of those needs has proven to promote of human social behavior but in turn can be influenced by prod-
intrinsic motivation in leisure occupations such as physical ucts of human culture such as literary fiction (e.g., Mar, Oatley,
activities (Patrick & Canevello, 2011). & Peterson, 2009). Mar and Oatley (2008) emphasized the
Video games are multidimensional phenomena that influ- capacity of literary fiction in ‘‘abstracting and simulating social
ence those needs in various ways. Autonomy, as a fundamental experience’’ (p. 173), thereby priming readers to apprehend
need within SDT, concerns the ability and aspiration to experi- social relations. In fact, fiction exposure correlated with affec-
ence self-regulation, congruence, and volition or willingness tive ToM, even after ruling out individual differences (Mar
when accomplishing a task (Deci & Ryan, 2012). Video game et al., 2009). Kidd and Castano (2013) reported broad experi-
franchises, such as Legend of Zelda, offer players a spectrum of mental evidence for the temporal enhancement of ToM through
meaningful choices to shape the game’s narrative and environ- reading literary fiction, arguing that the processes elicited by
ment, satisfying this need (Ryan et al., 2006). Competence distinct features of literary fiction resemble those of ToM. The
describes the need for a sense of effectance in undergoing chal- authors concluded that an active discourse in dealing with nar-
lenges (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Modern and relatively sophisti- ration, characterized by Bruner (1986) as a distinctive narrative
cated video games provide carefully balanced, skill-graded mode, is crucial for these effects. Likewise, players are forced
challenges and validate the player with positive feedback, to actively construct coherent narratives out of scattered infor-
which generates a feeling of effectance in the experience (Przy- mation in order to understand and anticipate the events in the
bylski et al., 2010). Finally, multiplayer online games in partic- game. Thus, in-game storytelling might foster ToM in a similar
ular offer players various possibilities to experience social fashion.
connectedness and meaningful social interactions, satisfying
their need for relatedness (Ryan et al., 2006).
Moreover, Ryan and colleagues (2006) emphasized the cru-
The Present Research
cial role of immersion and intuitive game controls. Immersion, We examined potential effects of in-game storytelling on
as a concept of the perceptual illusion of nonmediation (Lom- immersion, PENS, and affective ToM. Participants were either
bard & Ditton, 1997), reflects the extent to which players feel exposed to a video game rich in storytelling or a neutral game
embedded in the game’s virtual environment and narrative (neutral condition). Moreover, the game rich in storytelling was
(Przybylski et al., 2010). Whereas intuitive game controls have administered in two conditions, namely, participants were
been shown to foster PENS, immersion was facilitated by either given the narrative (story condition) or asked to willfully
PENS (Ryan et al., 2006). Beyond that, immersion, along with ignore it (ignore story condition). It was expected that in-game

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Bormann and Greitemeyer 3

storytelling (story condition) would increase immersion, The video game chosen for the neutral condition was
PENS, and affective ToM (compared to the ignore story and Against the Wall, a free to play, single player, first-person plat-
neutral conditions). Moreover, immersion should be accounta- forming adventure game. The player has to climb up an infinite
ble for increased PENS (see Ryan et al., 2006). To our knowl- wall by interacting with the bricks in surreal but apparently
edge, this is the first attempt to examine how narration in video human made surroundings. The only instructions participants
games influences the player. were given regarded the game controls that were necessary to
freely navigate through the virtual environment. Apart from a
brief depiction of the surrounding in the instruction, the game
Method provided no narrative elements.
All of the three instructions provided an equal amount of
Participants, Procedure, and Materials information on the game controls and were relatively equal
Participants were 112 undergraduate students at the Univer- regarding word counts (241 words in the story, 243 words in the
sity of Innsbruck, of whom one had to be removed from anal- ignore story, and 235 words in the neutral condition).
ysis due to technical malfunction during the procedure. All After 20 min, the experimenter explained that the game ses-
participants were randomly assigned to one of three video sion was over. Immediately afterward, participants completed a
game conditions (story vs. ignore story vs. neutral). There German adaptation (Bölte, 2005) of the Reading the Mind in the
were 37 (18 male and 19 female) participants in the story con- Eyes Test (RMET; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, &
dition, 37 (16 male and 20 female, and 1 participant did not Plumb, 2001), as an advanced affective ToM measurement, in
state gender) participants in the ignore story condition, and which they were requested to assess facially expressed emotions.
37 (16 male and 21 female) participants in the neutral condi- The test was covered up as an interruptive perception task. There
tion. Data collection was carried out during one semester, were 36 items so the score could be between 0 and 36.
with the aim of running as many participants as possible. All Then, participants were handed the PENS, originally devel-
participants were run before any analyses were performed, oped by Ryan et al. (2006) and provided by Immersyve Inc.
and all data exclusions, experimental conditions, and vari- (2007), for this study. A total of 21 items assessed PENS,
ables assessed are reported. immersion, and intuitive controls. The PENS subscale for in-
After participants came to the lab individually, they were game competence (a ¼ .85) measured perceived mastery and
greeted by the experimenter and handed out one of three writ- efficacy (e.g., I felt competent at the game). The in-game
ten instructions. The game rich in storytelling was administered autonomy subscale (a ¼ .84) assessed the extent to which par-
in two conditions with varied instructions. Similar to a standard ticipants felt able to choose from meaningful options and
methodology used to manipulate empathy (e.g., Batson, Chang, opportunities (e.g., The game provides me with interesting
Orr, & Rowland, 2002), one instruction was designed to disable options and choices). The in-game relatedness subscale (a ¼
the processing of in-game storytelling. That is, participants in .73) assessed the degree to which participants felt connected
the condition deprived of story (ignore story condition) were to others during play (e.g., I find the relationships I form in the
instructed to register, memorize, and evaluate technical and game fulfilling). For present purposes, we also computed an
game play properties of the game as objectively and accurately overall PENS score by averaging the 9 items assessing in-
as possible. game competence, autonomy, and relatedness (a ¼ .80).
Participants in the experimental (story) condition were To measure the extent to which participants felt immersed
given an adaptation of the game’s description retrieved from in the gaming environment, 3 items each assessed physical,
the developer’s website (The Fullbright Company, 2012). By emotional, and narrative presence. Sample items are ‘‘when
so doing, it can be ensured that in-game storytelling rather than moving through the game world I feel as if I am actually
superficial game characteristics would account for the pro- there,’’ ‘‘I experience feelings as deeply in the game as I have
posed effects. in real life,’’ and ‘‘when playing the game I feel as if I was part
The video game chosen for the story and ignore story con- of the story.’’ For present purposes, all 9 items were averaged to
ditions was Gone Home, a single player, first-person story create the immersion scale score (a ¼ .89). Participants rated
exploration video game. In Gone Home, the player slips into their level of agreement to each item using a 7-point Likert-
the role of a female American college student, arriving home type scale. The items were applied in randomized order.
after a year abroad. The player comes upon an empty house and To rate how intuitive and easy to master the control interface
has to reveal the whereabouts of the protagonist’s family mem- felt, participants completed the intuitive controls subscale (a ¼
bers and the circumstances and cause of their disappearance. .79; e.g., when I wanted to do something in the game it was
By analyzing different clues, such as voice records on answer- easy to remember the corresponding control). Each subscale
ing machines, documents, books, and everyday objects that are consisted of 3 items, the item scores of each subscale were
distributed in the house, the player gradually reveals bits of the averaged to create separate subscale scores. However, mean
plot. Key elements of the story are narrated by the protagonist’s intuitive control ratings did not differ significantly across con-
sister, in form of spoken diary entries. Gone Home was criti- ditions (p ¼ .39) and thus this variable is not considered further.
cally acclaimed, above all for excellence in narrative (The Afterward, participants completed a questionnaire designed
Fullbright Company, 2012). to assess possible confounding variables. One item each

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4 Social Psychological and Personality Science

Table 1. Means (and Standard Deviations in Parentheses) of the Overall Immersion, the Overall PENS-scale and the PENS Subscales
(Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness) Ratings, and Affective ToM (RMET) Scores Across Video Game Conditions.

Video Game Condition

Dependent Measure Story Ignore Story Neutral Fa Z2

Immersion 4.26 (1.16) 3.51 (1.27) 2.66 (0.98) 18.22*** .25

[3.89, 4.64] [3.13, 3.88] [2.28, 3.03]
Overall PENS 3.89 (1.00) 3.34 (1.16) 2.68 (0.97) 12.25*** .19
[3.55, 4.22] [2.95, 3.73] [2.36, 3.01]
Autonomy 4.07 (1.44) 3.53 (1.29) 2.62 (1.36) 10.66*** .17
[3.59, 4.55] [3.10, 3.96] [2.17, 3.08]
Competence 4.25 (1.21) 3.98 (1.43) 3.59 (1.69) 1.91 .03
[3.85, 4.66] [3.51, 4.46] [3.03, 4.16]
Relatedness 3.33 (1.15) 2.51 (1.27) 1.84 (0.66) 18.50*** .26
[2.95, 3.72] [2.09, 2.94] [1.62, 2.06]
Affective ToM (RMET) 27.59 (3.41) 26.05 (3.34) 25.51 (3.97) 3.36* .06
[26.46, 28.73] [24.94, 27.17] [24.19, 26.84]
Note. PENS ¼ player’s experience of need satisfaction; RMET ¼ reading the mind in the eyes test; ToM ¼ theory of mind. 95% confidence intervals are reported in
brackets.
a
df ¼ 2, 108.
*p < .05. ***p < .001.

assessed frustration, fun, and arousal experienced in the game story condition (contrast weight: þ2) relative to the ignore
as well as mood on a 7-point Likert-type scale. Sex, age, story (contrast weight: 1) and neutral (contrast weight: 1)
nationality, native language, degree course, marital status, and conditions, t(108) ¼ 4.15, p < .001, d ¼ 0.83. PENS ratings
number of semesters were assessed as demographic data. To in the ignore story condition (contrast weight: 1) and in the neu-
inquire into general gaming habits, participants were asked to tral condition (contrast weight: 1) also differed significantly,
indicate how much time on average they are spending on video t(108) ¼ 2.71, p < .01, d ¼ 0.62.
game play weekly. Because most participants were German With regard to affective ToM, a planned contrast revealed
native speakers and the games were administered in the origi- that the mean RMET scores were higher in the story condition
nal English versions, 3 items assessed self-reported language (contrast weight: þ2) relative to the ignore story (contrast
skills, amount of academic education regarding English, and weight: 1) and neutral (contrast weight: 1) conditions,
whether participants thought they were able to follow the story. t(108) ¼ 2.51, p < .05, d ¼ 0.51. In contrast, RMET scores
Finally, participants were probed for suspicion, checked for in the ignore story condition (contrast weight: þ1) and the neu-
familiarity with the games, and thanked for their participation. tral condition (contrast weight: 1) did not differ significantly,
None of the participants indicated any suspicion of a relation- t(108) ¼ 0.65, p ¼ .52, d ¼ 0.16.
ship between in-game storytelling and PENS, immersion, or We next examined whether the main contrast (story condi-
affective ToM, or stated any familiarity with either of the tion vs. ignore story and neutral condition) would still be signif-
games. icantly associated with our main dependent measures when we
control for the influence of possible confounding variables. We
first checked zero-order correlations between age, participant
Results sex, weekly playtime, frustration, fun, arousal experienced in
To examine whether in-game storytelling fostered immersion, the game, mood, and language skills with the dependent mea-
mean immersion ratings were compared across video game sures immersion, the overall PENS scale, and affective ToM.
conditions using an analysis of variance (see Table 1). To test We then included those extraneous variables in a multiple
our specific predictions, planned contrasts were performed regression that were significantly associated with the depen-
next. This analysis revealed that immersion ratings in the dent measure (frustration, fun, arousal experienced in the
story condition (contrast weight: 2) differed significantly game, and mood were significantly associated with immersion;
from the immersion ratings in the ignore story (contrast participant sex, frustration, fun, arousal experienced in the
weight: 1) and the neutral (contrast weight: 1) conditions, game, and mood were significantly associated with the overall
t(108) ¼ 5.12, p < .001, d ¼ 1.00. Immersion ratings in the PENS scale; mood was significantly associated with affective
ignore story condition (contrast weight: 1) and in the neutral ToM).
condition (contrast weight: 1) also differed significantly, For immersion, the effect of the contrast remained sig-
t(108) ¼ 3.19, p < .01, d ¼ 0.75. nificant (b ¼ .21, p ¼ .004) when controlling for frustration,
Results also revealed that in-game storytelling fostered fun, arousal experienced in the game, and mood. The
PENS and affective ToM (see Table 1). For the overall PENS overall regression was significant, F(5, 104) ¼ 24.40, R2 ¼ .54,
scale, a planned contrast revealed that PENS was higher in the p < .001. Fun (b ¼ .36, p ¼ .005) and arousal experienced in the

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Bormann and Greitemeyer 5

game (b ¼ .27, p ¼ .036) were significantly associated with on the dependent measures can only be accounted for by the
immersion, whereas frustration (b ¼ .03, p ¼ .744) and mood different way how narrative game elements are employed dur-
(b ¼ .04, p ¼ .576) were not. For the overall PENS scale, the ing video game play. Whereas participants in the story condi-
effect of the contrast was reduced to marginal significance (b tion actively engaged in the processing of the game’s
¼ .11, p ¼ .065) when controlling for participant sex, frustra- narrative clues, participants in the ignore story condition were
tion, fun, arousal experienced in the game, and mood. The merely exposed to them. Consistent with previous research
overall regression was significant, F(6, 103) ¼ 39.18, R2 ¼ (e.g., Kidd & Castano, 2013), we propose and found that ToM
.70, p < .001. Frustration (b ¼ .17, p ¼ .008), fun (b ¼ .32, enhancement through narrative game elements requires an
p ¼ .003), and arousal experienced in the game (b ¼ .37, p < active narrative discourse, rather than mere passive reception.
.001) were significantly associated with the overall PENS In-game storytelling might promote the mental ‘‘simulation
scale, whereas participant sex (b ¼ .08, p ¼ .137) and mood and abstraction of social experience’’ (Mar & Oatley, 2008, p.
(b ¼ .03, p ¼ .578) were not. For affective ToM, the effect of 173) through instructing and stimulating players to explore
the contrast remained significant (b ¼ .20, p ¼ .036) when digitally simulated social worlds. Note that immersion
controlling for mood. The overall regression was significant, mediated the effect of in-game storytelling on the PENS (see
F(2, 107) ¼ 5.91, R2 ¼ .10, p ¼ .004. Mood also received a Ryan et al., 2006) but did not account for increased affective
significant regression weight (b ¼ .22, p ¼ .020). ToM after playing a video game with in-game storytelling.
Overall, it appears that the effect of in-game storytelling on Future research illuminating the exact psychological processes
PENS is partly due to differences in video game properties that how narration in video game play influences affective ToM
are unrelated to its narrative elements (i.e., frustration, fun, and would be very welcome. Future studies may also examine
arousal experienced in the game), whereas the effects on whether in-game storytelling not only influences affective
immersion and affective ToM were relatively unaffected by our ToM but also cognitive ToM.
measured extraneous variables. Some other limitations of our study should be noted. First,
Immersion correlated significantly positively with the PENS the correlation between immersion and PENS was very high
(the overall PENS scale), r(111) ¼ .74, 95% confidence inter- (r ¼ .74), so some readers may wonder to what extent these
val [CI] ¼ [0.64, 0.81], p < .001. To examine whether immer- measures truly refer to different constructs. In line with Ryan
sion mediated the effect of the contrast on PENS, a et al. (2006), we decided to keep them as separate measures.
bootstrapping analysis (with 1,000 iterations) was used. In fact, Note also that we used the original relatedness scale, which has
the indirect effect was significantly different from zero (95% been primarily used to assess player-to-player relationships in
CI [1.11, 0.46]). Immersion was not related to affective multiplayer modes (Ryan et al., 2006). Although the narrative
ToM, r(111) ¼ .11, 95% CI [0.08, 0.29], p ¼ .234, and did unfolds around the relationships of the protagonist and her fam-
not account for the effect of the contrast on affective ToM ily, which we intended to target with the items, no in-game
(95% CI [0.77, 0.63]). interactions comparable to real social relations occurred. We
concede that this makes it difficult to connect player’s
responses to explicit relatedness experiences within or outside
Discussion of the game, limiting the validity of the relatedness measures.
The present study provides first evidence that narrative ele- We also have to concede that the story and the neutral video
ments in video games may have an impact on the player. In games that were employed in the present study differed not
fact, in-game storytelling increased immersion and PENS. only in terms of the amount of storytelling but also on other
Moreover, immersion accounted for the effect of video game dimensions that may have affected our findings. For example,
play on PENS. It thus appears that being immersed in a game’s a variety of social stimuli are present in Gone Home, whereas in
story supports players in perceiving opportunities for meaning- Against the Wall no social information is given to the players.
ful choices and relations. Note that the effect of in-game story- This might help explain why the ignore story and neutral con-
telling on the PENS can be partially attributed to properties of ditions differed in terms of immersion and need satisfaction.
the video game other than its narrative elements. In contrast, Although mere exposure to the virtual social environment of
the effects on immersion and affective ToM were relatively Gone Home was not sufficient to elicit ToM enhancement, it
unaffected by extraneous influences. Furthermore, our study might have contributed to a more immersive and appealing
provides initial evidence for the short-term enhancement of ambience, in comparison to the platform structure in the neutral
affective ToM through in-game storytelling. Overall, our study condition.
shows that not only content and context (as previous research Arguably, an overemphasized focus on harmful video game
has shown) but also other video game dimensions (namely, nar- effects had impeded investigations on potentially positive
ration) may influence the player. video game effects. Future research might clarify how in-
Note that the video game conditions were designed to differ game storytelling interacts with game content in terms of
only regarding the active processing of in-game storytelling, real-world outcomes, ultimately promoting a more multidi-
while superficial characteristics of the game, content, and mode mensional perspective on video game phenomena. Given the
were kept comparable. In fact, in the story and ignore story role of ToM in social interaction impairments, typical for autis-
conditions, the same video game was played so any effects tic disorders (Baron-Cohen, Leslie, & Firth, 1985), the

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6 Social Psychological and Personality Science

adaptation of narrative video game elements in computer- of human motivation (pp. 85–107). New York, NY: Oxford
assisted clinical interventions might present a promising tool University Press.
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As Happ, Melzer, and Steffgen (IN PRESS) documented, Child Development Perspectives, 5, 75–81.
empathy in a video game context can promote prosocial as well Gentile, D. A., Groves, C., & Gentile, J. R. (2013). The general
as antisocial outcomes, depending on game content. Although learning model: Unveiling the learning potential from video
not identical with empathy, ToM as a key construct in social games. In F. C. Blumberg (Ed.), Learning by playing: Frontiers
interaction (Hein & Singer, 2010) might be involved in similar of video gaming in education (pp. 121–142). New York, NY:
content-dependent mechanisms. Oxford University Press.
Greitemeyer, T. (2013). Playing video games cooperatively increases
Declaration of Conflicting Interests empathic concern. Social Psychology, 44, 408–413.
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect Greitemeyer, T., Agthe, M., Turner, R., & Gschwendtner, C. (2012).
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Acting prosocially reduces retaliation: Effects of prosocial video
games on aggressive behavior. European Journal of Social
Funding Psychology, 42, 235–242.
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, Greitemeyer, T., & Cox, C. (2013). There’s no ‘‘I’’ in team: Effects of
authorship, and/or publication of this article. cooperative video games on cooperative behavior. European Jour-
nal of Social Psychology, 43, 224–228.
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14, 154–166. Daniel Bormann is currently studying psychology at the University
Ryan, R. M., Rigby, C. S., & Przybylski, A. K. (2006). The motiva- of Freiburg. The present research was part of his bachelor thesis, con-
tional pull of video games: A self-determination theory approach. ducted under the guidance of Tobias Greitemeyer, at the University of
Motivation and Emotion, 30, 347–364. Innsbruck.
Schneider, E. F., Lang, A., Shin, M., & Bradley, S. D. (2004). Death
with a story: How story impacts emotional, motivational, and phy- Tobias Greitemeyer is a professor of social psychology at the Uni-
siological responses to first-person shooter video games. Human versity of Innsbruck. He is interested in how the media may harm but
Communication Research, 30, 361–375. also benefit social interactions.

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