As Level Biology Compact Notes PDF

1 Cell structure
1.1 The microscope in cell studies ANIMAL CELL
a) Differences between plant and animal cells

PLANT CELL
Images: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook
b, c, e) Magnification calculations
LIGHT MICROSCOPE
ANIMAL CELL
CONVERSIONS
1 mm = 1000 or 103 µm
1 µm = 1000 or 103 nm
PLANT CELL d) Resolution and magnification

Ø magnification – how much bigger a sample appears
to be under a microscope than it is in real life
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Ø resolution – the ability to distinguish between 2

separate points.
- as resolution increases, image clarity and detail
also increase
Types of microscopes
LIGHT ELECTRON
SEM – 3 nm
RESOLUTION 200 nm
TEM – 0.5 nm
MAGNIFICATION x1500 x250,000 – x500,000
1 www.alevel-notes.weebly.com
a) Light microscopes a) Electron micrographs of plant and animal
• limit of resolution: half the wavelength cells
• ribosomes (25nm) can’t be seen with a light a) Plant cells
microscope as they don’t interfere with the light
waves
Image: https://cronodon.com/BioTech/Plant_Bodies_Cells.html
Image: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook
• different stains are absorbed by different cell

organelles so they can be observed more clearly
b) Electron microscopes
• vacuum (electrons cannot be focused without a
vacuum as they will collide with air molecules and
scatter)
• water boils at room temperature in a vacuum, so the
sample must be dehydrated (specimen has to be
Image: https://www.tuttee.co/blog/gce-cie-biology-animal-and-plant-cell-structures-and-functions
dead)
Advantages of a light microscope over an electron

microscope b) Animal cells
1) can observe living tissue
2) more portable
3) easier to use - no technical training required
4) possible to see real/natural colours and a live
specimen
5) can stain particular types of tissue for better visibility
1.2 Cells as the basic units of

living organisms
The cell is the basic unit of all living organisms.
The interrelationships between these cell structures show Image: https://brainly.in/question/1540878
how cells function to transfer energy, produce biological
molecules including proteins and exchange substances
with their surroundings.
• carry out protein synthesis
• 80S – cytoplasm
• 70S – chloroplasts & mitochondria
4) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

• membranes that form an extended system of fluid-
filled sacs (cisternae)
• single membraned organelle
• ribosomes are attached to the RER and are the site
Image: https://www.tuttee.co/blog/gce-cie-biology-animal-and-plant-cell-structures-and-functions of protein synthesis
• proteins made by the ribosomes enter the sacs and
b) Eukaryotic cell structures and their functions are often modified as they go through them
• small sacs (vesicles) break off from the ER and join
1) Cell surface membrane (phospholipid bilayer) to form the golgi body
(7 nm)
• selectively permeable membrane that allows for the
exchange of certain substances
• barrier between cytoplasm and external environment
• cell recognition (surface antigens)
• selection of substances that enter/leave cells
2) Nucleus (7 µm)
Controls cell’s activities
• very dense, takes up colour the most when stained
• divides first during cell division
• surrounded by 2 membranes, known as the nuclear
envelope which is continuous with the RER. Image: Esrefoglu, Mukaddes. (2019). The Golgi Apparatus: Morphology and Function with Recent
Facts. Bezmialem Science. 7. 331-338. 10.14235/bas.galenos.2019.2806.
5) Golgi body / apparatus / complex
Image: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/the-nucleus-and-ribosomes/
• contains:
a) nuclear pores: allow and control substances
entering in (protein to make ribosomes, ATP,
some hormones, nucleotides) and leaving (mRNA,
ribosomes for protein synthesis) of nucleus Image: https://microbenotes.com/golgi-apparatus-structure-and-functions/
b) nucleolus (2.5 µm): contains loops DNA from • stack of flattened sacs (cisternae) formed by the
several chromosomes and synthesises ribisomes vesicles which bud off from the RER
• Single membraned organelle
3) Ribosomes (25 nm) • Packages substances into vesicles for transport
• composed of 2 subunits • glycosylation
• phosphorylating proteins
• assembly of polypeptides into proteins (4º structure)
• folding proteins
• removing the 1st amino acid methionine to activate
Image: https://www.open.edu/openlearn/
proteins
• energy released from energy-rich molecules e.g.,
6) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) sugars and fats during respiration is transferred to
molecules of ATP
• synthesizes lipids and steroids such as cholesterol
• ATP is the energy-carrying molecule in all living cells
and the reproductive hormones estrogen and
testosterone. • once made, ATP leaves the mitochondrion and can
spread rapidly to all parts of the cell where energy is
needed
• its energy is released by breaking ATP down to ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) in a hydrolysis reaction
• see Chapter 12.2(i) for more details
9) Microtubules
Image: https://studiousguy.com/
7) Lysosomes (0.1-1µm)
• spherical sacs surrounded by a single membrane
• not permanent structures
• no internal structure
• contain hydrolytic enzymes Image: https://www.microscopemaster.com/alpha-and-beta-tubulins.html
• responsible for digestion/breakdown of unwanted • long, rigid, hollow tubes found in the cytoplasm
structures e.g., old organelles
• made of a protein called tubulin
• can even digest whole cells e.g., in mammary glands
after the period of lactation • tubulin has 2 forms – ⍺ & β tubulin
• ⍺ & β tubulin molecules combine to form dimers
• many dimers are joined end to end to form
protofilaments
• 13 protofilaments are in a ring to form a cylinder with
a hollow center
• this cylinder is the microtubule
Image: https://www.ybstudy.com/2020/07/lysosomes-structure-functions.html?m=1
• supports and gives shapes to the cell

8) Mitochondria (0.5-10µm)
• the assembly of microtubules from tubulin molecules
is controlled by special locations in cells called
microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs)
9.5) Centrioles (and centrosomes)
• outside the nucleus of animal cells, 2 centrioles are

present close together at right angles in a region
called the centrosome
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• carries out aerobic respiration

• synthesizes ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
• more in cells that have a higher demand for energy
e.g., muscle, liver, and root hair cells
• outer membrane contains a transport protein called
porin
Image: https://www.microscopemaster.com/centriole.html
13) Vacuoles
• centrioles are hollow cylinders about 500 nm long • surrounded by a partially permeable tonoplast which
• produces spindle fibers controls exchange between the vacuole and
• organizes microtubules cytoplasm
10) Chloroplasts (3-10µm)
• helps regulate osmotic properties of cells

• fluid present in the vacuole consists of:
Image: https://askmicrobiology.com/do-bacteria-have-chloroplast/
• diameter 3-10 um
• carries out photosynthesis
• contains starch grains, circular DNA, and 70S
ribosomes
• ATP is also produced here
• see Chapter 13.3(a) for more details
d) Structural features of prokaryotic cells
• organisms that lack nuclei or proper nuclear
11) Cell wall
membranes are called prokaryotes
• gives cell definite shape • unicellular
• rigid as made of cellulose • 1-5um
• freely permeable • cell wall made of murein (peptidoglycan = protein +
• prevents cell from bursting polysaccharides)
• no membranes around organelles
12) Plasmodesmata • 70S (smaller) ribosomes
• plant cells are linked to neighboring cells by means of • genetic material in the form of circular DNA
fine strands of cytoplasm called plasmodesmata • have no ER
which pass through pore-like structures in their walls
Image: https://mybody101.com/ap-bio-unit-4/
• allows the transport of water, sucrose, amino acids,

ions, etc., between cells without crossing membranes
• this is called movement through the symplastic
pathway
• allows communication/signaling between cells.
e) Differences between typical eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells
Image: https://www.researchgate.net/fi
See Chapter 18.2 for more details
f) Viruses
• noncellular/acellular
• protein coat
• nucleic acid core; DNA/RNA strand
• replicate inside host cells only
• show no characteristics of living organism
• symmetrical shape
• the virus DNA/RNA takes over the protein
synthesizing machinery of the host cell which helps
to make new virus particles
• See Chapter 18.2(d) for more details
2 Biomolecules
2.1 Testing for biomolecules • equal volumes of sample and Biuret reagent are
mixed
Food tests • if proteins are present, the colour changes from blue
to lilac
1) Reducing sugars
• instead of biuret reagent, KOH and dil. CuSO4 can be
• reduce soluble blue copper sulphate containing copper used
(II) ions to insoluble brick-red copper oxide, containing
copper (I) For extra details on performing food tests, see paper 3
• the copper oxide is seen as a brick-red ppt notes.
2.2 Carbohydrates and lipids

All living organisms are made of C, H, O + N molecules.
• add equal volumes of Benedict’s reagent and the food
sample to a test tube Carbohydrates
• heat in a water bath at 80°C
• composed of C, H, O
• if reducing sugars are present, the following colour • divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides,
changes are observed: polysaccharides
• monomer – one of many small molecules that

combine to form a polymer, e.g. – monosaccharides,
2) Non-reducing sugars amino acids, nucleotides
• e.g., sucrose • polymer – large molecule made from many similar

• disaccharide is first broken down into its 2 repeating subunits, e.g. – polysaccharides, proteins,
monosaccharide constituents in a hydrolysis reaction nucleic acids
• this is done by adding HCl, and then neutralising the
acid with an alkali such as sodium bicarbonate • macromolecule – large molecule formed due to
• constituent monosaccharides will be reducing sugars polymerisation of monomers, e.g. – polysaccharides,
and their presence can be tested by Benedict’s test proteins (polypeptides), nucleic acids
(polynucleotides)
3) Starch Monosaccharides
• add drops of iodine solution to the sample Molecule consisting of a single sugar unit with the general
• if blue-black colour is quickly produced, starch is formula C(H2O)n
present • dissolves in water
• iodine solution is yellow brown • main types of monosaccharides – trioses (3C),
pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C)
4) Lipids (emulsion test) • glucose, fructose galactose, ribose, deoxyribose
• sample is shaken with ethanol HEXOSES PENTOSES

• any lipids present will dissolve
• mixture of ethanol and sample is poured into a
beaker containing water
• if lipids are present, a cloudy-white suspension is
formed due to the lipids being unable to remain
dissolved when mixed with water
• therefore, the lipid molecules form droplets
throughout the liquid, this kind of mixture is called the
emulsion Image: https://tlamjs.com/2017/01/13/biological-molecules-carbohydrates/
Roles of monosaccharides
5) Proteins (Biuret test) 1) source of energy in respiration – C-H bonds can be
• all proteins have peptide bonds containing nitrogen broken to release a lot of energy which is
atoms which form a purple complex with Cu2+ ions transferred to help make ATP from ADP
2) building blocks for larger molecules – glucose is uses chains are shorter than
to make the polysaccharides starch, glycogen, and long, unbranching chain amylose and branch out to
cellulose; ribose is one of the molecules used to make sides
RNA and ATP, deoxyribose is one of the molecules
used to make DNA chains are curved and
coil into helical
branches are formed by 1-6
Disaccharides structures making the
linkages
final molecule more
Sugar molecule consisting of 2 monosaccharides joined
compact
by a glycosidic bond.
2) Glycogen
• made of chains of 1-4 linked ⍺-glucose molecules
with 1-6 linkages forming branches
• tend to be more branched than amylopectin
molecules
• many ends due to branching aids in easy addition
and removal of glucose
• compact and insoluble, doesn’t affect the water
potential (Ψ)
3) Cellulose → polymer of β-glucose

• in order to form a glycosidic bond with the 4th carbon
Image: https://dopeahmeanbio.wordpress.com/tag/glycosidic-bonds/ atom where the OH group is below the ring; every
• H2O molecule is removed; the bond formed by other glucose is rotated 180°
condensation is called a glycosidic bond • so successive glucose molecules are linked 180° to
each other
Polysaccharides • one oxygen is up and the other is down
A polymer whose subunits are monosaccharides joined • the molecules are still linked 1-4
by glycosidic bonds
• e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose (all polymers of
glucose)
• not sugars
• if glucose itself accumulated in cells, it would
dissolve and make the contents of the cell too
concentrated which affects its osmotic properties
• cellulose molecules become tightly cross-linked to
• storage polysaccharides – convenient, compact,
form bundles called microfibrils
inert, insoluble
• microfibrils are held together in bundles called fibres
by hydrogen bonding
1) Starch à amylose + amylopectin • cellulose fibres have very high tensile strength – this
AMYLOSE AMYLOPECTIN makes it possible for a cell to withstand large
pressures as a result of osmosis
• cellulose fibres, despite their strength, are freely
permeable
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Image: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/
made by condensation
reactions between 1,4 also made of 1,4 linked ⍺-
linked ⍺-glucose glucose molecules
molecules
Image: unknown
Dipoles and hydrogen bonds Alcohols & Esters
• unequal distribution of charges in a covalent bond is • alcohols contain hydroxyl group (–OH) attached to C
called a dipole atom
• molecules which have groups with dipoles are polar • reaction between (fatty) acid (–COOH) and alcohol (–
OH) produces an ester
• the chemical link between acid and alcohol is called
an ester linkage/bond and is formed by a
condensation reaction
Image: https://alevelbiology.co.uk/notes/dipoles-of-water-molecules/
• in water, oxygen atom gets more electrons due to it

being more electronegative and therefore gets a
small negative charge denoted by delta (𝛅-)
• hydrogen atoms get less electrons and therefore get
small positive charges (𝛅+)
Image: https://revisionscience.com/
• glyceride is an ester formed by a fatty acid

combining with the alcohol glycerol (C3H8O3)
• glycerol has 3 hydroxyl groups; each one is able to
undergo a condensation reaction with a fatty acid
Image: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cheminter/chapter/hydrogen-bonding/ • triglycerides are insoluble in water due to the non-
• negatively charged oxygen of one molecule is polar nature of hydrocarbon tails – they don’t have
attracted to a positively charged hydrogen of uneven distribution of charges and are hydrophobic
another, this attraction is called a hydrogen bond
Roles of triglycerides
Molecules which have groups with dipoles are polar • energy reserves
• they’re attracted to H2O molecules as they also • insulator
have dipoles and are considered to be hydrophilic • protect vital organs
(water-loving)
• soluble in water
• e.g., glucose, amino acids, NaCl 2.3 Proteins and water
Proteins
Molecules which do not have dipoles are non-polar
All proteins are made from the same monomer - amino acids.
• they’re not attracted to water and hydrophobic
(water-hating)
• insoluble in water
• e.g., oils, cholesterol
Lipids → 3 Fatty Acids + 1 Glycerol

Fatty acids
• contain the acidic group –COOH Image: https://beautiflworid.com/do-protein?print=print
• larger molecules in the series have long

hydrocarbon tails attached to the acid which are 15-
17 carbon atoms long Amino acids
• of two types: saturated and unsaturated All have a central carbon atom bonded to –
• unsaturated fatty acids have C=C double bonds • an amine (–NH2) group
therefore don’t have maximum amount of hydrogen • a carboxylic group (–COOH)
atoms
• a hydrogen
• form unsaturated lipids
• a R-group that determines what type of amino acid it
• mostly liquid
is
The peptide bond
Image: https://www.khanacademy.org/
Bonds in the tertiary structure
Image: https://www.drawittoknowit.com/
• a molecule made up of many amino acids linked

together by peptide bonds is a polypeptide
• polypeptides can be broken down to amino acids by
Image: By WikiComTD - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,
breaking the peptide bonds in a hydrolysis reaction https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=79148318
• this happens naturally in the stomach and small

intestine during digestion
PROTEINS
Structures of proteins GLOBULAR FIBROUS

spherical/balled shaped
• curl up so that their non-
polar, hydrophilic R-
groups point to the centre
of the molecule away
proteins that form long
from watery surroundings
strands
• polar, hydrophilic R-
groups are on the outside
which makes mixing +
dissociating in water
easier
usually not soluble in
usually soluble
water
precise shape, have roles in
metabolic activities and are have structural roles
specific in nature
e.g., enzymes, haemoglobin, e.g., keratin, actin,
myoglobin myosin, collagen
Haemoglobin: a globular protein • helical polypeptides are wound together creating a
triple helix
• made of 4 polypeptide chains therefore they have a
quaternary structure • strands are held together by hydrogen and some
covalent bonds
• 2 of the haemoglobin chains, ⍺-chains, are made of ⍺-
globin • every 3rd amino acid in each polypeptide chain is
glycine
• the other 2 chains, β-chains, are made of β-globin
• each 3 stranded molecule interacts with other
• each polypeptide chain has a haem group attached
collagen molecules running parallel to it
(prosthetic group) to it
• covalent bonds form between R-groups of amino
• haem contains charged particle of iron
acids
• the haem group is also responsible for the colour of
• these cross-links hold many collagen molecules side
haemoglobin
by side forming fibrils
• many fibrils lie alongside each other forming strong
bundles called fibres
• collagen is flexible but has tremendous tensile
strength
• collagen fibres line up according to the forces they
withstand
• each polypeptide chain can carry one molecule of

oxygen
• therefore, in total, haemoglobin can carry 4 molecules
of oxygen or 8 oxygen atoms
Collagen: a fibrous protein

• found in skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, teeth, etc.
• a structural protein
• collagen molecule consists of 3 polypeptide chains,
each in a helical shape
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3 Enzymes
3.1 Mode of action of enzymes The course of a reaction
• enzymes are globular proteins that catalyse • when the enzyme and substrate are first mixed,
metabolic reactions there’s a large number of substrate molecules
therefore almost every enzyme has a substrate in its
• function as biological catalysts
active site
• specific in nature
• this makes the rate of enzyme-controlled reaction
• precise 3D shape with hydrophilic R-groups on the fastest at the beginning
outside ensuring they’re soluble
• possess active sites which are clefts/depressions to
which a substrate can bind
ENZYMES
INTRACELLULAR EXTRACELLULAR
functions inside of cells functions outside of cells
synthesised and retained synthesised in cell but Image: https://2012books.lardbucket.org/
in cell secreted out
Lock and key

3.2 Factors that affect enzyme
• idea that enzymes have particular shapes into which action
their substrate fits into exactly 1) Temperature
• enzyme is said to be specific for a substrate
• rate of reaction is slow at lower temperatures as
molecules are moving slowly which makes collisions
Induced fit hypothesis happen less frequently
• substrate is partially complementary to the active • as temperature rises, enzymes and substrates move
site faster, and collisions happen more frequently
• the active site changes shape slightly to ensure a • when they collide, they do so with more energy
better fit and stronger binding of substrate which makes it easier for bonds to be formed and
• this makes catalysis even more efficient broken
• if temperature keeps increasing, bonds holding
enzyme in shape (ionic, hydrogen bonds) break and
the enzyme is said to be denatured
• the temperature at which enzymes catalyse a
reaction at maximum rate is the ‘optimum
temperature’
• in humans, this is around 40°C
2) pH
• pH is a measure of the H+ ions in a solution
• H+ ions can affect the R-groups of amino acids
Image: https://schoolbag.info/chemistry/mcat_biochemistry/10.html which affects the ionic bonding between groups
which in turn affects the 3D structure of the enzyme
Enzymes reduce activation energy (Ea)
• Active site may also be changed, reducing chances
• in many chemical reactions, the substrate will not be of a substrate fitting in
converted to a product unless it’s temporarily given
extra energy
• this extra energy is activation energy (Ea)
3) Enzyme concentration
• the more enzymes present, the more active sites are
• enzymes do this by holding their substrates in a way
available for substrates to fit in
that bonds can be broken more easily hence
reducing Ea • as long as there’s plenty of substrate available, initial
rate of reaction increasing linearly with enzyme
• or the shape is slightly changed, making it easier to
change the substrate to a product (induced fit concentration
theory)
4) Substrate concentration • disrupts the three-dimensional shape of enzyme
• as substrate concentration increases, initial rate of preventing the substrate from fitting into the active
reaction also increases site as its distorted
• the more substrate molecules there are around, the • increasing the substrate concentration has no
more often an enzyme’s active site can bind with change on the rate of reaction here
one
• saturation point – enzymes working at max (Vmax)
• all active sites are filled up
• enzyme moves to find substrates as it gets less,
collision forces start to decrease
STARCH → MALTOSE → GLUCOSE
too much product so
difficult to find substrate acting as inhibiting agent
5) Inhibitor concentration
Decreases enzyme activity, slowing down the reaction. • End product inhibition – as enzyme converts
substrate into product, rate is slowed down at the
end as the product binds to another part of the
enzyme and prevents more substrate binding
Enzyme affinities
• affinity – enzyme willingness to bind to a substrate
• at Vmax, all enzyme molecules are bound to substrate
molecules; the enzyme is saturated with substrate
As substrate concentration is increased, reaction rate
a) Competitive inhibition rises until the max rate i.e., Vmax
• compete with the substrate for the active site
• molecule similar in shape to the enzyme’s substrate
binds with the active site inhibiting the function
Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Michaelis-Memten.JPG
Km (Michaelis-Menten constant)
• the substrate concentration at which enzyme works
at half its maximum rate
• if the concentration of inhibitor rises or substrate • half the active sites of enzymes are occupied by
falls, it becomes less likely that the substrate will substrate
collide with an active site
• can be reversed by increasing the concentration of
substrate
b) Non-competitive inhibitor
Molecule fits into the allosteric site of the enzyme
rather than the active site.
Image: https://teaching.ncl.ac.uk/bms/wiki/index.php/Non-competitive_inhibitor
• An enzyme with a lower value of Km has a high

affinity to its substrate
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Image: https://epomedicine.com/medical-students/competitive-non-competitive-and-
uncompetitive-inhibitors/
Immobilising enzymes
• enzyme is mixed with a solution of sodium alginate
• droplets of this mixture are added to calcium
chloride solution
• a reaction occurs forming jelly/beads
• enzyme is immobilised in the bead
Advantages of immobilising enzymes

1) enzyme is reused
2) enzyme is easily recovered
3) product isn’t contaminated with enzymes
4) reduces product inhibition
5) enzyme is more stable/less likely to denature
6) longer shelf-line of enzyme
4 Cell Membranes and Transport
4.1 Fluid mosaic membranes • at low temperatures, cholesterol increases the
fluidity of the membrane preventing it from being
Fluid mosaic model too rigid, this is because it prevents close packing
• ‘fluid’ refers to the movement of phospholipids while of phospholipid tails
‘mosaic’ refers to the scattered proteins (and • at high temperatures, cholesterol decreases the
glycoproteins) in the phospholipid bilayer fluidity of membrane and stabilises the cell
1) Phospholipids
2, 3) Glycolipids and glycoproteins
Lipid and protein molecules on the outer surfaces of cell
membrane have carbohydrate chains attached to them
forming glycolipids and glycoproteins
These carbohydrate chains projecting out like antennae:
• stabilise the membrane structure by forming hydrogen
bonds with water molecules surrounding the cell
• glycocalyx – sugary cell coating formed by
carbohydrate chains
• act as receptor molecules:
Þ signalling receptors – recognise messenger
molecules like hormones and neurotransmitters
Þ endocytosis – bind to molecule to be engulfed by
membrane
Image: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/
• act as cell markers/antigens allowing cell-cell
• phospholipids are arranged so that hydrophobic, non- recognition
polar tails do not face water. Water is on both the
intracellular and extracellular sides 4) Proteins
• therefore, tails point inwards, and hydrophilic heads
face the aqueous medium
• proteins that are found • can be present inside or

Image: https://www.chegg.com/
embedded within the outside of the cell
membrane membrane i.e.,
Membrane fluidity intracellular, and
Membrane fluidity refers to the viscosity of the lipid extracellular
bilayer of a cell membrane.
• may be found in inner • extracellular peripheral
Membrane fluidity is affected by: layer, outer layer or proteins –
spanning the whole communication,
1) tail length – longer the tail, the less fluid the membrane (these are receptors, and
membrane transmembrane recognition proteins
2) saturation of fatty acid – the more unsaturated they proteins)
are, the more fluid the membrane. This is as • helps in movement in • intracellular peripheral
unsaturated fatty acid tails are bent and fit together and out of cell proteins- structural
more loosely support, attached to the
cytoskeleton of the cell
3) cholesterol
• regulates the fluidity of membrane
Function of transmembrane proteins a) If the signalling molecules are hydrophobic
• act as gateways and can transform, helping in (e.g., steroid hormones such as oestrogen)
facilitated diffusion and active transport • they can diffuse directly across the cell membrane
and bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus.
b) If the signalling molecule is water-soluble

1) signal arrives at protein receptor in cell membrane
2) the receptor’s shape is complementary to the ligand
3) the signal brings about a change in the receptor’s
shape
4) changing the shape of the receptor allows it to
interact with the next component of the pathway so
the message gets transmitted
5) binding triggers/stimulates reactions within the cell
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6) cell signalling results in a response which may be
intracellular or extracellular
Channel proteins
• do not require energy
• transport substances through membrane passively,
along their concentration gradient
• used for both active transport and facilitated diffusion
Carrier proteins
• require energy
• go against the concentration gradient Image: https://croteaubio.wordpress.com/
• take substances from outside and pumps it inside or

vice versa
4.2 Movement of substances into
• used for active transport
and out of cells
Cell surface receptors a) Diffusion
• present in membranes and binds with particular > Net movement of molecules or ions from a region of
substances higher concentration to a region of lower
• used for signalling, endocytosis, cell adhesion, cell concentration down a gradient, as the result of the
markers random movement of particles.
• passive process
Cell surface antigen • molecules tend to reach an equilibrium situation
• acts as cell identifying markers
Factors affecting diffusion
• each type of cell has its own antigen
• this enables cells to recognise other cells and behave • as steepness of gradient increases, diffusion
in an organised way increases
• as temperature increases, diffusion increases
Cell signalling • as surface area increases, diffusion increases
• cells detect signals with cell receptors, i.e., • as distance increases, diffusion decreases
glycoproteins and glycolipids, present on their • smaller and non-polar molecules like fats diffuse
membrane much easily across the cell surface membrane as
• the signalling molecule binds to the receptor as their they’re soluble in phospholipid tails
shapes are complementary to each other
• this creates a chain of reactions in the cell, leading to b) Facilitated diffusion
a response
> Diffusion of a substance through transport proteins in
a cell surface membrane.
• the proteins provide hydrophilic areas that allow the • energy is used to make the channel/carrier proteins
molecules or ions to pass through the membrane change shape, transferring molecules/ions across the
which would otherwise be less permeable to them membrane in the process
Channel proteins Sodium/Potassium pump

• allow charged substances, usually ions to diffuse
• can move to open or close the pore, like a gate
controlling ion exchange
Carrier proteins
• flip between 2 shapes, as a result, the binding site
opens alternatively to each side
FOR EVERY ATP MOLECULE USED

3Na+ - given out the cell
Image: https://www.khanacademy.org/ 2K+ taken in the cell
c) Osmosis e) Bulk transport

> Net movement of water molecules from a region of > A type of active transport where large molecules are
higher water potential to a region of lower water transported across the cell surface membrane, using
potential through a partially permeable membrane as energy from ATP.
a result of their random motion.
Water potential
> Tendency of water to move out of solution.
• water always moves down a water potential gradient,
this happens until water potential is the same
throughout the solution
• denoted by psi (Ѱ)
• water potential becomes negative if the solute
concentration is very high
RBC /ANIMAL
PLANT CELLS
CELLS
plasmolysed,
WATER LOSS crenated
flaccid
haemolysed /
WATER GAIN turgid
lysed
Image: http://lifeofplant.blogspot.com/
1) Endocytosis
d) Active transport
> Bulk movement of liquids (pinocytosis) or solids
> Movement of molecules or ions through transport (phagocytosis) into a cell by the infolding of the cell
proteins, across a cell membrane, against their membrane to form vesicles containing the substance.
concentration gradient, using energy from ATP.
• achieved by carrier and channel proteins 2) Exocytosis
• these are specific to the type of molecule they’re
transporting > Bulk movement of liquids or solids out of a cell by the
fusion of vesicles containing the substance with the
• requires energy; supplied by ATP cell surface membrane.
5 The mitotic cell cycle
Structure of a chromosome • the total length of DNA of 46 chromosomes of an
adult human is about 1.8m, this needs to be fit into a
Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA. nucleus of 6μm
• therefore, the DNA is wound around the outside of
proteins called histones
- histone proteins – basic proteins which
associate with DNA to form nucleosomes
• these histone proteins (and therefore, nucleosomes)
condense DNA to chromatin
- chromatin – a complex of nucleic acids (DNA
and RNA) and other proteins whose primary
function is to compress DNA into a compact unit
which will fit inside the nucleus
Nucleosomes
• Chromatid – one half of two identical copies of a

replicated chromosomes
• Centromere – the region of a chromosome to which

the microtubules of the spindle attach, via the • 11 nm wide by 6 nm long
kinetochore, during cell division. • made of 8 histone molecules
• Telomeres – protective sequence of nucleotides
found at the ends of chromosomes
Telomeres
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) • cap the ends of chromosomes and are needed for
successful cell division
DNA is the molecule of inheritance and is made up of a
series of genes. • permit continued replication
• prevent the loss of genes
• a gene is a section of DNA that codes for one protein
• DNA molecules are in sister chromatids so that their
genes are identical
• when cells divide, one chromatid goes into one
daughter cell and the other to the other daughter cell,
making the daughter cells genetically identical
• size of DNA molecule – 2nm
Image: https://www.tasciences.com/what-is-a-telomere.html
• telomeres are made of DNA with short base

sequences that are repeated multiple times
• the copying enzyme, telomerase, stops a little short of
the end of DNA
• more bases are added, which don’t have useful
information, but allows telomerase to complete
Image: https://mrleehamber119.wordpress.com/ copying the meaningful DNA
The cell cycle Functions of mitosis
Processes of growth, development, and reproduction. • growth
• cell replacement
• repair of tissues
• asexual reproduction
• immune response (cloning B and T-lymphocytes)
The stages of mitosis
1) Prophase
• centrosomes migrate to
Image: https://www.brainkart.com/article/Cell-Cycle_33013/
opposite poles of mitotic
spindle
Interphase (G1 + S + G2) • chromatin starts to
condense
• Longest phase
• Normal cell work/functions • nuclear envelope and nucleolus begin to disappear
• The cell grows to its normal size • centrosomes and migrate to opposite poles of the cell
• Time spent between cell divisions and form poles of mitotic spindle
• asters and spindle fibres form
1) G1 phase
• cells make RNA, enzymes and other proteins needed 2) Metaphase
for growth
• centrosomes are at poles
• at the end of G1 phase, the cell becomes committed to of the cell and organise
dividing or not the production of spindle
microtubules
2) S phase • chromosomes line up
• synthesis of DNA across equator of the
spindle
• the DNA in the nucleus replicates so that each
chromosome consists of 2 identical chromatids: DNA • each chromosome splits at centromere
replication
• chromosomes start to be pulled apart by microtubules
3) G2 phase
• the cell continues to grow 3) Anaphase
• new DNA is checked, and any errors are repaired • chromatids move to
opposite poles, centromeres
• preparations are made to start cell division e.g., a are first pulled by
sharp increase in production of the protein tubulin is microtubules
observed which is needed to make microtubules for
mitotic spindle • spindle fibres contract and
chromosomes are pulled to
the opposite ends
M phase (mitosis) 4) Telophase
Nuclear division that produces 2 genetically identical • nuclear envelope and
daughter cells. nucleolus reforming
• Maintains genetic stability • nucleus divides
• Ensures cells retain function • chromosomes are at

poles of cell
• Maintains chromosome number Image:
https://www.tekportal.net/telophase/
Cytokinesis
The division of cytoplasm.
Cytokinesis in plant cells
• cell plate forms across equator of cell; cellulose, cell
wall laid down
• cytoplasm is hence divided into 2
2) Centrosome
• an organelle found in animal cells that acts as the
microtubule organising centre (MTOC) for
construction of the spindle
Image: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/
• present at the poles of cell
Cytokinesis in animal cells

• contractile ring forms, pushing the equator of cell
inwards, forming a cleavage furrow
• this cleavage furrow deepens as active filaments in
the ring contract
• eventually the cell splits into 2
Image: https://www.qsstudy.com/biology/centrosome-definition-function
3) Centrioles
• act as MTOCs
• assemble/form spindle fibres during prophase
• contraction of spindle fibres during anaphase
Image: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ separates sister chromatids
Differences in plant and animal cell mitosis Stem cells

• plant cells don’t have any visible centriole or aster Stem cells are cells that can divide an unlimited number
of times by mitosis.
• in plant cells, daughter cells get separated by cell
plate, there is no cleave furrow formation
Centromeres, centrosome, centrioles

1) Centromere
• needed for separation of chromatids during mitosis
• site of attachment of spindle microtubules
• each metaphase chromosome has 2 kinetochores at
its centromere and microtubules
- kinetochore – protein molecules which bind to
DNA in centromere and microtubules
- bundles of microtubules called spindle fibres
extend from kinetochores to poles of spindle
during mitosis
Image: https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-a-stem-cell
• extent of the power of a stem cell to produce different
cell types is called its potency
• stem cell therapy – introduction of new adult stem
cells into damaged tissue to treat a disease or injury
Cancer
• a result of uncontrolled mitosis; cancerous cells
divide repeatedly and form a tumour
• carcinogen – agent that causes cancer e.g.,
radiations (UV, X-rays), tar, nuclear fallout
Cellular changes that occur in development of cancer

• mutation occurs in gene responsible for cell division
leading to formation of an oncogene from a proto-
oncogene
• this causes uncontrolled cell division
• coordination of cell cycle is lost (cell does not
receive/respond to signals that tell it to stop dividing)
• loss of function and lack of specialisation occurs
• a tumour is formed, an irregular mass of cells
showing an abnormal change in shape
6 Nucleic acids and protein
synthesis 5’ end – free
3’ end – free
6.1 Structure and replication of phosphate group
hydroxyl group
DNA
Purines
Larger, double-ringed molecules (adenine, guanine)
Image: By Madprime (talk · contribs),

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1848174
• sides of the ladder of DNA are made up of alternating

molecules of phosphate and deoxyribose
• nitrogenous bases that make up rungs of ladder have
Pyrimidines hydrogen bonds between them
Smaller, single-ringed molecules (thymine, cytosine, • they link bases and hold 2 strands together
uracil)
• DNA molecules are made of 2 polynucleotide strands
lying anti-parallel to each other held by hydrogen
bonds between bases
Semi-conservative replication of DNA

DNA molecules replicate by semi-conservative replication
– half of the original molecule is kept/conserved in each
of the new molecules.
• to form the polynucleotides DNA and RNA, nucleotides
are linked into a long chain 1) double helix of DNA is unwound by enzyme helicase
• nucleotides are linked together by covalent bonds - it does this by splitting hydrogen bonds between
called phosphodiester bonds bases
• this takes place inside the nucleus during interphase - the unwinding of DNA strands creates a ‘replication
fork’ (a y-shaped structure)
• purines combine with pyrimidines
2) enzyme primase synthesises a short piece of RNA
called primer which marks the starting point for synthesis
of new strand
3) DNA polymerase uses the primer and synthesises new
strand
- DNA strands are anti-parallel to each other, and
DNA polymerase can only add bases in one
• in RNA, adenine pairs with uracil direction which is 5’ to 3’
- one of the new strands, the leading strand, is • this type of mutation is called substitution
made continuously • during synthesis of sickle cell haemoglobin, the amino
- DNA polymerase progresses down the strand acid valine (GTG), which is non-polar, is incorporated
adding bases in a 5’ to 3’ direction instead of glutamic acid (GAG)
- when using the lagging strand as a template, • having this non-polar R group on the outside of the
DNA polymerase adds nucleotides in short molecule makes the cell less soluble
stretches called okazaki fragments to overcome
• individuals with 2 copies of HbS allele inherit the
directionality problem
disease (recessive)
Protein synthesis
a) Transcription
Process by which enzymes use the sense strand of DNA
as a template to produce a messenger RNA (mRNA)
molecule.
1) RNA polymerase binds to a region of gene called
promoter
• this signals DNA to unwind so bases can be read
Image: https://www.nature.com/ from one strand
4) DNA ligase seals up fragments of DNA in both to form • the strand that’s read is the sense-strand
a continuous double stranded helix
6.2 Protein synthesis

A polypeptide is coded for by a gene and that a gene is a
sequence of nucleotides that forms part of a DNA
molecule.
• DNA controls protein synthesis by determining the Image: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/
order of amino acids when proteins are synthesised in
cells
2) RNA polymerase reads sense strand in a 3’ to 5’
• sequence of nucleotide bases in a DNA molecule is direction and generates mRNA from 5’ to 3’
code for sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
3) when RNA polymerase has reached the terminator
• each sequence of 3 bases (a codon) codes for 1 sequence at the end of the gene, transcription stops
amino acid
- enzyme detaches from gene and DNA returns to
original structure
4) last triplet transcribed to mRNA is a DNA triplet
coding for STOP e.g., ATT, ATC, ACT (in DNA the stop
codons are UAA, UGA, UAG)
Image: https://www.genome.gov/
STOP codons
• Gene – part of a DNA molecule where the nucleotide
• codons that terminate translation
sequence codes for just one polypeptide
• does not specify any amino acid
• Gene mutation – a change in the sequence of
nucleotides that may result in an altered polypeptide • has no complementary tRNA/anti-codon
- types of gene mutations: substitution, deletion, • causes the release of a completed polypeptide chain
insertion, inversion, frameshift
- alleles – variants of genes (caused by mutations) b) Translation
Process by which the genetic code in mRNA is read to
Sickle cell anaemia make a protein.
• caused by a change in the base sequence of amino 1) mRNA leaves the nucleus and binds to the smaller
acids in the β-polypeptide chain ribosomal unit
• adenine replaces thymine in CTT triplet forming CAT
• this polypeptide chain continues to grow till a
STOP codon is reached
Image: https://slideplayer.com/slide/16525143/
2) every 3 bases (a codon) on mRNA codes for a

specific anti-codon which is carried by a transfer RNA
(tRNA) molecule
• each different tRNA is covalently linked to a Image: https://www.coursehero.com/sg/cell-biology/translation/
particular amino acid
• since there are 4 bases (A, T, G, C) and each codon

has 3 bases –
43 = 64
• there are 64 possible codons, more than enough to
code for 20 amino acids
• some codons are ‘special’, e.g., AUG is a START
codon and initiates translation by coding for
methionine
Image: https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-start-codon-and-stop-codon/
3) an initiator tRNA adheres to a START codon

4) the tRNA that corresponds to the next codon after the
START codon enters the ribosome carrying an amino
acid with it which becomes covalently bound to
methionine from the initiator tRNA
5) the first tRNA detaches and leaves the ribosome
which has shifted over making room for the next
tRNA molecule
• new amino acid from new tRNA links the first two
• this process continues all the way down the
mRNA strand
7 Transport in plants
7.1 Structure of transport tissues Structure of roots (dicot)
Types of plant cells Transverse section
PARENCHYMA COLLENCHYMA SCLERENCHYMA
Image: https://www.vedantu.com/
Image: http://www.bio.miami.edu/
found in the
found in soft found in mature
petiole, leaves,
parts of the parts of the
and young
plant plant
stems
unspecialised
specialised cells specialised cells
cells
cell wall made

cell wall made of cell wall made Image: https://www.brainkart.com/
of cellulose and
cellulose of lignin
pectin • piliferous layer (also called epiblema, rhizodermis) –
the outermost layer; unicellular root hairs present,
unequally thin thick and rigid cuticle and stomata absent
thin cell wall
cell wall cell wall
• cortex – it is a multi-layered large zone made of
lots of parenchymatous cells with intracellular spaces and
intracellular stores food and water
little intracellular no intracellular
spaces are • endodermis – the innermost layer of the cortex; the
space space
present between cells closely packed and have Casparian strips within
cells their walls (water-impermeable deposits of suberin)
which regulate water and mineral uptake by the roots
consists of
consists of living consists of dead • pericycle – produces lateral roots when cells here
living cells at
cells at maturity cells at maturity divide
maturity
• stele – all tissues inner to endodermis constitute stele;
provides here it includes pericycle and vascular bundle
functions
provides mechanical
include • vascular bundle – xylem and phloem
mechanical support,
photosynthesis,
support to the protection, and • conjunctive tissue – the tissue present between xylem
food storage,
plant transports and phloem; in dicots, it’s made up of parenchyma
gas exchange
substances
• pith – absent in mature plants, present in young ones
Longitudinal section (of roots) Longitudinal section
Image: http://mybiologypal.blogspot.com/
• epidermis – the outermost layer; made up of a single

layer of parenchyma cells and its outer wall is covered
Image: https://www.anatomynote.com/
with a cuticle
- cuticle prevents infection of the plant by bacteria
or fungi
Structure of stems (dicot)
- also aids in reducing water loss
Transverse section
• cortex – divided into three regions:
- hypodermis provides mechanical support
- middle cortex is involved in photosynthesis
- inner cortex helps in gaseous exchange and
stores food materials
• endodermis – the innermost layer of the cortex,
consists of a single layer of cells that contain starch
grains
• pith – large, central, parenchymatous zone with
intracellular spaces; helps in storage of food materials
Structure of leaves (dicot)

Transverse section
Image: https://www.brainkart.com/
• upper epidermis – the outermost layer made up of a 1) long hollow tubes with no end walls for uninterrupted
single layer of parenchyma cells without intracellular transport of water and mineral ions
spaces; outer walls have cuticles, stomata are less in 2) no cell contents (no protoplasm) to provide maximum
number space and minimum resistance
• lower epidermis – single layer of parenchymatous 3) their walls are lignified to withstand negative pressure
cells with a thin cuticle and provide mechanical support
- contains numerous stomata 4) cellulose lining is present for adhesion if water
- chloroplasts are only present in guard cells molecules which helps with their movement upwards
5) they have pitted walls (in non-lignified sections) for the
- helps in exchange of gases
lateral movement of water
- loss of water vapour is facilitated through this
chamber
• mesophyll – tissue present between the upper and Phloem
lower epidermis, differentiated into palisade • transports sucrose and amino acids via mass flow
parenchyma and spongy parenchyma (active process) from the source to the sink
- palisade parenchyma: tightly packed, elongated • bidirectional movement (translocation)
cells with lots of chloroplasts (for photosynthesis) • mainly composed of sieve tube elements +
just below the upper epidermis. companion cells
- spongy parenchyma: spherical/oval, irregularly
arranged cells with lots of intracellular spaces;
helps in gaseous exchange
• vascular bundles
- vascular bundle of midrib is larger
- each vascular bundle is surrounded by a sheath
of parenchymatous cells called bundle sheath
- each vascular bundle consists of xylem lying
towards the upper epidermis and phloem
towards the lower epidermis
For more information about the structure of plant tissues and Image: https://irevise.com/i
how to draw them, see Biology Paper 3 Notes.
Phloem sieve tube elements
Structure of vascular system 1) contains ER, mitochondria, and cytoplasmic stands
(cytoplasm reduces friction to facilitate the movement
Xylem
of the assimilates)
• transports water and mineral ions via mass flow 2) end-walls modified to sieve plates/perforated plates
(passive) which allows for the continuous movement of the
• unidirectional movement (from roots à rest of the organic compounds
plant) 3) phloem tubes are present in a bundle
• composed of tracheids, vessel elements, xylem fibres, 4) area where sucrose is loaded is source and where it's
and xylem parenchyma (all dead except xylem unloaded is sink
parenchyma)
Companion cells
1) contains organelles such as nucleus, RER,
mitochondria, and ribosomes which provides
metabolic support to the sieve tube elements and
helps with the loading and unloading of the
assimilates
2) transport proteins are present in the plasma
membrane which move assimilates in and out of the
sieve tube elements
3) large numbers of mitochondria present which provide
ATP for the active transport of assimilates into or out
of the companion cells
Image: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/
4) plasmodesmata are present which link the cell to the 2) this gas exchange is required to uptake CO2 for
sieve tube elements photosynthesis
3) while stomata are open, water vapour diffuses out
Comparing the structures of xylem and phloem
Advantages of transpiration
tissues
1) helps in plants pulling up water from soil through roots
XYLEM PHLOEM (transpiration pull)
mainly dead cells 2) helps in sending out excessively absorbed water by
(tracheids, vessel living cells (only plants
made of elements, xylem phloem fibres are 3) cools the plant (via evaporative cooling)
fibres) except for dead) 4) helps in the absorption and transport of mineral salts
xylem parenchyma
5) helps in the absorption and distribution of water in
cell wall
lignin and cellulose cellulose plants
material
presence of yes (sieve plates

no
end walls with sieve pores)
unidirectional and
direction of bidirectional
upwards (roots à
flow (source à sink)
leaves)
sucrose, amino
substance water and mineral acids, and other
transported ions organic
compounds
does not provide
mechanical provides
mechanical
support mechanical support
support
7.2 Transport mechanisms Image: https://alevelbiologystudent.weebly.com/
Plants must take in a constant supply of water and Transpiration pull

dissolved minerals to compensate for the continuous
Transpiration pull is the force by which water ascends a
loss of water via transpiration in the leaves.
plant.
Transpiration • water molecules cling together by hydrogen bonds
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the aerial between molecules known as cohesive forces
parts of the plant. Around 99% of all water absorbed is • water molecules experience attraction towards the
lost via this process. cellulose in the cell walls of the xylem (adhesion)
1) water evaporates from cell walls of mesophyll cells
into air spaces Cohesion-adhesion theory
2) water vapour diffuses (out to atmosphere) • water molecules tend to cling to one another via
3) through open stomata (to atmosphere) hydrogen bonds (cohesion)
4) down a water potential gradient • when water evaporates from the surfaces of
mesophyll cells, a tension is created in the xylem
When the following factors increase, transpiration (↑/↓) tissue which is transmitted all the way down the plant
due to the cohesiveness of the water molecules
1) humidity (↓)
2) wind speed (↑) • the cohesive forces thus produce a continuous
column of water (transpiration stream)
3) light intensity (↑)
• the adhesive force stops the water column from
4) temperature (↑) pulling away from the walls of the xylem vessels, so
5) water supply (↓) water is pulled up the xylem tissue from the roots to
replace what was lost in the leaves
Transpiration is considered as an inevitable • this is known as the cohesion-adhesion theory
consequence of gas exchange as –
1) stomata are open for gas exchange
Image: By Dylan W. Schwilk - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=55396563
• this arrangement is thought to:

- gives plants control over what mineral ions
pass into xylem vessels (everything must cross
cell membranes)
- may help with generation of root pressure
4) once across endodermis, water moves into xylem
through pits in their walls
Image: https://www.quora.com/What-is-cohesion-tension-theory
Movement of water between plant cells

From soil to root hair
1) uptake of water – water moves into root hairs via
osmosis down a water potential gradient (passive)
2) root hairs provide max surface area for the max
absorption of water
3) the uptake of minerals can be passive or active and
occurs by diffusion or active transport respectively
From root à stem à leaf via xylem

From root hair to xylem 1) removal of water from xylem vessels in leaf reduces
1) water taken up by root hairs crosses the root cortex hydrostatic pressure in xylem
• water moving thorough cells walls – apoplastic 2) hydrostatic pressure at top of xylem becomes less
pathway than bottom
• water moving through plasmodesmata – 3) pressure difference causes water to move up the
symplastic pathway xylem
2) water moves from one cell to another till it reaches Apoplastic pathway
xylem; movement is due to concentration gradient due
to concentrated sap vacuole of cells • most water travels via the apoplastic pathway (when
transpiration rates are high)
3) apoplastic pathway is stopped at endodermis due to
cells in it having a band of suberin forming the • these are the series of spaces running through the
Casparian strip (an impenetrable barrier to water) cellulose cell walls, dead cells, and the hollow tubes of
the xylem
• suberin deposits increase with age of
• the water moves by diffusion as it isn’t crossing a
endodermal cells except for certain passage
partially permeable membrane
cells
• the water can move from cell wall to cell wall directly
• water can pass freely through these passage or through the intracellular spaces
cells
• movement of water via this pathway occurs more
quickly than in the symplastic pathway
• this movement is however stopped at the endodermis 2) this creates an excess of H+ ions in the apoplastic
due to the presence of the Casparian strip pathway outside the cell
3) H+ ions move back into the cell down their
Symplastic pathway concentration gradient back into the cytoplasm of the
• movement through the cytoplasm, plasmodesmata, or companion cell via a cotransporter protein
vacuole of cells (crossing membranes) 4) this cotransporter protein acts as a carrier for both H+
• the water moves by osmosis (across partially and sucrose (so sucrose moves into the companion
permeable membranes) cell too but against its concentration gradient)
5) sucrose then moves into the sieve tubes via the
plasmodesmata from the companion cell
- companion cells have infoldings in their cell
surface membrane to increase the available
surface area for the active transport of solutes
- many mitochondria also present provide the
energy for the proton pump
How assimilates that arrive in the phloem sieve

Image: Jackacon, vectorised by Smartse - Apoplast and symplast pathways.gif
tubes from mesophyll cells (source) can be
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12063412 translocated to other parts of the plant (sink)
1) when sucrose is loaded into a sieve tube element, the
water potential decreases
Movement in the phloem
2) this causes water from surrounding tissue to enter by
Mass flow osmosis
Movement of fluids under a pressure gradient. 3) this increased volume increases the hydrostatic
Concentration gradient does not matter here. pressure at the source compared to the sink
4) assimilates move down a hydrostatic pressure
gradient to the sink
Sources and sinks

• the source of the assimilates could be:
1) green leaves and green stem (photosynthesis
produces glucose which is transported as
sucrose, as sucrose has less of an osmotic effect
than glucose)
2) storage organs eg. tubers and tap roots
(unloading their stored substances at the
beginning of a growth period)
3) food stores in seeds (which are germinating)
• the sinks (where the assimilates are required) could

be:
1) meristems (apical or lateral) that are actively
dividing
2) roots that are growing and / or actively absorbing
mineral ions
Image: https://www.researchgate.net/ 3) any part of the plant where the assimilates are
being stored (eg. developing seeds, fruits or
Sucrose loading into phloem storage organs)
This process is not fully understood yet. This is what is
thought to happen.
1) H+ ions are pumped out (active process, ATP required)
of the cytoplasm of modified companion cells (called
transfer cells)
Xerophytes
• xerophytes (from the greek xero for ‘dry’) are plants
that are adapted to dry and arid conditions
• xerophytes have physiological and structural
(xeromorphic) adaptations to maximise water
conservation
8 Transport in mammals
8.1 The circulatory system • tunica intima/interna – very smooth, single layer of
flat cells
• tunica media – smooth muscle, collagen fibres, elastic
fibres
• tunica externa – collagen fibres, elastic fibres
It’s called closed circulation as the blood remains within

blood vessels.
DOUBLE CIRCULATION
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION PULMONARY CIRCULATION Image: http://www.hcc.ac.uk
right ventricle → • tunica media is the thickest in arteries

left ventricle → AORTA → PULMONARY ARTERIES → • depending on the pressure, thickness of arteries’ walls
body (except lungs) → lungs → PULMONARY VEIN differs
VENACAVA
→ left atrium • tunica media contains large amounts of elastic fibres
to allow the artery wall to stretch as blood surges
Blood vessels through at high pressure
• artery wall can recoil inwards if the pressure drops
• as blood at high pressure enters, it can widen,
reducing pressure slightly and vice versa
• arteries branch out into arterioles
• arteriole walls have more smooth muscle which can
contract, narrowing the diameter and reducing blood
flow
b) veins
• tunica intima – flat cells, smooth
• tunica media – smooth muscle, collagen, and elastic
fibres
• tunica externa – elastic and collagen fibres
a) arteries Image: http://www.hcc.ac.uk
• transports oxygenated blood at high pressures to • tunica externa is the thickest in veins
tissues • thin tunica media
• pulmonary artery and aorta have semilunar valves in • tunica intima is smooth and not crinkly
the beginning
• blood is transported at low pressures, no need for
thick walls
• contain semi-lunar valves (formed from their
endothelium)
• large lumen
• irregular shape • lymphatics are tiny, blind-ended vessels
• they contain valves which allow to tissue fluid to flow
in but not out
c) capillaries
• walls are wide enough to allow larger protein
molecules to pass through
• fluid inside lymphatics is called lymph
• lymph is transported to subclavian vein
• lymph vessels have smooth muscle in their walls
which contract to push lymph along
Image: http://www.hcc.ac.uk
Blood
• takes blood really close to cells allowing exchange of
materials a) red blood cells (erythrocytes)
• network of capillaries is called the capillary bed • contain haemoglobin which gives red colour and
• wall made of endothelial cells and is one cell thick transports oxygen
• gaps are present between individual cells that form • produced in the bone marrow
the endothelium • have a biconcave, disc shape – dent increases surface
• gaps allow some components of blood to seep area in relation to volume
through into spaces between cells (tissue fluid) • spongy and flexible – have specialised cytoskeleton
made of protein filaments that allow them to be
squashed
• have no nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria
– more space for haemoglobin, maximising amount of
oxygen which can be carried
• broken down in spleen
b) white blood cells (leucocytes)

Refer to Chapter 11, Immunity.
c) platelets (thrombocytes)
Blood plasma & tissue fluid
• as blood flows through capillaries within tissues, some
plasma leaks out due to the pressure and seeps out
into places between the cells of the tissues
• this plasma that leaks out is called tissue fluid
• if blood pressure is too high, too much fluid may be
forced out of capillaries and the fluid may accumulate, 8.2 The heart
this results in oedema
• consists of 2 atria/auricles and 2 ventricles
• it’s through tissue fluid that the exchange between
cells and blood occurs • right and left side separated by septum
• made of cardiac muscle
Lymphatic system • papillary muscles contract to pull on valve tendons
• drainage system to prevent inversion of valves during systole
• digestive (assimilation of fatty acids) • atria and ventricles have valves between them called
atrioventricular valves:
• immunity – produces lymphocytes
RIGHT SIDE – TRICUSPID
LEFT SIDE – BICUSPID / MITRAL
• 2 types of valves: • atrioventricular valves close
ATRIOVENTRICULAR – TENDONS • forced produced in the right ventricle must be
SEMI-LUNAR – POCKETS relatively small as –
1) blood goes only to the lungs which are at a
The cardiac cycle shorter distance + less resistance to overcome
SYSTOLE – CONTRACTION, DIASTOLE – RELAXATION 2) if a too-high pressure was developed, tissue fluid
would accumulate in lungs hampering gas
exchange
Cardiac cycle
Cardiac muscles are myogenic which means it naturally
contracts and relaxes without receiving impulses from a
nerve.
1) SAN (sinoatrial node)/pacemaker sends out waves of
excitation which stimulates atria to contract
2) non-conducting tissue between atria and ventricles
prevents atria and ventricles from contracting at the
same time
3) AVN (atrioventricular node) delaying the impulse
allows atria to completely into ventricles
Image: https://www.artstation.com/
4) AVN sends impulse down to the bundle of his and
Atrial systole along purkine fibres
• heart is filled with blood and the muscle in atrial wall 5) this causes ventricles to contract from the base
contracts upwards
• pressure is higher in atria than ventricles here so blood
forces the atrioventricular valves open
• blood flows from atria to ventricles
• pressure developed isn’t very high due to atrial walls
being not very thick
• semi-lunar valves in pulmonary veins and venacavae
prevent backflow from the atria
Ventricular systole
• occurs about 0.1s after atria contract
• ventricles contract increasing pressure and pushing
blood out of the heart
Image: https://teachmephysiology.com/
• blood in ventricles is at higher pressure so
atrioventricular valves are pushed shut, preventing Oxygen dissociation curve
blood from going back to atria • once an O2 molecule combines with haemoglobin, it
• blood rushes upwards into aorta and pulmonary artery becomes easier for more molecules to combine
as pressure forces aortic semi-lunar valves open therefore, the curve rises very steeply
• a small change in the partial pressure O2 causes a very
Ventricular diastole large change in amount of O2 carried by haemoglobin
• muscle relaxes, therefore pressure in the ventricles
drops
• presence of semi-lunar valves prevents backflow of
blood from aorta and pulmonary artery
• during diastole, whole of the heart muscle relaxes
• blood from the veins flow into atria
• some blood leaks down into ventricles
• the atrial muscle then contracts, forcing blood into
ventricles
Image: https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com
Bohr shift
• shift in the curve of oxyhaemoglobin due to
concentration of CO2 at a given partial pressure of O2
is Bohr effect
• the amount of O2 haemoglobin carries is affected by
the partial pressures of both O2 and CO2
• the presence of high partial pressure of CO2 causing
Hb to release O2 is the Bohr’s effect
In the cytoplasm of red blood cells, CO2 is catalysed by

carbonic anhydrase enzyme when it reacts with water to
form carbonic acid
• 2hen the carbonic acid dissociates; haemoglobin

combines with H+ ions forming haemoglobunic acid
(HHb) and releases the O2 it’s carrying
• Haemoglobin combining with H+ ions maintains blood
pH as if the ions were left in solution, pH of the blood
would’ve been less and turns acidic
• presence of high partial pressures of CO2 causes

haemoglobin to release O2
• high concentration of O2 is found in respiring tissues
which need O2
• high concentration of CO2 causes Hb to release O2,
curve lies below and to the right
• 85% of CO2 – diffuses out of RBC into blood plasma

and are carried in solution
• 5% of CO2 – CO2 that hasn’t dissociated and remains
as CO2 dissolves in blood plasma
• 10% of CO2 – CO2 diffuses to RBC and combines
directly with amine groups (–NH2) of some
haemoglobin molecules forming
carbaminohaemoglobin
9 Gas exchange and smoking
9.1 The gas exchange system STRUCTURE SUMMARY
The gas exchange system is responsible for the uptake of
oxygen into the blood and the excretion of carbon dioxide. • airway that leads from the throat to
trachea the bronchi
The gas exchange surface in the lungs is extensive, very
thin, well supplied with blood and well ventilated. • lined with goblet cells and cilia
The trachea and bronchi provide little resistance to the • present in the thoracic cavity
movement of air to and from the alveoli. surrounded by pleural membranes
lungs • contains pleural fluid to allow
Gross structure of the human gas exchange friction free movement between the
system lungs, and diaphragm and ribs
• located at the base of the trachea
and have a similar structure to it
albeit narrower
• each bronchus divides many times
bronchi to forms smaller bronchioles
• terminal bronchioles divide to form
even narrower respiratory
bronchioles that supply alveoli with
air
• very narrow tubes (<1mm) that
carry air from the bronchi to the
alveoli
bronchioles
• do not contain cartilage unlike the
trachea and bronchi and so can
collapse
• main site of gas exchange in the
• in single-celled organisms, oxygen can simply diffuse lungs
from fluid outside the cell through the cell surface alveoli • essentially are tiny sacs with many
membrane into the cytoplasm
structural adaptations to enable
• however, for multicellular organisms such as humans, gas exchange
most cells are at considerable distances from the
external environment from which oxygen is obtained • an extensive network of capillaries
surrounds the alveoli
• therefore, they need specialised gas exchange capillary
surfaces (alveoli) where oxygen can diffuse into the network • they are also an extensive
body, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out exchange surface between the
lungs and the blood
Trachea à bronchi à bronchioles

Cartilage
Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue of which the main
cell type are chondrocytes.
• cartilage in the trachea and bronchi keep the airways
open and air resistance low
• also prevents the airways from collapsing/bursting as
air pressure changes during breathing
• the structure of the cartilage differs slightly in the
Image: https://commons.wikimedia.org/ bronchi and trachea
a) Trachea b) Bronchi (singular ‘bronchus’)
Image: https://o.quizlet.com/
• cartilage here is present in irregular blocks

• there are fewer goblet cells per cm2 than in the
trachea and the epithelial cells are not as tall
• beneath the epithelium, there are elastic fibres
c) Bronchioles
• cartilage here is present in a regular arrangement of

C-shaped rings
• the trachea as a whole is supported by these rings of
cartilage
Image: https://i.pinimg.com/
• surrounding the epithelium is smooth muscle which

can contract or relax to adjust diameter
• there is no cartilage (to make such adjustments to
diameter possible
• around the bronchiole are some alveoli
• the lining is comprised of ciliated epithelium (ciliated

cells + goblet cells) which rests on a basement
membrane of protein fibres
• beneath the epithelium is an area of loose tissue with
blood vessels and mucous glands
Image: http://ksumsc.com/
Outline the function of cartilage in the human gas • some chemical pollutants like SO2 and NO2 can
exchange system dissolve in mucus to form an acidic solution that
1) keep airways open irritates the airway lining
2) provides support
3) allow flexibility Goblet cells and ciliated cells
4) rings allow widening during inspiration • between goblet cells, there are ciliated cells
• ciliated cells have cytoplasmic extensions which beat
Outline the function of smooth muscle in the human gas
rhythmically to move mucus up the throat
exchange system
1) contraction and relaxation • when mucus is at the top of the trachea, it’s
swallowed – pathogens are destroyed by stomach
2) changes diameter of trachea, bronchus, bronchioles acid
3) controls air flow in bronchioles
Warming and cleaning the air Alveoli (singular ‘alveolus’)

• air is warmed to body temperature and moistened in At the end of the pathway between the atmosphere and
the nose and trachea to prevent delicate areas in the the bloodstream are the alveoli. They are the main site of
lungs from desiccation (drying out) gas exchange.
• protection is also needed against the suspended
matter carried in the air which may include dust, sand,
pollen, fungal spores, bacteria, and viruses
• there are both mechanical and chemical barriers to
protect against these particles which are all potential
threats to the functioning of the lungs
(squamous
epithelium)
Mucus
(one cell thick)
• mucus is produced by goblet cells of the ciliated
epithelium
• the upper part of each goblet cell is swollen with
mucin droplets which have been secreted by the cell Image: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/
• mucus is a slimy solution of mucin which is How alveoli are adapted for gas exchange
composed of glycoproteins with many carbohydrate
chains that make them sticky and able to trap inhaled 1) squamous epithelium is one cell thick
particles
• mucus is also made by mucous glands beneath the
epithelium
2) for short diffusion distance

3) collectively many so large surface area for gas
exchange
4) surrounded by a network of capillaries
5) so, RBC can come very close to air maintaining
Image: https://o.quizlet.com/ diffusion gradient
Elastic fibres in alveoli walls - tar contains carcinogens (cancer-causing
compounds) which can cause mutations in the
• stretch during inspiration
genes that control cell division
• recoil during expiration
2) carbon monoxide – binds with haemoglobin resulting
• elasticity allows alveoli to expand according to volume in the formation of carboxyhaemoglobin, decreasing
of air breathed in the oxygen carrying capacity of red blood cells
• it is the elastic abilities of alveoli which enable them to 3) nicotine – addictive
have such a large surface area
Effect of nicotine on the cardiovascular system
Process of gas exchange between air in the alveoli
and blood 1) blood pressure increases
2) heart rate increases
• oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in a
process of simple diffusion – passive movement from 3) platelets become sticky (increased risk of thrombosis)
high to low concentration 4) endothelium damaged
• the air in the alveoli contains a high concentration of 5) blood vessels constrict
oxygen 6) decreased blood flow to extremities
• the blood in the capillaries has a relatively low
concentration of oxygen and a high concentration of Lung diseases
carbon dioxide
• very small particles (<2µm) can reach the alveoli and
- the oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the
stay there
blood capillaries, before being carried away to the
rest of the body for aerobic respiration • such deposits make lungs susceptible to airborne
infections such as influenza, pneumonia, and in some
- the carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into
people, can cause an allergic reaction leading to
the alveoli and is then exhaled
asthma
• chronic (long-term) obstructive pulmonary diseases
Summary of structures in the gas exchange system (COPD) such as asthma, chronic bronchitis, and
GOBLET SMOOTH emphysema are now common in many countries
CARTILAGE CILIA
CELLS MUSCLE • atmospheric pollution from vehicle and industrial
TRACHEA ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ emissions and tobacco smoke are linked with these
diseases
BRONCHUS ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
TERMINAL
BRONCHIOLE ✘ ✘ ✔ ✔ Chronic bronchitis
RESPIRATORY Tar –
BRONCHIOLE ✘ ✘ ✘ ✔
1) stimulates goblet cells and mucous glands to enlarge
ALVEOLI ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘ and secrete more mucus
2) inhibits the cleaning action of ciliated epithelium that
lines airways
9.2 Smoking 3) consequently, mucus and the pathogens in it
Tobacco smoke accumulates in bronchioles and obstructs them. this
causes smoker's cough, an attempt to move mucus
• composed of ‘mainstream’ smoke (from the filter or up airways
mouth end) and ‘side stream’ smoke (from the
burning tip) 4) the damaged epithelia are replaced by scar tissue
• when a person smokes, about 85% the smoke 5) smooth muscle surrounding bronchioles and bronchi
released is side stream smoke become thicker causing airway to narrow and making
it difficult to breathe
• many of the toxic ingredients are in a higher
concentration in side stream than mainstream smoke 6) infections develop in accumulated mucus causing the
lining to become inflamed, further narrowing the
• these are breathed in by passive smokers
airway
Main components of cigarette smoke

1) tar
- tar is a mixture of compounds that settles on the
lining of the airways in the lungs and stimulates a
series of changes that may lead to obstructive lung
diseases and cancer
Image: https://www.physio-pedia.com/i
Emphysema Effect of COPD on the heart
1) inflammation of constantly infected lungs causes 1) increase in power of contraction
phagocytes to line airways 2) increase in systolic bp
2) they release elastase which destroys elastin in alveoli 3) right ventricle increases in thickness
walls to reach lungs from capillaries
4) insufficient oxygen received by cardiac muscles
3) elastin is responsible for recoil of alveoli during 5) heart failure/attack
expiration
4) with less elastin, alveoli cannot stretch and recoil, so
bronchioles collapse during expiration trapping air and
causing alveoli to burst
5) surface area for gas exchange is reduced and blood
as a result is not oxygenated properly, leading to a
rapid breathing rate
6) blood vessels become resistant to blood flow in lungs,
to compensate, blood pressure in pulmonary artery
increases and overtime, right side of the heart
enlarges
Image: https://i.pinimg.com/
Symptoms of emphysema
1) shortness of breath
2) wheezing (on inspiration)
3) rapid breathing rate
4) chest tightness/pain
5) cyanosis / bluish appearance to skin
6) fatigue
7) barrel chest
Describe the role of macrophages in the lungs. [3]

1) prevention of infections
2) prevents pathogens from entering rest of body/blood
3) carry out phagocytosis
4) engulf pathogens
5) macrophages are antigen presenting cells (APCs)
Signs and symptoms of COPD

1) fatigue/weakness
2) persistent cough
3) rapid breathing
4) cough produces much mucus
5) barrel-shaped chest
6) bluish colour to skin
10 Infectious diseases
10.1 Infectious diseases How diseases are transmitted
> Disease – abnormal condition affecting an organism a) Cholera
that reduces the effectiveness of the function of the Transmission – via the faecal oral route or when raw
organism human sewage of an infected person is used to irrigate
> Infectious disease – a disease caused by a pathogen, vegetables
is transmissible and reduces the effectiveness of • infected people pass out the pathogen (Vibrio
functions of the organism e.g., tuberculosis, cholera, cholerae) in faeces which contaminates water supply
etc. and food whilst handling (due to lack of hygiene)
> Non-infectious disease – long-term, degenerative • the bacteria pass through the stomach acid to reach
diseases not caused by pathogens and not the small intestine – their site of action
transmissible e.g., lung cancer, sickle cell anaemia,
• they multiply and secrete a toxin called choleragen
etc.
• it disrupts the functions of the epithelium lining in the
• Transmission cycle – the way in which a pathogen small intestine
transfers from one host to another
• salts and water leave the blood causing severe
• Endemic – diseases that are always present in diarrhoea which may be referred to as ‘rice water’
populations e.g., malaria is endemic in tropical and sub-
tropical regions Prevention and control
• Incidence – the number of people who are diagnosed • treatment is via oral rehydration therapy (a mixture of
over a certain period of time glucose and salts)
• Prevalence – the number of people who have that • drink bottled water or chlorinated water
disease at any given time
• wash utensils and vegetables properly
• Epidemic – sudden increase in the number of people • raise awareness
with a disease
• improve sanitation services and sewage treatment
• Pandemic – increase in the number of cases worldwide plants
• Mortality – death rate from different diseases
Global patterns of distribution
• Incubation period – time a disease takes to infect
someone • prevalent in large cities in developing countries that
don’t have adequate sewage systems or clean water
Summary of diseases and their causative supply
agent • global distribution – Asia, Africa, Latin America
TYPE OF
DISEASE CAUSATIVE AGENT
ORGANISM b) Malaria
cholera Vibrio cholerae bacterium > Vector – organism which carries a disease from one
person to another or from an animal to a human e.g.,
Plasmodium falciparum, female anopheles mosquito for plasmodium
P. malariae,
malaria protocist Transmission
P. vivax,
P. ovale 1) blood transfusion
Mycobacterium tuberculosis 2) when unsterilised needles are used
tuberculosis (airborne), 3) plasmodium can pass across placenta from mother to
bacterium
(TB) M. bovis (infected foetus
milk/cattle)
human immunodeficiency
HIV/AIDS virus
virus (HIV)
smallpox
Variola virus virus
(eradicated)
measles a species of Morbillivirus virus
4) cost of drugs
5) problems with funding research
6) lack of knowledge
7) infected people not identified
8) inaccessibility of some regions to healthcare
Why is it difficult to create a vaccine for malaria?

1) plasmodium is eukaryotic
2) antigens differ in different life stages
3) intracellular parasite
4) antigenic concealment
unknown source
c) HIV/AIDS (acquired immune deficiency
syndrome)
Transmission
Image: unknown 1) semen and vaginal fluids during intercourse
How infection of malaria occurs 2) infected blood (via donation, etc)
1) female anopheles mosquito feeds on human blood to 3) sharing needles
obtain the protein they need to develop eggs 4) mother to foetus across placenta
2) if an infected person is bitten, the mosquito takes up 5) mother to infant in breast milk
the pathogen’s gametes with the blood meal
3) male and female gametes fuse in the mosquito’s gut Epidemic caused by:
and develop into infective stages that move to the
1) anal intercourse (mucous lining of rectum not as thick
salivary glands
as a vagina’s + less natural lubrication; rectal lining is
4) when the mosquito feeds again, an anticoagulant is easily damaged during intercourse and virus passes
injected from the salivary glands causing the infective from semen to blood)
stages to pass out as well
2) many sexual partners
5) the anticoagulant is injected to prevent blood from
3) lack of awareness
clotting
6) parasites enter the blood stream, then enter liver cells
How HIV affects the body
and finally infect red blood cells
1) genetic material of HIV is RNA
2. Prevention and control 2) viral RNA is converted to DNA inside host cells to be
incorporated into human chromosomes
1) control of breeding of mosquitoes (e.g., drainage of
stagnant water, aerial spraying of insecticide, oil on 3) infects and destroys Thelper cells (cells that control the
water, stocking ponds) immune system’s response to infection)
2) reduction of contact between vector and humans (e.g., 4) when the number of Thelper cells are low, the body is
bed nets impregnated with insecticide / insect unable to defend against infection allowing pathogens
repellents) to cause opportunistic infections
3) earlier identification of cases (introduction of dip stick 5) AIDS isn’t a disease – it’s a collection of opportunistic
tests ensuring diagnosis can be done quickly) diseases associated with the immunodeficiency
caused by HIV infection
4) use of new drugs to prevent transmission or using
drugs in combination to reduce chances of drug
resistance arising Treatment
5) better awareness 1) drug therapy (e.g., zidovudine)
6) better screening of blood before transfusion 2) it binds to viral enzyme reverse transcriptase and
blocks its action
Why malaria is very difficult to control 3) this stops the replication of viral genetic material and
blocks its action and leads to an increase in the body’s
1) no vaccine as plasmodium is eukaryotic and antigens lymphocytes
differ in the different life stages
4) combination therapies are however difficult to follow
2) drug resistance in Plasmodium
3) insecticide resistance in Plasmodium
5) people are unable to keep up with the regimen are 2) same vaccine was used for whole
susceptible to strains of HIV that have developed programme/vaccine did not need to be changed
resistance to drugs 3) vaccine was live/gave strong immune response
4) one dose was enough to give life-long immunity/no
> reverse transcriptase – an enzyme encoded by certain boosters required
viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for 5) heat stable/freeze-dried vaccine
DNA synthesis
6) suitable for hot countries/isolated areas/rural areas
Prevention and control 7) few/no symptomless carriers
1) spread awareness 8) no animal reservoir/only in humans
2) use condoms, femidoms and dental dams 9) infected people easy to identify
3) don’t have many sexual partners
4) don’t share needles 10.2 Antibiotics
5) contact tracing An antibiotic is a drug that kills or stops the growth of
6) blood collected by donors screened and heat treated bacteria without harming the cells of the infected
7) reduce mother to child transmission by using formula organism
milk
Antibiotics may interfere with
d) Tuberculosis (TB) • synthesis of bacterial cell walls
Transmission • activity of proteins in the cell surface membrane
1) infected person coughs • enzyme action
2) aerosol droplet carrying the pathogen • DNA synthesis
3) inhaled by uninfected person • protein synthesis
4) or consumption of meat/milk of an organism carrying
TB
How penicillin acts on bacteria
Treatment 1) penicillin prevents the synthesis of cross links which
• when TB is confirmed, patients are isolated hold together a bacterium’s peptidoglycan walls (so
• Several drugs such as the antibiotic streptomycin are penicillin is only effective when bacteria are growing)
used to ensure bacteria are killed 2) enzymes autolysins secreted create small holes that
allow the wall to stretch so new peptidoglycan chains
Prevention can link
• contact tracing 3) penicillin prevents linking but holes continue to appear
• cattle are routinely tested for TB making the cell wall weaker
4) when bacteria take up water via osmosis, it cannot
Global distribution withstand the pressure potential exerted due to the
• TB is endemic however most common in poor and weakened cell wall and bursts
crowded living conditions
• also present where a large number of people have Why antibiotics do not affect viruses
HIV/AIDs Antibiotics target areas of the bacterium such as its cell
wall or other organelles. Viruses do not possess such
e) Measles organelles and therefore are immune to the effects of
antibiotics.
Transmission – inhalation of droplets of moisture
containing the virus
Prevention and control How bacteria become resistant to antibiotics
• vaccination 1) people not completing course of antibiotics causing a
• treatment – bed rest and medicines to lower fever reservoir of bacteria to remain
2) remaining bacteria mutate to become resistant
f) Smallpox (eradicated) bacteria with resistance survive
Factors that led to the successful eradication of 3) when they reproduce they pass on the allele for
smallpox resistance to their offspring
1) smallpox virus was stable/did not mutate
Image: Bioscience.com.pk
Bacteria transfer their drug-resistance by vertical or horizontal

transmission. Some mutated bacteria may have plasmids carrying
several resistance genes leading to multiple resistance.
Consequences of antibiotic resistance

1) decreased ability to treat infections
2) increased human illness and mortality
3) increased cost and length of treatments
4) adverse effects from alternate treatments
5) lack of availability of clinically effective antibiotics
Steps that can be taken to reduce the impact of

antibiotic resistance
1) don’t use antibiotics for trivial reasons or to treat viral
infections
2) complete the course
3) use a combination of antibiotics
4) don’t use as preventative medicine
5) only use wide-spectrum antibiotics when the pathogen
is not known
6) rotate antibiotics so the same ones aren’t used all the
time
7) don’t use the same antibiotics for animals and
humans
8) don’t cell antibiotics without a doctor’s prescription
11 Immunity
11.1 The immune system • during an infection (caused by pathogens invading the
body), cells under attack respond by releasing
chemicals called histamines
• these attract neutrophils
• this movement towards chemical stimulus is called
chemotaxis
General steps of phagocytosis

1) attraction (chemotaxis)
2) recognition and attachment
3) endocytosis
4) bacteria trapped within a phagocytotic vacuole
5) fusion of lysosomes and phagocytotic vacuole
6) killing and digestion
Lymphocytes
Phagocytes (neutrophils & macrophages)
• originate in bone marrow
• they’re scavengers – removing any dead cells and
invasive microorganisms
Neutrophils
• have a lobed nucleus and granular cytoplasm
B-cells
• short-lived cells
• made and mature in the bone marrow
Macrophages • travel to the spleen for final stages of maturation
• larger than neutrophils
1) B-plasma cells
• travel in blood as monocytes which develop into
• short-lived
macrophages once they leave blood and settle in
organs, removing foreign matter there • produce antibodies
• long-lived cells
2) B-memory cells
• do not destroy pathogens completely, they’re cut up
and their antigens are displayed, hence it becomes an • form the immunological memory of the body
antigen presenting cell (APC) • responsible for 2° response
Phagocytosis T-cells
Made in the bone marrow but mature in thymus.
Image: Timonina / Shutterstock Image: https://biologydictionary.net/thymus-gland/
Thelper • they can also increase the effect of phagocytosis
• produce interleukins Þ T-lymphocytes can only recognise antigens on an
• interleukins stimulate: APC surface
1) B-cells to make antibodies
2) other T-cells to divide b) Humoral immunity
3) macrophages to enhance the effect of
phagocytosis
Tkiller (cytotoxic)
• destroys cells by releasing perforin which makes holes
in the cell surface membrane
Tmemory
• leads to immunological memory of antigen
• responsible for 2° response Image: https://www.researchgate.net/
a) Clonal selection
Immunity Process by which an antigen selectively binds to and
activates only those lymphocytes bearing receptors for
the antigen. In short, this is basically recognising and
choosing which B-cells to use.
• Thelper cell recognises B-APC and becomes activated,
releasing interleukins to signal further actions
b) Clonal expansion (proliferation)

a) Cell-mediated immunity
The rapid multiplication of B (or T) cell clones after
This is where T-lymphocytes respond to altered cells activation by an antigen.
(APC, cancer cells, cells that’ve been infected by viruses)
• B-APC divides and differentiates into –
1) plasma cells to make specific antibodies
2) memory cells to prepare for 2° response
Þ B-cells can respond to APC as well as pathogens

directly
Numbers of white blood cells

• Neutrophils in the blood increases during bacterial
infections and whenever tissues become inflamed and
die
• Lymphocyte numbers increase during viral infections
and TB
Image: www.macmillanhighered.com
1) macrophage engulfs pathogen and becomes an APC

2) Thelper’s cell receptor, which is complementary to the
antigen, binds to antigen on APC • leukaemias are cancers of these stem cells
3) Thelper then releases interleukins • cells divide uncontrollably to produce many cells that
• interleukins stimulate B-cells to divide into plasma don’t differentiate properly and disrupt production of
cells and produce antibodies in the humoral normal blood cells
response
Autoimmune diseases
Occurs when the immune system mistakenly identifies
self-antigens as foreign (non-self) and mounts an
immune response against them.
• during the maturation of T-cells in the thymus, millions
of cells are destroyed as they have T-cell receptors
complementary to self-antigens
• some of these cells evade destruction and are
activated to stimulate an immune response against
the body’s own proteins
• starts as an attack involving antibodies and killer T-
cells against certain parts of the body
• attack can be localised in one organ or directed
Image: https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/diseases--conditions/leukemia/ against the whole body
• immature white blood cells are produced quickly, • e.g., Myasthenia gravis, rheumatoid arthritis, type 1
disrupting balance of components in blood diabetes, lupus, psoriasis, etc.
• as a result, the body does not have enough red blood
cells or platelets Myasthenia gravis (MG)
• this causes anaemia and increases the risk of
excessive bleeding
• the number of mature lymphocytes and neutrophils
decrease, so susceptibility to infections increase
• the person is now said to be immunosuppressed
Immune response
> immune response – the complex series of responses
of the body to the entry of a foreign antigen
- involves the activity of lymphocytes and
phagocytes
Image: https://healthjade.com/acetylcholine/
• antigen – substance that is foreign to the body and • antibodies are produced against receptors on muscle
stimulates an immune response fibres for acetylcholine which is released by ends of
• self – substance produced by the body that the motor neurones to stimulate muscle contraction
immune system does not recognise as foreign and • people with MG have Thelper cells that are specific for
therefore does not stimulate an immune response cell surface receptors for acetylcholine
• non-self – any substance or cell recognised by the • Thelper cells stimulate a clone of B-cells to differentiate
immune system as foreign and stimulates an immune into plasma cells and secrete antibodies that bind to
response receptor blocking transmission from motor neurones
• muscle cells are not stimulated so muscle tissue
Role of memory cells in long-term immunity starts to break down
Remain in the blood for years and cause long-term • symptoms – muscle weakness
protection. • treatment – drug that inhibits enzyme in synapses
that breaks down acetylcholine increases its
concentration so its action in stimulating muscle
contraction lasts longer or surgical removal of the
thymus gland
11.2 Antibodies and vaccination

Antibodies
• globular glycoproteins
• have quaternary structure
• form group of plasma proteins called
immunoglobulins
Using monoclonal antibodies in diagnosis and
treatment of disease
In diagnosis
• used to locate position of blood clots
• used to locate cancer cells which have different cell
surface proteins and therefore can be detected by
antibodies
• used to identify exact strain of virus or bacterium
causing an infection, which speeds up treatment
In treatment
• treatment of breast cancer – antibody binds to
cancerous cells and marks them for destruction by
• Hinge region – gives flexibility to bind around antigen immune system
• treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (autoimmune) –
• Antigen binding sites – sequence of amino acids in
antibody binds to proteins secreted by T-cells that
these regions make a specific 3D shape which binds
causes damage to cartilage in joints and blocks its
to one type of antigen
action
Functions of antibodies Types of immunity
• attach to flagella of bacteria making them less active

and easier for phagocytes to engulf
• cause agglutination (clumping together) of bacteria,
reducing chances of spread
• punch holes in bacteria cell walls, causing them to
burst when they absorb water by osmosis
• antibodies coat bacteria, making phagocytosis easier
as phagocytes have receptor proteins
• combine with toxins, neutralising them (antitoxins)
• combine with viruses and bacterial toxins, preventing
them from entering or damaging cells
Vaccination
Vaccines
Hybridoma method for the production of • preparation containing antigens which is used to
monoclonal antibodies stimulate an immune response artificially
• B-cells that divide by mitosis do not produce • it may contain antigens in the form of live or dead
antibodies and plasma cells that secrete antibodies do microorganisms, harmless (attenuated organism),
not divide toxoid (harmless toxin), surface antigens
• monoclonal antibodies – identical copies of one type
of antibody How vaccines can provide long-term immunity
1) vaccine contains antigens that stimulate an immune
1) antigen is injected into a mouse response
2) spleen cells which produce lymphocytes which 2) macrophages take up virus by phagocytosis and act
produce antibodies are removed as antigen presenting cells (APC)
3) plasma cells from spleen are fused with cancer cells 3) lymphocytes bind to these and under clonal selection
or myeloma cells forming hybridoma cells that divide 4) clonal expansion then occurs by mitosis
indefinitely 5) memory cells are formed
4) they divide by mitosis and produce antibodies 6) booster is used to further stimulate memory cell
formation
Poor response to vaccines due to –
• suffer from malnutrition and don’t have enough
proteins to make antibodies or clones of lymphocytes
• defective immune system and don’t develop
necessary B and T cell clones
Vaccination programmes
Eradication of smallpox
• Variola virus was stable, it didn’t mutate and change
cell surface antigens
• vaccine was made from a harmless strain of a similar
virus – a ‘live’ vaccine is more effective
• infected people can be easily identified
• vaccine was freeze-dried and can be kept at high
temperatures for as long as 6 months
• didn’t affect animals – easier to break transmission
cycle
Herd immunity
Herd immunity interrupts transmission in a population so
that those who are susceptible never encounter the
infectious agents concerned.
Why measles, cholera, malaria, and TB haven’t been

eradicated
Antigenic variation
a) Antigenic drift – minor changes in the viral antigen,
memory cells are still able to recognise them and start
a secondary response
b) Antigenic shift – major changes in antigen structure

• currently there are no effective vaccines for diseases
caused by protocists as they’re eukaryotes with many
more genes.
• e.g., malaria; each stage has its own antigen
Þ measles – poor response by some children, needs

several booster shots
Þ cholera – many strains
Þ malaria – too many stages (antigenic variations)
Þ TB – symptoms may not be shown

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1 Cell structure

1.1 The microscope in cell studies ANIMAL CELL

a) Differences between plant and animal cells

Images: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook

PLANT CELL d) Resolution and magnification

Ø resolution – the ability to distinguish between 2

MAGNIFICATION x1500 x250,000 – x500,000

Image: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook

• different stains are absorbed by different cell

Advantages of a light microscope over an electron

1.2 Cells as the basic units of

4) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

5) Golgi body / apparatus / complex

• supports and gives shapes to the cell

9.5) Centrioles (and centrosomes)

• outside the nucleus of animal cells, 2 centrioles are

• carries out aerobic respiration

10) Chloroplasts (3-10µm)

• helps regulate osmotic properties of cells

• allows the transport of water, sucrose, amino acids,

Image: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook

See Chapter 18.2 for more details

Image: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook

2.2 Carbohydrates and lipids

• monomer – one of many small molecules that

• e.g., sucrose • polymer – large molecule made from many similar

• sample is shaken with ethanol HEXOSES PENTOSES

3) Cellulose → polymer of β-glucose

• in water, oxygen atom gets more electrons due to it

• glyceride is an ester formed by a fatty acid

Lipids → 3 Fatty Acids + 1 Glycerol

• larger molecules in the series have long

Bonds in the tertiary structure

• a molecule made up of many amino acids linked

• this happens naturally in the stomach and small

Structures of proteins GLOBULAR FIBROUS

• each polypeptide chain can carry one molecule of

Collagen: a fibrous protein

Lock and key

• An enzyme with a lower value of Km has a high

Advantages of immobilising enzymes

• proteins that are found • can be present inside or

b) If the signalling molecule is water-soluble

• take substances from outside and pumps it inside or

Channel proteins Sodium/Potassium pump

FOR EVERY ATP MOLECULE USED

c) Osmosis e) Bulk transport

• Chromatid – one half of two identical copies of a

• Centromere – the region of a chromosome to which

• telomeres are made of DNA with short base

The stages of mitosis

• Ensures cells retain function • chromosomes are at

Cytokinesis in animal cells

Differences in plant and animal cell mitosis Stem cells

Centromeres, centrosome, centrioles

Cellular changes that occur in development of cancer

Image: By Madprime (talk · contribs),

• sides of the ladder of DNA are made up of alternating

Semi-conservative replication of DNA