V.

WOOD AND TIMBER o Deciduous – Trees with broad leaves

yielding hardwood shed their leaves
in winter. Ex. Sal, and Sheesam.
TIMBER DECAY
Deterioration occurs mainly due to:
5.3. METHODS OF SAWING TIMBER
➢ Decay or rot
1) Ordinary Sawn or Flat Sawn
➢ Insects - Parallel cuts made throughout the length
➢ Marine borers of the log cutting parallel slices of planks
easiest and economical method
➢ Fire
shrinkage of sapwood more than the
heartwood causing warp and twisting of
TIMBER
planks.
➢ Wood suitable for building or other 2) Quarter Sawing
engineering works in called “timber”. - Tendency to curve in a traverse direction
➢ Not properly subjected to intermittent when applied to wood, not having distinct
wetting decays. medullar rays.
➢ It has a less than 25% of moisture or fully 3) Rift or Radial Sawing Quarter
submerged in water. - Timber cut parallel to medullar rays and
➢ Major disadvantage: ease with which it perpendicular to annual rings.
burns as compared with structural - 3d – least shrinkage but most wasted
materials. - 3c – limited rift is adopted
4) Tangential Sawing
- Boards or planks sawn tangentially to
5.1. CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER
annual rings not suitable for flooring
1) Standing Timber – when it forms a part of a planks cut by this method warp too much.
living tree.
2) Rough Timber – when the tree has fallen.
5.4. PROPERTIES OF WOOD & TIMBER
3) Converted Timber – when it has been sawn
to various market forms such as beams, ➢ It is readily and economically available.
battens, and planks. ➢ Easily machinable.
➢ Amendable to fabrication into an infinite
variety of sizes and shapes using simple on-
5.2. CLASSIFICATION OF TREES
site building techniques.
1) Endogenous ➢ Exceptionally strong relative to its weight.
- Trees which grow inward in a longitudinal ➢ A good heat and electrical insulator.
fibrous mass. ➢ It is a renewable and biodegradable
- Ex. Canes, bamboos, and palms resource.
2) Exogenous
5.4.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- Trees which grow outward from the
center in approximate concentric rings 1) Specific Gravity
across the longitudinal section of the - Used structural species ranges from
stem. roughly 0.30 to 0.90.
- Extensively used in engineering works. - Higher allowable design values are
- Exogenous Trees assigned to those pieces having
o Conifer – Evergreen tree yielding narrower growth rings or more dense
softwood trees with pointed leaves. latewood per growth ring and hence,
Ex. Pine, chirr higher SG.
2) Moisture Content and Shrinkage reuse at the end of a building are useful
- Wood is hygroscopic, it picks up or gives life.
off moisture to equalize with the relative 7) Safe
humidity and temperature in the - Timber is strong, light and reliable
atmosphere. making timber construction simpler and
- Bending strength can increase by about safer than steel or concrete construction.
50% in going from green to a moisture - A comparison with steel and concrete
content found in wood members shows that radiata pine structural timber,
- Wood also shrinks as it dries, or swells as for example, has a strength for weight
it picks up moisture, with concomitant ratio 20 percent higher than structural
warpage potential. steel and four to five times better than
3) Thermal Properties/ Temperature Effects unreinforced concrete in compression.
- Its strength and other properties are 8) RECYCLABLE
affected adversely by exposure for - Timber is a forgiving material that can be
extended periods to temperatures above easily disassembled and reworked. If
about 100°F. demolition or deconstruction of a wooden
- At temperatures above 220°F, wood building is necessary, many wood-based
takes on a thermoplastic behavior. products can be recycled or reused.
4) Environmentally Friendly 9) COST EFFECTIVE
- Timber is the most environmentally 10) DURABLE
responsible building material. 11) COMFORTABLE
- Timber has low production energy 12) COMPRESSION STRENGTH
requirements and is a net carbon 13) FLEXIBLE
absorber. - A particular feature of timber is the
- Timber is a renewable resource. Well- flexibility of design forms and finishes
managed forests produce timber on a that can be used. This flexibility also
sustained continuous basis, with minimal extends to the ease with which existing
adverse effects on soil and water values. buildings can be added to or modified to
5) In Plentiful and Growing Supply suit changing circumstances. High levels
- Timber is readily available. of thermal insulation are incorporated
6) Strong and Lightweight within the construction, reducing heating
- Timber is strong, light and reliable costs and conserving energy.
making timber construction simpler and
safer than steel or concrete construction.
5.4.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
- A comparison with steel and concrete
shows that radiata pine structural timber, 1) DRYING AND SEASONING OF WOOD
for example, has a strength for weight - The process of removal of moisture
ratio 20 percent higher than structural content from wood so as to make it useful
steel and four to five times better than for construction and other uses.
unreinforced concrete in compression. - This reduces the chances of decay,
- The lightweight structures possible in improves load bearing properties,
wood confer flow-on advantage in terms reduces weight, and exhibits more
of reduced foundation costs, reduced favorable properties like thermal &
earthquake loading and easier transport. electrical insulation, glue adhesive
Building components and complete capacity & easy preservative treatment.
constructions are simple and safe to
erect, and cheaper to deconstruct or
2) NATURAL OR AIR SEASONING through the material by natural
- It is the traditional method of seasoning convection, and forced draft kilns in
timber was to stack it in air and let the which fans are employed to force the air
heat of the atmosphere and the natural through the wood.
air movement around the stacked timber - Generally, it is not feasible to kilndry
remove the moisture. structural timber in thicknesses greater
- The process has undergone a number of than 45 mm, although there are limited
refinements over the years that have amounts of 70 mm thick kiln-dried
made it more efficient and reduced the softwood members in the market place.
quantity of wood that was damaged by - All untreated structural pine and some
drying too quickly near the ends in air commercial hardwoods are seasoned,
seasoning. mostly using kilns that are often heated
by sawmill by-products or gas.
FOUR MAIN REASONS FOR AIR DRYING
5) COMPARTMENT SEASONING
WOOD:
- Compartment kilns differ from
➢ To increase dimensional stability. Wood progressive kilns in that the timber is
shrinks across the grain when it dries. If loaded into the kiln and remains in place
wood is cut to size before it is seasoned, throughout the drying process.
it will shrink during drying and thus be - Compartment kilns are usually smaller
undersized in its final form. than progressive kilns, and because of
➢ To reduce or eliminate attack by decay or their construction the temperature and
stain. Wood that is dried below 20 humidity conditions within them can be
percent moisture content is not closely controlled. Consequently, they
susceptible to decay or sap staining. are often used to dry expensive material
➢ To reduce the weight. The weight of or woods which are difficult to dry.
lumber will be reduced by 35 percent or
more by removing most of the water in
5.5. PRESERVATIVES OF WOOD
the wood or, as we say, by "seasoning."
➢ To increase the strength. As wood dries, ➢ Preservatives increase the resistance of
the stiffness, hardness and strength of wood to decay and increase its useful life.
the wood increases. Most species of
Main classes of preservatives:
wood increase their strength
a) Oily substances insoluble in water
characteristics by 50 percent or more
- Coal-tar is the best known
during the process of drying to 15 percent
- Obtained from bituminous coal
moisture content.
- Available in many grades
3) ARTIFICIAL (KILN) SEASONING
- Insoluble in water
- Kiln drying of lumber is perhaps the most
- Highly toxic to fungi
effective and economical method
- High degree of penetration
available. Drying rates in a kiln can be
Disadvantages:
carefully controlled and defect losses
(1) Timber
reduced to a minimum. Where staining is
(2) Disagreeable odor
a problem, kiln drying is often the only
(3) Difficult to be covered with paints
reasonable method that can be used
b) Water Soluble Salt
unless chemical dips are employed.
- Zinc
4) PROGRESSIVE SEASONING
- Readily available, clean, odorless
- Progressive kilns may be further
c) Salts carried in volatile solvent other than
subdivided into natural draft kilns in
water
which heated air is allowed to rise
 - Another recent product is AsCu which is - Timber preserved by this method are
a copper and arsenic compound is used used in piles in saltish water, poles,
as a preservative. sleeper
- Odorless and leave on strains on timber 3) THE EMPTY CELL PROCESS
- Good fire resistant - Similar to the full cell process but no initial
d) Painting vacuum is created.
- Acts not only as a preservative but it also - No attempt is made to remove the air
enhances the appearance of the treated from the cells.
surface. - The preservatives applied under a
- Only well-seasoned timber should be pressure of 200 psi.
painted closing of timber pores by paint. - The excess preservatives drain away.
- A deeper penetration of preservatives.
5.5.1. METHODS OF APPLYING WOOD
PRESERVATIVES 5.6. DECAY OF WOOD &TIMBER
Wood must have the following characteristics ➢ The principal destroyers of wood are decay,
before preservatives are applied to it: caused by fungus, an attack by a number of
➢ Wood must be well seasoned animal organisms of which termites,
➢ Wood must be cut to size before applying carpenter ants, grubs of a wide variety of
preservatives. beetles, teredo, and limnoria are the
principal offenders. In addition, fire annually
1) PAINTING & DRIPPING
causes widespread destruction of wood
- Simplest method
structures. Decay will not occur if wood is
- Preservatives applied by mean of brush
kept well ventilated and air-dry or,
(several times).
conversely, if it is kept continuously
- Timber can also be immersed in tank full
submerged so that air is excluded.
of liquid (preservative).
➢ The drywood and dampwood termites found
- Penetration should hardly exceed (1/16
along the southern fringes of the country and
inch).
along the west coast.
- Duration of immersion and temperature
➢ Teredo, limnoria, and other water-borne
of preservative solution to increase
wood destroyers are found only in salt or
penetration.
brackish waters.
2) PRESSURE PROCESS (FULL CELL
PROCESS)
- A higher degree of penetration can be 5.7 WOOD AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
obtained by forcing the preservative into
the wood. WOOD CONSTRUCTION
- Timber placed inside a chamber. Wood is the oldest material used by
- Air drawn out to create a vacuum. humans for constructional purposes, after
- The cells are completely (almost) empty stone. Despite its complex chemical nature,
to receive the preservative. wood has excellent properties which lend
- Preservative material may be creosote oil themselves to human use. It is readily and
or zinc chloride. economically available; easily machinable;
- Preservatives pumped under a pressure amenable to fabrication into an infinite variety of
of 100 to 200 psi at 120F. sizes and shapes using simple on-site building
- The excess preservative is removed by techniques; exceptionally strong relative to its
creating a low vacuum. weight; a good heat and electrical insulator;
and—of increasing importance—it is a
renewable and biodegradable resource.
PROBLEMS IN WOOD CONSTRUCTION TYPES OF FERROUS METALS
➢ Wood and water do not mix well
1) PIG IRON
➢ Pay attention to detail
- Pig Iron is the intermediate product
➢ Wood is viscoelastic and will creep under
extracted from iron ore in a blast furnace.
load
- Used as a raw material in steel making.
➢ Repair structural members correctly
- It gets its name from the old-fashioned
➢ Protect materials at the job site
method of casting the iron into molds
➢ Take time to know what species and
arranged in sand beds so that they could
grades of lumber you require, and then
be fed from a common runner.
inspect it
➢ Inspect the job site
2) CAST IRON
➢ Inspect all timber connections during
- An alloy of iron that contains 2 to 4
erection
percent carbon.
➢ Be aware of wood’s orthotropicity
- It is made by reducing iron ore in a blast
➢ Use metal joist hangers and other
furnace. The liquid iron is cast, or poured
fastening devices; they add strength and
and hardened, into crude ingots called
efficiency in construction to a job
pigs, and the pigs are subsequently
➢ Wood and fire pose a unique situation
remelted along with scrap and alloying
WOOD DEFECTS elements in cupola for producing a
➢ Knots variety of products.
➢ Slope of grain Properties of Cast Iron:
➢ Wane 1) Brittle, non-ductile, non-malleable and
➢ Shake cracks when subjected to shocks
➢ Splits and cracks 2) It cannot be magnetized
➢ Insect attack 3) Does not rust
➢ Decay 4) Strong in compression but weak in
tension and shear
5) Melting point of 12000 C
V. VII. FERROUS METAL & NON- 6) Specific Gravity of 7.5
FERROUS METAL
3) WROUGHT IRON
Classification of Metals: - Wrought iron is soft, ductile, fibrous
variety that is produced from a semi-
1) FERROUS METALS
fused mass of relatively pure iron
- are a very large group of alloys that
globules partially surrounded by slag.
consist of mostly iron, may contain
- It usually contains less than 0.1 percent
carbon as a major alloying element, and
carbon and 1 or 2 percent slag.
may contain one or more other alloying
- It is superior for most purposes to cast
elements.
iron, which is overly hard and brittle
- It is widely used in manufacturing,
owing to its high carbon content.
building and construction industries. The
demand of this material increases Properties of Wrought Iron:
steadily with expansion of industries. 1) Very malleable and ductile
2) NON-FERROUS METALS 2) Its tensile strength is 20-26 tons/in^2
- Non-Ferrous Metals do not contain Iron, 3) Strong in compression but not as steel.
are not magnetic and are usually more 4) Its melting point is 28000 F
resistant to corrosion than ferrous 5) Became pasty and very plastic at red
metals. Ex: Al alloys, Cu, Stainless Steel. heat & could easily forged at 16500 F.
 STEEL MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
STEEL – alloy of iron and carbon in which the I. CARBONATION OF COKE
carbon content ranges up to 2 percent. By far - The process by which coal is heated and
the most widely used material for building the volatile products (liquid and gaseous) are
world’s infrastructure and industries, it is used to driven off, leaving a solid residue called
fabricate everything from sewing needles to oil coke.
tankers.
II. BLAST FURNACE
TYPES OF STEEL
- To reduce and convert iron oxides into
1) ALLOY STEEL liquid iron called “hot metal”.
- A type of steel that has undergone
III. BASIC OXYGEN STEEL MAKING
alloying using different elements in levels
between 1% and 50% in weight in order - Pure oxygen is blown into a bath of
to enhance mechanical properties. molten blast-furnace iron and scrap. The
- Alloy steels possess properties like oxygen initiates a series of intensively
increased durability and higher exothermic reactions, including the
resistance to corrosion. oxidation of such impurities.
2) CARBON STEEL
- Carbon steels contain only iron and IV. ELECTRIC ARC METHOD
carbon as main alloying elements. - Uses high-current electric arcs to melt
- Traces of other element such as Mn, Si, teel scrap and convert it into liquid steel.
Al, S and P may also be present.
3) TOOL STEEL
- Tool steels are steels which are
manufactured under carefully controlled
conditions with carbon content between VIII. ASPHALT AND BITUMINOUS
0.7% and 1.5% and low manganese MATERIALS
content to reduce possibility of cracking
during water quenching. BITUMINOUS MATERALS
- Proper heat treating of theses steels is The term Bituminous material is
important for adequate performance. generally used to denote substances in which
4) STAINLESS STEEL Bitumen is present or from which it can be
- Any one of a family of alloy steels usually derived.
containing 10% to 30% chromium. In
BITUMEN
conjunction with low carbon content,
- Defined as an amorphous, black or dark-
chromium imparts remarkable resistance
colored, (solid, semi-solid, or viscous)
to corrosion and heat.
cementitious substance, composed
- Other elements, such as nickel,
principally of high molecular weight
molybdenum, titanium, aluminum,
hydrocarbons, and soluble in carbon
niobium, copper, nitrogen, sulfur,
disulfide.
phosphorus, or selenium, may be added
- Obtained naturally or as a residue from
to increase corrosion resistance to
petroleum distillation.
specific environments, enhance
oxidation resistance, and impart special
characteristics.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BITUMINOUS Bituminous Mixtures are generally used to
MATERIALS: denote the combinations of Bituminous
Materials (as binders), Aggregates and
1) HIGHLY TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE
Additives.
- At “high” temperatures, bituminous
materials feature highly fluid - It binds the aggregate together, holds it in
consistencies, whereas at “low” place, and prevents displacement.
temperature they tend to become very - It provides a waterproof cover for the
stiff and brittle. This change of base and keeps surface water from
consistency with temperature is generally seeping into and weakening the base
called temperature sensitivity or material.
temperature susceptibility.
2) THEY AGE OR OXIDIZE
APPLICATION OF BITUMINOUS
- Over time, bituminous materials undergo
MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
an oxidation process. As the oxidation
process continuous, the bituminous (1) Penetration Bitumen and Bitumen
material tends to become increasingly Emulsions are used for the construction of
brittle and thus more prone to cracking/ railway tracks and by using special types of
fracturing. Bitumen such as Polymer Modified
- The rate of oxidation increases with Bitumen, the vibration and noise levels are
temperature of the bituminous material. reduced due to a dampening effect. Bitumen
- There is usually color change of has been proven to be effective in both high-
materials as they oxidize. Fresh asphalt speed railway tracks and heavy load railway
is usually black in color and turns green tracks.
as it ages. Fresh tar is usually black/ (2) Bitumen is also used for surfacing airfield
brown in color and also turns grey as it runways and air strips (PMB is preferred
ages. due to its fuel resistant properties) and taxi
ways.
For Civil Engineering Applications,
(3) For the Marine Construction Industry,
Bituminous Materials include primarily
Bitumen is used for Hydraulic Application
Asphalts and Tars.
such as canal lining, underwater tunnels,
- While Asphalt is essentially a product of river bank protection, dam construction and
petroleum, Tar is a product that derives sea defenses.
from distillation of coal.
- While coal tar was once commonly used
HYDRAULICS & EROSION CONTROL
as a binder in paving materials, it used
less often now for a number of reasons: Hydraulic structures frequently require a
(1) It ages/oxides more rapidly than protective coating against the effects of waves,
asphalt does, hence its service is shorter. flowing water, and water pressure. These
(2) It tends to be more temperature protective surfaces must be immediately and
susceptible than asphalt, which means permanently effective, withstand very heavy
that it changes in consistency more with loads, have long durability, and be flexible and
temperature than does asphalt. easy to repair. Asphalt-A moisture of aggregate
(3) It is a class I Carcinogen and hence the and bitumen fulfils theses requirements to a very
vapors can be hazardous to health. great extent.
 APPLICATIONS OF BITUMEN IN COMPOSITIONS OF BITUMEN
HYDRAULICS AND EROSION CONTROL
1) TAR – Coal tar is a brown or dark black liquid
1) CATCHMENT AREAS AND BASINS
of high viscosity, which smells of
- A topographic region in which all water
naphthalene and aromatic hydrocarbons.
drains to a common area.
2) COAL TAR – It is a liquid by-product of the
2) DAM GROUTINGS
distillation of coal to make coke. The
- A barrier that protects the foundation of a
gaseous by-product of this process is
dam from seepage.
commonly known as town gas. It is used for
3) DAM LININGS AND PROTECTION
coating of wooden poles and sleepers, iron
- A simple way to provide waterproofing of
poles.
dams and ponds where the soil type is
3) WOOD TAR – it is obtained by the distillation
not ideal for water shortage.
of resinous wood. Wood tar contains
4) DYKE PROTECTION
creosote and as such has strong
- A fill or wall that regulates water level
preservative properties.
5) DITCH LININGS
4) MINERAL TAR – obtained by the distillation
6) DRAINAGE GUTTERS AND
of bituminous shale.
STRUCTURES
5) COAL TAR PITCH – it is the residue of the
7) EMBANKMENT PROTECTION
direct distillation of crude tar produced by the
8) GROYNES
high temperature carbonization of coal. It is
- A low wall or sturdy barrier built out into
used as a water proofing compound in
the sea from a beach to check erosion
masonry, steel and timber structure. It is also
and drifting.
used for water proofing concrete structures.
9) JETTIES
- A long narrow structure that protects CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BITUMEN
coastline from the current tides. Molecular Weight wise, Bitumen is a
10) LEVEE PROTECTION mixture of about 300-2000 chemical
11) MATTRESSES FOR LEVEE & BANK components with an average of around 500-
PROTECTION 700. Elementally, it is around 95% carbon and
12) MEMBRANE LININGS AND WATER hydrogen (±87% Carbon and ±87% Hydrogen),
PROOFING and up to 5% Sulfur, 1% Nitrogen, 1% Oxygen
13) REVETMENTS and 2000PPM metals.
- Sloping structures placed on banks or Bitumens are composed mainly of highly
cliffs in such a way as to absorb the condensed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
energy in incoming water. They also contain several elements, a number
14) RESERVOIR LINING of which are toxic.
15) SAND DUNES STABILISATION
1) ASPHALTENES – molecular substances
16) SEWAGE LAGOONS AND OXIDATION
that are found in crude oil along with resins,
PONDS
aromatic hydrocarbons, and saturates.
17) SWIMMING POOLS
2) RESINOUS COMPONENTS (Polar
18) WASTE PONDS
Aromatics)
19) WATER BARRIERS
3) NON-POLAR AROMATICS (Naphtene
20) BACKFELTS
Aromatics)
4) SATURATES
 PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN 3) Allow it to cool in an atmospheric
temperature.
1) ADHESION – Bitumen has the ability to
4) Clean the needle and place a weight above
adhere to a solid surface in a fluid state
the needle.
depending on the nature of the surface. The
5) Use the water bath to maintain the
presence of water on the surface will prevent
temperature of specimen.
adhesion.
6) Mount the needle on bitumen, such that it
2) RESISTANCE TO WATER – Bitumen is
should just touch the surface of bitumen.
water resistant. Under some conditions
7) Then start the stop watch and allow the
water may be absorbed by minute quantities
penetration needle to penetrate freely at
of inorganic salts in the Bitumen or filler in it.
same time for 5 second. After 5 seconds stop
3) HARDNESS – to measure the hardness of
the penetration.
Bitumen, the penetration test is conducted,
8) Result will be the grade of bitumen.
which measures the depth of penetration in
9) Take at least three reading.
tenths of mm of a weighted needle in
10) A softer asphalt will have a higher
Bitumen after a given time, at a known
penetration, while a harder asphalt will have
temperature.
a lower penetration. Other test conditions
4) VISCOSITY AND FLOW – the viscous or
that have been used include (a) 0 °C, 200 g,
flow properties of Bitumen are of importance
60 sec., and (b) 46 °C, 50 g, 5 sec.
both at high temperature during processing
and application and at low temperature to The penetration test can be used to
which Bitumen is subjected during service. designate grades of asphalt cement, and to
5) SOFTENING POINT – it is the temperature measure changes in hardness due to age
at which a steel ball falls a known distance hardening or changes in temperature.
through the Bitumen when the test assembly
is heated at a known rate.
TEST 2. FLASH POINT TEST ON ASPHALT
6) DUCTILITY – conducted to determine the
➢ The flash point test determines the
amount Bitumen will stretch at temperature
temperature to which an asphalt can be
below its softening point.
safely heated in the presence of an open
flame.
TESTS ON BITUMEN ➢ The test is performed by heating an asphalt
sample in an open cup at a specified rate
TEST 1. PENETRATION TEST ON BITUMEN
and determining the temperature at which a
The penetration test is one of the oldest
small flame passing over the surface of the
and most commonly used tests on asphalt
cup will cause the vapors from the asphalt
cements or residues from distillation of asphalt
sample temporarily to ignite or flash.
cutbacks or emulsions. The standardized
procedure for this test can be found in ASTM D5
METHODS:
[ASTM, 2001]. It is an empirical test that
1. The Cleveland Open Cup (ASTM D92)
measures the consistency (hardness) of an
- The Cleveland Open-Cup method is
asphalt at a specified test condition.
used on asphalt cements or asphalts with
Procedure of Penetration Test: relatively higher flash points
1) Heat the sample until it becomes fluid. 2. Tag Open Cup (ASTM D1310)
2) Pour it in a container to a depth such that - The Tag Open-Cup method is used on
when cooled, the depth of sample is at least cutback asphalts or asphalts with flash
10mm greater than the expected points of less than 79 °C
penetration.
➢ Minimum flash point requirements are usually used in asphalt cement
included in the specifications for asphalt specifications.
cements for safety reasons.
➢ Flash point tests can also be used to detect
TEST 4. DUCTILITY TEST ON ASPHALT
contaminating materials such as gasoline or
kerosene in an asphalt cement. ➢ The ductility test (ASTM D113) measures
Contamination of an asphalt cement by such the distance a standard asphalt sample will
materials can be indicated by a substantial stretch without breaking under a standard
drop in flash point. testing condition (5cm/min at 25 deg C).
➢ It is generally considered that an asphalt with
3. Pensky-Martens Closed Tester Method a very low ductility will have poor adhesive
(ASTM D93) properties and thus poor performance in
- When the flash point test is used to detect service.
contaminating materials, the Pensky-
Significance of Ductility Test on Asphalt:
Martens Closed Tester method (ASTM
1) To measure the ductility of a given sample of
D93), which tends to give more indicative
bitumen.
results, is normally used. In recent years,
2) To determine the suitability of bitumen for its
the flash point test results have been
use in road construction.
related to the hardening potential of
asphalt. An asphalt with a high flash point Procedure for Ductility Test on Asphalt:
is more likely to have a lower hardening 1) Melt the bituminous test material completely
potential in the field. at a temperature of 75°C to 100° C above the
approximate softening point until it becomes
TEST 3. SOLUBILITY TEST ON ASPHALT thoroughly fluid.
BITUMEN 2) Strain the fluid through IS sieve 30.
3) After stirring the fluid, pour it in the mould
➢ Asphalt consists primarily of bitumens, which assembly and place it on a brass plate.
are high-molecular weight hydrocarbons 4) After about 30-40 minutes, keep the plate
soluble in carbon disulfide. The bitumen assembly along with the sample in a water
content of a bituminous material is measured bath. Maintain the temperature of the water
by means of its solubility in carbon disulfide. bath at 27° C for half an hour.
➢ Significance of solubility test on Asphalt 5) Remove the sample and mould assembly
Bitumen: to detect contamination in from the water bath and trim the specimen
asphalt cement. by levelling the surface using a hot knife.
6) Replace the mould assembly in water bath
Procedure of Solubilty Test:
for 80 to 90 minutes.
1) In the standard test for bitumen content
7) Remove the sides of the mould.
(ASTM D4), a small sample of about 2 g of
8) Hook the clips carefully on the machine
the asphalt is dissolved in 100 ml of carbon
without causing any initial strain.
disulfide and the solution is filtered through a
9) Adjust the pointer to read zero.
filtering mat in a filtering crucible.
10) Start the machine and pull clips horizontally
2) The material retained on the is then dried
at a speed of 50 mm per minute.
and weighed, and used to calculate the
11) Note the distance at which the bitumen
bitumen content as a percentage of the
thread of specimen breaks.
weight of the original asphalt.
3) Due to the extreme flammability of carbon
disulfide, solubility in trichloroethylene,
rather than solubility in carbon disulfide, is
TEST 5. VISCOSITY TESTS ON BITUMEN Procedure for Viscosity Tests on Bitumen
ASPHALT Asphalt:
1) Heat the sample to a temperature not more
➢ The viscosity test measures the viscosity of
than 60°C for the tars and pitches and not
an asphalt.
more than 90°C for bitumens above their
➢ Viscosity is defined as the ratio between the
respective approximate softening point
applied shear stress and induced shear rate
temperature respectively until it has become
of a fluid.
sufficiently fluid to pour.
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 2) Transfer about 20 ml into a suitable
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 container and maintain it to a temperature of
135 ± 5.5°C stirring occasionally.
➢ The lower the viscosity of an asphalt, the
3) Charge the viscometer by pouring the
faster the asphalt will flow under the same
prepared sample to within ± 2 mm of fill line.
stress.
Place the charged viscometer in an oven or
➢ For a Newtonian fluid, the relationship
bath maintained at 135 ± 5.5°C for a period
between shear stress and shear rate is
of 10 ± 2 min.
linear, and thus the viscosity is constant at
4) Maintain the bath at the test temperature
different shear rates or shear stress.
within ± O.I°C. Place the charged viscometer
➢ For a non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship
vertically in the waterbath with the help of a
between shear stress and shear rate is not
holder so that the uppermost timing mark is
linear, and thus the apparent viscosity will
at least 2 mm below the surface of the bath
change as the shear rate or shear stress
liquid.
changes.
5) Establish a vacuum of 30 ± 0.05 mm of
➢ The measures the viscosity in units of Poise.
mercury in the vacuum system and connect
➢ The most com absolute viscosity test
it to the viscometer with the valve closed.
monly used viscosity test on asphalt
After the viscometer has remained in the
cements is the Absolute Viscosity Test by
bath for 30 ± 5 min open the valve and allow
Vacuum Capillary Viscometer (ASTM
the asphalt to flow into the viscometer.
D2171).
Measure to within ± 0.5 seconds, the time
➢ The standa00rd test temperature is 60 °C.
required for the leading edge of the
The viscosity at 60 °C represents the
meniscus to pass between successive pairs
viscosity of the asphalt at the maximum
of timing marks.
temperature a pavement
6) Upon completion of the test, remove the
Significance of Viscosity Tests on Bitumen viscometer from the bath and place it in an
Asphalt: inverted position in an oven maintained at
1) Too viscous bitumen would result in 135 ± 5°C until asphalt is drained off
inadequate and non-uniform coating of the thoroughly from the viscometer.
aggregates. 7) Clean the viscometer thoroughly by rinsing
2) Very low viscosity would again result in several times with an appropriate solvent
inadequate coating as the bitumen will tend completely. Dry the tube by passing a slow
to bleed. stream of filtered dry air through the capillary
3) Viscosity at 135 °C is a true reflection of the for 2 minutes.
quality of bond that is likely to be formed with 8) Periodically clean the instrument with
the aggregate. chromic acid to remove organic deposits.
Rinse thoroughly with distilled water and
acetone and dry with clean air.