Unit 3: Engineer product design for manufacture

Work to remember:
Activity 4:
 Say why you chose design 1 instead of design 2 or 3 (The folding method is
better than the others)
Materials:
 Based on all the considered materials, Medium carbon steel is chosen
because it meets all the correct requirements to help the product reach it’s
8-year life cycle. This material is much more suitable than the original
material (Low carbon steel)
 Low carbon steel bends easily under load and has low strength
 Medium carbon steel can be heat treated to increase strength
 Having some ductility (ability to stretch/flex) for Medium carbon steel is
useful as the table will not instantly fracture under high load
Manufacturing:
 In order to manufacture the portable table, several processes must be
followed. Firstly...
 Once manufacturing has taken place, the components can be treated...
(galvanising)
 The bolts and fittings can be heat treated, this will increase durability and
strength
 In conclusion, by using effective manufacturing methods, and by treating
components after production, a portable table with an appropriate life cycle
can be produced.
Sustainability:
 In order to create a sustainable product, the environment should be
considered
  The impact of mining and processing steel should be assessed, as steel
produces harmful greenhouse gasses. From this assessment more
sustainable steel production methods can be considered and evaluated
 One environmental advantage of this product is recyclability
 As it is made from steel, after the product life cycle is over, it can be melted
down and reused. This reduces the need for steel to be mined in the future.
Safety:
 When manufacturing any product, safety is crucial
 Firstly, the correct safety regulations should be followed during production.
An example of this would be the 1974 Health And Safety At Work Act
 Along with this, the product itself must be safe for use. This means no sharp
edges
 Must not collapse if being used properly
 In order to make sure the product is used safely, the customer should be
provided with the appropriate assembly and safety documentation.

Activity 5:
 In conclusion, the redesign solves many issues from the original design
 Firstly, the new design allows for the table to be portable and easily movable
from one location to another.
 Secondly, the new modified material choices result in the table being strong,
durable and being able to meet the intended 8-year life cycle expectancy
 In addition, the folding mechanism along with the bolts used for pivots allow
for the table to be quickly assembled and disassembled. This is extremely
effective for the transportation of the the portable table
 Besides the benefits, the redesigned solution also has some constraints.
Firstly, the design may not have as much strength as other alternative
materials
 Secondly, the legs for the table had to be reduced in order to be foldable.
This may not be the strongest option, however it reduces the height of the
table resulting in easier transportation
  In conclusion, despite these drawbacks I believe the redesigned portable
table effectively fixes the problem with the original design, and would meet
the required life cycle

Things to research:
 Sheer stress/strain
 Turning milling and drilling
 Steels and aluminium and others below
 Polymers and plastics I can use for the clips/holders
 Casting for the clips maybe???
 Remember to look for anything like risks e.g. high voltage-electrocution
 Toughness hardness brittleness and others
 Anodising galvanising and painted finishes – how long will it last till it wears
away – friction resistant
 Corrosion resistance
 Activity 2 – specification e.g. has to be able to withstand 5kg weight
 Say if it meets or does not meet the specifications
 If it doesn't, say ill add this/focus on this in the next design
 Die casting and other manufacturing processes – accuracy and other factors
 M6, M8, M10 bolts are standard and easy to source – can be make or buy
decision
 Welding for joining supports to legs
Mechanically attached:
 Socket screw caps
 Nuts and bolts
 Machine screws
 Product - Car
 Market pull (a need or a want) - a car is a need and a want. It is a need because it is
needed for people to transport to work efficiently and reduces risk of not arriving on
time. It is also a want because it provides ease of access to the user whilst being able to
carry more than one user such as passengers.
 Technology push - Sir Clive Sinclair was a well-known entrepreneur most known for his
work in consumer electronics in the late 1970s and early 1980s. He invented an
electronic car known as the Sinclair C5. Elon Musk is a famous for being CEO of a well
profitable brand, Tesla and SpaceX. Elon invented an electric car that is comfortable and
futuristic which grabs the attention of customers.
 Demand - The electric car market is growing quickly, with nearly 260,000 pure-electric
cars on UK roads at the end of May 2021, and more than 535,000 plug-in models if
including plug-in hybrids. There is also a high demand of electric cars because of how
environmentally friendly they are
 Profitability - By 2025 20% of all new cars sold globally will be electric
 Innovation / Competitives - Tesla is fighting off competition from legacy manufacturers
such as Ford, Volkswagen, and General Motors as well as new entrants that include
China-based companies including NIO and XPeng. The automotive industry is shifting
towards electric vehicles (EV) at a frantic pace therefore creating more competition.
 Sustainability - Cars such as Tesla use sustainable energy as they are battery powered.
They also are recyclable and reusable when charged
 Performance issues - Some issues related to electrical cars include limited driving range,
high costs, battery issues, and a spotty charging infrastructure are the main challenges
for battery electric vehicles. In addition, there are issues with various power
semiconductors and other devices
 Design out risk - Some risks involved in an electric car include the risk of the Lithium-ion
battery is combustible and can catch fires, also it has power cells that can cause short-
circuiting if it is damaged.

Challenges of an electric car:

Some challenges that are involved with electric cars such as Tesla is that can be hacked which
can cause accidents and in a. //MARKET PULL// .as for a technology push electric cars can be
made more desirable by adding extra details and more things for the user to interact with. As
for demands producing more of the same product introduces new customers who are keen on
helping the environment. To make an existing product remain competitive electric cars such as
Tesla can frequently update its software so there is more to interact with grabbing the
attention of the buyer keeping the cars competitive. A system that notifies the maker of the
car could reduce performance issues as employees can work on the issue.

Physical security – guards and lanyards for workers so no unauthorized person enters the
manufacturing process.
Property – m

Intellectual property definition- refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary
and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce.
 Copyright© - Copyright denotes the legal owner of an item, whose permission is
required to use that item in any recognizable form.
 Trademark™ - As the name implies, a “Trademark” is a logo or a company name that is
uniquely distinctive.
 Designs Registration® - No one can copy a unique design.
 Patents - Technology registration. (PATENTS DONT LAST FOREVER).
 Licenses - Licensing involves obtaining permission from a company (licensor) to
manufacture and sell one or more of its products within a defined market area.

Design Compromises:
 Need to be compromises between different aspects within a design
 Quantity of products that can be manufactured in the time available to have them ready
 Size vs weight
 Aesthetics vs safety requirements
Design compromises for Tesla:
Tesla made their car fully electrical but the compromise is that it takes long to charge. Cyper
truck doesn't look very appealing but the design forces the car to be more safe. Tesla also
added batteries to the chassis as it was too big to place at the back of the vehicle, similarly the
battery was is placed underneath the car to help with the distribution of the weight which
results is better overall handling. Tesla is also fitted with many cameras to see blind spots
which helps the driver to park more easily. Model 3 has flat door handles to help with
aerodynamics so the car can drive smoothly. Tesla has butterfly doors for ease of access for
the driver to get in the car. Tesla has auto pilot so the car can drive on its own safely which
gives the driver ease of access.
Form vs Function:
Form: Shape, Colour, Size, Aesthetics, Feel/Texture, Sound (artistic side of a product) (e.g. Car)
Function: Job of the product/how it works (e.g. Rocket and computer components)
 Resilience to environmental factors (damp, heat, cold)
 Material strength
 Safety
 Ergonomics – ensuring that humans can interact with, and use the product easily
 Accessibility for maintenance
WRITE A ½ SIDE ABOUT THE BALLANCE BETWEEN FORM VS FUNCTION OF TESLA
CONSIDER OBSOLESCENCE

As an overall product Tesla is pretty much a complete car with minor setbacks with a good
aesthetic, nice colour selection, good size body, and a luxury feel and texture of the car in
certain places, it also has a quiet sound as it is electric which does not make noise which is
calming to the driver. Similarly the Tesla is also a fully well-functioning car as it does the job of
transporting the driver with efficiency and is strong which is good for safety, the tesla also has
an AC and heater to match the needs of the driver and the current environment, also being
waterproof. The driver is also able to interact with the car via the screen and the buttons for
the AC and the heater. Tesla also is able to be maintained very well as the battery is
replaceable and reusable so it’s functions can be used more than once. Tesla’s back two
butterfly doors do not match the front two normal doors which can be a bad aesthetic but it
functions well as it allows the driver to get out the car when parked in a tight spot.

Features vs Benefits:
Benefit: what is the benefit you get from the feature
 High demand is for the Benefits
 Upgrading to prevent Obsolescence
Feature: a physical thing
PRODUCT: Car
FEATURE: ABS (anti-lock braking system)
BENEFIT: The car will stop quicker and under more control

INTRODUCTION STAGE
GROWTH
MATURITY
DECLINE

Features vs benefits in a Tesla:

Feature Benefit
Door handle Provides aerodynamics for the car to tavel at a fast pace
Butterfly doors Allows the driver to exit the car when in a tight parking spot
Battery Allows the hood and boot be used as storage spaces
Screen Provides the driver with extra accessories to be entertained
with the car
Client brief:
Design triggers
Design challenges/ compromises resulting from design triggers
Design constraints: Legislation & standards; environment; security
Design protection:
Design compromises
Form vs Function
Features vs Benefits
Product Design Specification:
Internal External
Employees Government
Other departments Other manufacturing companies (Businesses)
Other members of your team The general public
Retailers

IN YOUR PRODUCT REPORT, LIST POTENTIAL ORIGINAL CUSTOMER FOR THE DESIGN/
REDESIGN
For a Tesla, the customer would most likely be a rich person or an environmentally friendly
customer who is looking for a more sustainable car that has a high-performance rate and is
reliable with no addition to global warming. Also other customers attracted to the unique
build of the Tesla.

18 Things to agree with the client:

Fundamental design topics:
 Cost – how much they have to pay
 Time – how long the product can be used for/ time to manufacture
 Quantity – how much is being manufactured
 Market – what is the market going to be (specific target market)
 Competition - does the client know they have a major competitor
 Safety - is the client safe using the product
 Ergonomics/Anthropometrics and usability - is ease of use important (Size, wight)
 Aesthetics – does it look cool or is it a hidden component
 Weight – is the weight balanced without affecting the strength or performance
 Sustainability – is the product sustainable/ does it affect the environment
 Materials - are the materials used sustainable and feel nice
 Finish – do you want a glossy finish, a rubber finish, a smooth finish.
Manufacturing and operational topics:
 Manufacturing processes
 Manufacturing constraints
 Testing/calibration
Operational and disposable topics:
 Reliable - does it last long without breaking
 Maintenance – is easily maintained or does it need regular maintenance
 Recyclability – is it recyclable

Product design specification on Tesla:

Fundamental design topics:
 Cost – £50,000 - £80,000
 Time – 3 to 6 days to manufacture and 150,000 miles till it needs to be recharged
 Quantity – 500,000 Teslas are made annually
  Market – Tesla is very popular in the market as it is the debatably the best electric car
available in the market
 Competition - Tesla currently has 'no competitors,' but its biggest rivals will come from
China, auto-manufacturing expert says
 Safety - Tesla vehicles are engineered to be the safest in the world. Each one combines
powerful onboard technology with an all-electric design to help protect every driver,
passenger and pedestrian on the road. Tesla vehicles are engineered to be the safest in
the world.
 Ergonomics/Anthropometrics and usability -
 Aesthetics – Tesla has a sleek, smooth and unique design that is aesthetically pleasing to
many customers
 Weight – 2,487 kg for the average Tesla model X
 Sustainability – As Tesla sells Lead-Acid batteries, Tesla is also considered a producer of
Lead-Acid batteries in the UK. We collect waste automotive batteries for treatment and
recycling—free of charge and within a reasonable time.
 Materials - Tesla currently uses an NCA chemistry (that's lithium-nickel-cobalt-
aluminium)
 Finish –
Manufacturing and operational topics:
 Manufacturing processes
 Manufacturing constraints
 Testing/calibration
Operational and disposable topics:
 Reliable -
 Maintenance –
 Recyclability -

Market Research-
Surveys- ask people to answer questions about your product
focus groups – get potential buyers and talk to them about the product
Mood boards/mind maps/Brainstorming- (coggle on google)
Analyse the competition – Dismantle/tear down the competition to find out how they work
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Graphs:
Discrete data is like shoe size e.g., 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5...
Continuous data Is like noise of an engine e.g., 1.2345, 1.2456
Graph lines:
 Histogram
 Positive skew/ negative skew – lines with a tail
 Symmetrical distribution – bell curve
Mode: Most common number
Mean: Add up all the values divided by the number of values
Median: List the data lowest to highest and find the middle value
Range: Highest take away the lowest
Variance: Work out the mean, then for each number: subtract the mean and square the result
Standard deviation: the square root of the variance
Cumulative Frequency: A cumulative frequency curve can be useful to show how many tests
reach a certain level
24.5 25.2 26.2 27.2 28.2 28.9 29 29.5 30 30.4 30.9 31.1 31.7 32.1 32.3 32.5 32.9 33.8
34.3 34.7 34.8 35 36.4 36.5 37.4 38.2 39.2
Mode:
Mean: 32.02143
Median: 32.2
Range: 14.7
Variance: 14.13883
Standard:
Cumulative Frequency
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 Design a safe, Ergonomic key holder for car ignition.
 It will be produced in batches of 50,000.
 Use of materials is important in relationship to recycling and production methods.
 You are required to produce 3 sketches, with distinctly different features.
  A final design will be chosen with reasons stated drawings/sketches to be isometric on
A3 paper, with annotations.
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 Ergonomics & Anthropometrics – designed to fit the user/ease of use
5th percentile & 95th percentile – the people who are not an interest for a product
arthrometric distribution.
5th percentile = 0.05 x number of data sets (discount the lowest two values)
95th percentile = 0.95 x number of data sets (discount the highest two values)
 Engineering Materials:
What sort of materials do you need?
What happens if you choose the wrong materials?
Properties of materials:
What is strength? - Definition: the quality or state of being physically strong. the capacity of
an object or substance to withstand great force or pressure.
Engineering discipline concerned with the ability of a material to resist mechanical forces
when in use. A material's strength in a given application depends on many factors, including its
resistance to deformation and cracking, and it often depends on the shape of the member
being designed.
AN EXAMPLE OF A STRONG MATERIAL IS...
Properties of materials:
1) Electrical conductivity – How easily electricity can pass through an object
2) Thermal conductivity – How easily heat can pass through an object
3) Elasticity - The ability of a material to bend or stretch, then returning to it’s original shape
or size
4) Plasticity - The ability of a material to permanently change it’s shape (does not bend back to
original shape)
5) Ductility – The ability for a material to deform under tension in all directions without
cracking (ability to stretch)
6) Malleability – The ability of a material to deform in compression in all directions without
cracking (ability to shape)
7) Strength - The ability of a material to withstand tensile or compressive force without
breaking
8) Stiffness – The ability of a material to resist bending when a load is applied
9) Hardness - The ability of a material to resist surface scratching and indentation
10) Toughness - The ability of materials to withstand impact or sudden shocks without
breaking (impact resistance)
11) Durability – The ability of material to withstand repeated rubbing
12) Corrosion resistance
13) Density - mass per unit volume

Properties of materials on a Tesla:

1) Electrical conductivity - Each module runs at 22.8V nominal and charge to 25.2V max. They
can do 225 amps continuous output and up to 1500 amps max for 3 seconds. Total energy
storage is 5.3 kWh.
2) Thermal conductivity – Currently, Tesla uses electric resistance heating systems in its other
cars – the Model 3, Model S, and Model X. Here, electricity is sent through a resistive heating
element which helps warm up the cabin. This is similar to how heated seats or some electric
space heaters work.
3) Elasticity -
4) Plasticity -
5) Ductility –
6) Malleability –
7) Strength -
8) Stiffness –
9) Hardness -
10) Toughness -
11) Durability –
12) Corrosion resistance
13) Density -
Classes of materials:
 Metals
Pure metal: only got one type of element/atoms in it
Alloy: mixture of 2 or more materials
Ferrous: it’s predominantly made of iron, is magnetic and can rust
Non-Ferrous: it is not predominantly made of iron, is not magnetic and does not rust
Cast Iron: is ferrous and is pure iron and is hard with a melting point of 1200°C. Its brittle and
dense. Only corrodes on the surface. Relatively poor heat conductor. Easily machined. Is used
for railing, drain covers, car engine blocks & heads, car break discs and some cooking pots.
Steel: Mixture of carbon and Iron.
 Mild steel is made at 0.05% - 0.25% carbon composition. Can rust away hence coating
being added to prevent rusting away and protecting the surface. Galvanized (Zinc).
 0.26% - 0.54% carbon composition creates medium carbon steel. Ductile, strong and
tough. Used in nuts bolts and screws.
 High carbon steel (Tool steel) – 0.55% - 0.95% carbon. ideal for hammer heads and and
chisels
 Very high steel – 0.96% - 2.1% carbon. High carbon contents make it very strong. Used in
metalworking file. Brittle, hard and strong.
Stainless steel: Ferrous alloy of Iron. High melting point – 1400-1450°C. 10.5% Chromium
which is corrosion resistant. Easy to clean and non-porous. Hard strong and stiff. It is dense.
Non-Ferrous metals & Alloys:
Zinc: melting point of 419.5°C. Dense, slightly brittle metal at room temperature. Very good at
injection moulding. Malleable at 100 - 150°C. It is a reasonable conductor of electricity. It is
corrosion resistant.
Aluminium: Pure aluminium is soft. Good strength to weight ratio. Low density (lighter).
Ductile. Alloyed with copper, magnesium, silicon, tin and zinc to make it harder and stronger.
Good conductor of heat and electricity. Corrodes easily but with a coating it can prevent any
further corrosion. Anodising is a process that makes the surface thicker and harder.
Low density metals:
Titanium: Twice as dense as aluminium but much harder and stronger. Good high temperature
properties (Melting point 1,668°C). Used in jet engines. More expensive than aluminium.
Magnesium: About half as dense as aluminium; slightly softer, slightly lower strength.(Melting
point 650°C). Used in F1 tires. Can catch fire easily.
Pure Metals:
Copper: Has a melting point of 1080°C. Copper is a dense coloured metal. It is soft, malleable
and ductile. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It Is resistant to corrosion. Used in
wires. It is expensive.
Brass: Brass is a range of copper-zinc alloys. The melting point is 900-940°C depending on the
composition. Brass displays good strength, easy to cast, machinability, ductility, wear-
resistant, hardness, colour and aesthetic surface finish, electrical and thermal conductivity,
hygiene and corrosion resistance. It is dense. Used in door handles.
Bronze: Bronze is a range of copper-tin alloys. It has a melting point of 950-1050°C. Generally,
it has high strength, hardness, corrosion resistance, but discolours to an aesthetically pleasing
‘patina’. Wear and weather resistance. It is easy to cast. It is dense.
Primary processing of metals:
 Sand casting
 Die casting
 Investment casting
 Drop forging & press forging
 Rolling - what is the process, what metals would you use, what components would be
made, health and safety
 Pressing/stamping of sheet metal
 Extrusion
 Wire drawing
 Powder metallurgy

 Polymers (plastics)
 Ceramics
 Composites
 Natural materials
 Smart materials

Metals and their as-supplied geometries:

 A pipe is designed to have fluids flowing through it and a tube is a structural member
  Ingot
 Bar/rod - ‘rebar’ is short for reinforcement bar and is used to reinforce concrete.
 Wire/rod - SWG standard wire gauge goes up to 10mm diameter

Types of joining:
Welding - Continuous/spot
Soldering
Rivets
Adhesives
Brazing
Nuts and bolts - Nut, washers and bolt. Machine screws
Self-tapping screws

Protecting a metal from corroding:

 Galvanising – Chemically added to the metal. When a material (steel or iron) is given a
protective coating of zinc, typically to prevent rusting.
 Painting - Applying a liquid coating (continuous or spray). This dries to form a protective
coating.
 Electroplating –
 Anodising - very thin coating compared to painting

Polymers (plastics)
Thermoplastic polymers – If you heat it up it softens, and you can remould it (can be
recycled). No strong chemical bond between the long molecules.
High-density polyethene (HDPE): plumbing pipes, hard hats, bottles
Expanded polystyrene: packing and insulation
High impact polystyrene(HIPS): vacuum forming
Acrylic(poly(methyl methacrylate): visually attractive, hard-wearing consumer products
Polypropelyne
Thermosetting polymers – cannot be recycled. An irreversible chemical reaction bonds the
long molecules together. Heating cannot break the bond.
Urea-formaldehyde – electrical fittings
Epoxy resin – used in adhesives and in some glass reinforced composites
Medium density polyurethane
Elastomers:
synthetic rubber – rubber bands
Neoprene – wet suits
Lycra in clothing
Polycarbonates:
Water bottles for commercial water stations; cheap reading glasses and layers in bullet proof
glass (things with good transparency/good optical properties)
Casting: sheets of thermoplastics
Injection moulding: Hot liquid thermoplastic or thermoset is injected into Mould and rapidly
cooled (chilled).
Blow Moulding
Vacuum forming
Extrusion
3D printing – thermoplastic feed stock – mainly ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene), PLA
(Polylactic acid), but many others.
Compression Moulding – Thermoset powder is added to Mould and cured by application of
heat and pressure. Complex shapes can be formed.

WRITE A SHORT DEFINITION OF A SMART MATERIAL

REASEARCH AND WRITE HALF A SIDE OF A4 ON EACH FOR :
 SELF HEATING CONCRETE ,
 SHAPE- MEMORY ALLOYS
EXAPMLES OF WHERE THEY ARE USED, THE ADVANTAGES AND THE SCIENCE OF HOW IT
WORKS
Ceramics: (issue = brittle)
What properties make ceramics an attractive engineering material?:
 Heat resistance/able to withstand high temperatures
 Hardness
 Electrical insulators

Fibre reinforced Composites:

 GFRP - glass fibre reinforced plastic (epoxy)
- Used since 1950s
- Lay-up - prepreg
- Spray-up
 CFRP – carbon fibre reinforced plastic
- Carbon fibres invent in 1879 by Thomas Edison
- 1950s commercial scale, USA
- 1960s high strength, UK
- 2000s – affordable
Self-healing concrete:
 Concrete is by fa the most important material for mankind
 10 billion tonnes produced a year
 1.6 billion tones of steel produced in a year
 0.06 billion tonnes of aluminium produced in a year
Thermochromic paint: changes colour when hot or cold water is applied
Electrochromic glass: changes to non-see-through when an electrical current is passed
through.

PRODUCT DISASSEMBLY: CD Player

STEP 1: Analysis of the product as a whole
 What design triggers and design challenges are present? - if the case of the CD Player is
broken slightly it could become a health hazard because there are electrical components
inside and can be fatal if touched when electricity is passing through.
  Is it designed to be taken apart for maintenance? - The CD Player is designed to be
taken apart for maintenance because it has tapping screws that hold the case
component and some internal components together which makes it easy to access
certain components that needs to be fixed.
 Form vs Function - The CD Player is more of a function product as it is not designed to
be aesthetic but instead is designed to play the CD and function well.
 What design considerations can you spot (e.g. ergonomics, quality of materials, cost) -
The buttons are not too small to be pressed so the ergonomics of the CD player is a
design consideration. The quality of the case and internal components are not very high-
end but also not low-end as it is made to function well.
STEP 2: Commencing product tear down
 What is each component made from and why? - The mother boards are made from
copper and fibreglass because they have high electrical resistance and high thermal
resistance which is important because the motherboard uses a lot of electricity. Also,
acrylic is used because of its excellent transparency properties and optical clarity also it
is up to 17 times the impact resistance compared to ordinary glass. Also, the tapping
screws are made from medium carbon steel as it is ductile, strong and tough.
 How is each part manufactured? Why? - The tapping screws are manufactured by
adding 0.26% - 0.54% carbon to steel which gives the desired properties for a screw
such as being strong or tough.
 How are the components joined together? - The components are mostly connected
with tapping screws. Also, some of the components use different joining techniques
such as soldering to keep the electrical components connected and functioning.
Component No. Component Component material Likely comments
name function manufacturing
process
1 Speaker cover To protect the Polymer and Injection
speaker from fabric Moulding
dust and other
particles
2 Speaker Provide sound Magnet Polyester
for the user to foam
listen to
3 Motherboard Keep the CD fibreglass and
player’s electrical copper
components
connected
4 Case To hold every polymer Injection
component in Moulding
place and
organised
5 LED lights To help the user aluminium electroluminesce
see more clearly gallium arsenide nce
when in a dark or aluminium
atmosphere and gallium indium
to alert the user phosphide.
when the CD
Player is on
6 Screws To keep the Medium steel Mixing carbon
components and iron
connected to the
case and prevent
collapsing
7 Acrylic glass Tp provide a acrylic bulk
protective view polymerization.
of the digital
screen
8 Display buttons To help the user polymer Injection
chose the Moulding
options they
desire
9 CD mounting arm To pivot and
rotate the CD
10 CD reader To provide a polymer
space in which
the CD can be
inserted and read
11 Digital display To help the user acrylic
understand
which options
they have chosen
and the
durations of their
inserted CDs
Scale of product manufacture:
 One-off - bespoke commission – uses manual machines and skilled craftsmanship.
Requires a greater investment of time.
 Small/Large batch - a set number of identical products are produced using automated
machines & use of jigs/moulds/templates to ensure accurate repetition along a
production line. Each batch of production can be adjusted depending on client
requirements and design change are relatively quick to implement. Typically CNC
automation is used at this scale, reducing the workforce requirement & less skill labour
 Mass - a very high volume of identical products that are manufactured on a production
line. Very high setup cost
 Continuous - products are produced with minimal stoppage due to high demand and
often complete automation. Production lines run 24 hours a day and require low skilled
labour due to a consistent product outcome

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Topics:
 Levers and linkages
 Belts and pulleys
 Chains and sprockets
 Gears
 Bearings and cams
 Lubrication
 Electrical power
 Mechatronics

There are four types of motion which are used to transfer power:
 Rotary – bicycle wheel
 Reciprocating - piston
 Oscillating - clock
 Linear – locomotive
Mechanical power is transferred from one place to another by different types of linkages using
the four types of motion. Linkages may increase or decrease the force through mechanical
advantage.
Lever:
 There are three classes of lever:
- Class 1 –> see saw
- Class 2 –> wheel barrow
- Class 3 –> fishing rod
 Load & effort move in oscillating motion
 Depending on the location of the effort and load, levers may amplify or reduce forces

Picture 1- class 2
Picture 2- class 3
Picture 3- class 1
Picture 4- class 1
Picture 5- class 1
Picture 6- class 2
Picture 7- class 2
Picture 8- class 2
Picture 9- class 2
Picture 10- class 3
Picture 11- class 1
Lever equations --> balance across a lever:
Effort x distance of effort from fulcrum = load x of load from fulcrum
Mechanical advantage:
Load/effort = distance of effort from fulcrum/ distance of load from fulcrum =
distance moved by effort/distance moved by load
Levers in a skeleton:
Fulcrum – Toes (Joint)
Load – The bodyweight
Effort – Achillies
Lever problems:
 1. Bobby’s maximum effort is 75N at distance 3.5m from fulcrum. The load will be
positioned is 1.9m from fulcrum. What is the greatest load that Bobby can raise?

3.5/1.9 = 1.84 (2dp) 1.8 x 75= 138.16 (2dp)

2. The load in the wheelbarrow is 490N, 0.3m from the wheel centre. Bobby has got fitter
and can now apply a maximum lifting effort of 113N. He can just about lift the
wheelbarrow to push it along. How far are the wheelbarrow handgrips from the centre
of its wheel?

490/113 = 4.3 (1dp) (490 x 0.3)/113 = 1.3 (2sf)

3. Bobby has gone to help clear a local lake of rubbish. He uses a pole and line with hook.
He wedges the end of the pole on his seat, between his legs. He holds the pole 0.8m
from the wedged end. He can exert an effort of 90N in this position to pull things out of
the water. He can just about lift a water-filled boot, load 20.6 N. How long is the pole
(the line is tied to the tip of the pole) ? 0.8 x 90 = 72 72/20.6 = 3.495 (3dp)
What is the mechanical advantage? 20.6/90 = 0.228

Compound levers:
These use the load from one lever to become the effort in the lever in a series of
interconnected levers
Linkages:
A linkage can:
 Transfer force from one place to another
 Change the direction of motion
 Increase or decrease the force
 Convert the type of motion (rotary, linear, reciprocating, oscillating)
o A linkage is an assembly of parts to direct force and movement to where it is needed
o A linkage can convert the type of motion (rotary, linear, reciprocating, oscillating)
(Piston linkage, peg and slot, bell crank)
Shafts:
Move by rotary motion - attached to pulleys
pulleys:
 What is the difference in the rotational speed (RPM) for different sized pulleys attached
to the same shaft?
 All pulleys attached to the same shaft rotate at the same rotational speed (RPM) as the
shaft
 A cross in the belt will result in the driven pulley and the driver pulley rotating in
opposite directions.
Belts and pulleys:
 Driver pulley is powered, usually by an electric motor
 Both pulleys rotate in the same direction
 Quiter than a chain/sprocket drive
 Not much grip and low belt strength so only for low-applications (vacuum cleaners,
washing machine, pillar drill)
 Increased grip by using V-shaped belt and grooved pulley (increased contact surface
area), or using toothed belt e.g. in car cam belts
 Must keep tension correct in critical applications as belt stretch with use and may slip or
jump off the pulley – use belt tensioners
o Maths behind belts and pulleys: Mechanical advantage (a.k.a. gear ratio) = diameter of
driven pulley/diameter of driver pulley

Lubricants:
Oils, greases, solids, metal cutting fluids, cutting compound
Viscosity – how thick or runny it is. the state of being thick, sticky, and semi-fluid in
consistency, due to internal friction.

How are oils and greases tested:

Oils:
The two main methods of oil testing in a laboratory are the capillary tube viscometer method,
which measures kinematic viscosity, and the rotary viscometer method, which measures
absolute viscosity. Elemental analysis works on the principles of atomic emission spectroscopy
(AES), which is sometimes called wear metal analysis. This technology detects the
concentration of wear metals, contaminants or additive elements within the oil.
Greases:
They usually are used in applications where a liquid lubricant would run out. Greases are sold
by consistency grade, which in this case will be used synonymously with viscosity grade.
Grease consistency is measured using the cone penetration test.

Ways to measure viscosity:

1. Capillary Viscometers.
2. Rotational Rheometry.
3. Vibrating Viscometers.
4. Microfluidic Rheometers.
5. Non-Contact Rheology.
6. Viscosity Measurements with Formulaction.

Torque = rotational force

Units are Nm (Newton metre)
Torque increases as the distance from the shaft that the force is applied increases

Chains & sprockets:

 Chain is equivalent to belts
 Sprockets are equivalent to pulley
  Both sprockets rotate in the same direction (like belts and pulleys)
 Unlike a belt, no chance of slippage on the sprocket.
 Mechanical advantage = Number of teeth on driven sprocket/Number of teeth on driver
sprocket
 Noisier than a belt and pulley
 Requires lubrication to function well
Questions: ❌✅
Q1. 3 ❌ 0.3 or 1/3
Q2. 50 ✅
Q3. 2,6 ✅
Q4. 120 ❌ 40 RPM
Q5. Pulley A ✅
Q6. Pulley A ✅
Q7. B ✅
Q8. F ✅
Q9.a) clockwise ✅
b) anti-clockwise ✅
Q10. a) Chain and sprockets require lubrication to function well ✅
b) belts and pulleys are more quiet than a chain and sprocket ✅
Q11. a) Unlike belts and pulleys, chains and sprockets have no chance of slippage ✅
b) belts and pulleys must keep tension correct in critical applications as belt stretch with
use and may slip or jump off the pulley ✅
Q12. 0.2 ❌ 0.32
Q13. 200 x 5 = 1000MN ❌ 64NM
Gears:
 Gears can transfer much higher torque than belts & pulleys and chains & sprockets
 But the transfer distance is much smaller that for belts & pulleys and chains & sprockets
 Mainly used to change torque and rotational speed
 Gear systems are heavy compared to belts & pulleys and chains & sprockets
 Gears require constant lubrication so are usually encased
Spur gears:
 Straight-cut spur gears
- Pitch: half the size from one tooth to another
- Direction: opposite in driven spur gear (neighboring gears move in opposite directions)
- Inserting an idler gear causes the driven gear to rotate in the same direction as the
driver gear.
Gear ratio for gears:
- Number of teeth on the driven/Number of teeth on the driver
- Driver rotational speed/Driven rotation speed
- Driven torque/Driver torque
Compound gear train:
 Gears on the same shaft must rotate at the same RPM
 Compound gear ratio = gear ratio of first pair X Gear ratio of second pair
Angle cut gears:
 Helical gears have angle-cut teeth (provides high torque and quiet)
 Herringbone gears are two parallel sets of helical gears (more expensive but more quiet
than helical)
 The angle cut of helical and herringbone gears allow more torque to be transferred as
there is more contact surface area than spur gears
 The angle cut allows helical gears to run more quietly
Bevel gears:
 Transfers direction of drive shaft, usually by 90 degrees through other degree change
are possible
 Equation for mechanical advantage are the same as for spur gears
Rack and pinion gears:
 Distance moved in 1 revolution of the pinion = Number of teeth on pinion X Number of
rack teeth
Worm drive:
 High speed reduction ratio – one full rotation of worm screw advances worm gear by
one pitch length
 Hence, gear ratio = Number of teeth on worm wheel/1
 Worm screw can drive worm wheel but not vice versa. Therefore self locking. Very
useful on a winch
Cams:
 Uses two types of motion – rotary motion and reciprocal motion
 The different shapes of cams are:
- snail/drop cam
- pear cam
- eccentric cam
 The distance from the highest point and the lowest point is called the stroke
 The rise interval – degrees that the cam rotates to produce the full upward stroke (i.e.
moves follower from lowest to highest point)
 Fall interval – degrees that the cam rotates to produce the full downward stroke (i.e.
Moves follower from highest to lowest point)
 Dwell – degrees of cam rotation when the follower is stationary (usually as its lowest or
highest point)
Bearings:
 Supports moving shaft with minimal wear while its rotating
 Prevents undesired lateral movement
 Keeps friction low, keeps torque needed to turn the shaft to a minimum
 Reduces noise during rotation
Plain bearing:
 Lubricated with oil self-lubricating; often bronze or nylon or PTFE
 Used in good quality mechanical watches
 Synthetic rubies – very hard wearing, low friction (high polish)
Ball and roller bearings:
 Ball bearings – metal balls between ‘races’, lubricated with grease. May have seals over
the ball bearings to keep out grit and dirt. Low friction, low wear = long life. Radial loads
only
 Roller bearings – if tapered can support axial as well as radial loads
Bushes and mountings:
 Rubber supports to allow small movement of a component and to absorb vibrations

Pneumatics & hydraulics:

  Mechanical motion through fluids
 Hydraulics uses oil fluids
 Pneumatics uses gases/air pressure (usually air or nitrogen if it needs to be non-
flammable)
 Pneumatics have their own circuit diagram and symbols (DONT NEED TO KNOW FOR
BTEC COURSE)
Hydraulics vs pneumatics:
Power: hydraulic tools are more powerful because they use pressurized oil
Maintenance: pneumatics require more maintenance which includes draining moisture from
air tanks and constantly keeping tools oiled
Noise: hydraulic tools are quiet whereas pneumatic tools are accompanied by loud noise
Temperature: due to moisture in the air pneumatic tools can freeze up whereas hydraulics will
operate at sub-zero temperatures so they will not freeze up
Cost: hydraulics costs about twice as much as pneumatics and also pneumatic systems are
easier to construct

Pneumatics component:
SAC - (Single Acting Cylinder)
DAC - (Dual Acting Cylinder)
- Stroke – distance from the smallest the push rod pushes out and also the biggest the
push rod pushes out
- Outstroke
- instroke

Lubrication:
 Oils, greases, solids, metal cutting fluids and cutting compounds
 Lubricants reduce wear resistance between 2 objects and reduces friction and also
reduce temperature and also reduce temperature
Main properties of lubricants:
 Wear resistance
 Viscosity
  Temperature tolerance
Oils: rating
W = usually uses for winter
The higher the number the higher the viscosity
 Mineral oil – more natural based oil
 Semi-synthetic oil
 synthetic oil – man-made oil and most expensive
Equipment health monitoring (EHM)
Analyse the deposits in oil to work out how much an engine has worn out, and which
components are wearing out

Electrical Power:
 Hand crank
Probably rotational motion from an engine/motor
 Steam engine
 Internal combustion engine
 Gas-turbine engine
 Electrical motor
 Mains electricity
- What is the “energy mix” of mains electricity
- i.e. how is mains electricity generated?
Fossil fuel alternatives:
Biofuels: a renewable energy source, made from specially-grown organic matter or from
wastes – can help reduce carbon dioxide emissions.
Nuclear energy: advantages include long term power from small fuel source

How does mains electricity affect engineering design?

- Voltages varies thought the world so some components wont function as well in
another country.
- Different plug sockets/adapters
- Electrical safety regulation varies
 - Single phase (up to 7500 watts) vs three phase (up to 22,000 watts)

 Generators:
- Stand by emergency power e.g. in hospitals (up to 40,000 watts)

Renewable energy:
Solar panel, Wind turbine, Hydroelectric
Direct sources of electrical power:
 Thermoelectric generator (TEG) - a solid state
 Clockwork - a hand wound clockwork mechanism drives a small electrical generator
which then powers the radio
 Piezoelectric material - Power generation from flexing of clothing
Storage of electrical power:
 Conventional batteries
 Large-scale battery arrays
Every-day batteries: lead acid
 Victorian technology
 Why are they still used:
- Low cost
- Rechargeable
- Heavy, but has a relatively large power-to-weight ratio; able to supply high surge
Every-day batteries: Zinc-Carbon
Every-day batteries: Alkaline
Every-day batteries: Rechargeable
Every-day batteries: Li-lon

Mechatronics:
 Mechatronics is a branch of engineering that focuses on both electronic and mechanical
systems, controlled by a microprocessor
 Input --> micro controller --> output
 Outputs: motion
 - Solenoid
- DC motor (not too accurate)
- Servo motor (more accurate)
- Stepper motor
- Brushless motor
- Piezo actuator
Actuators: worm gear boxes for use which DC motor actuators to produce smooth
controllable movement (not too accurate)
 Sometimes mechatronic systems have no input sensors, but most mechatronic systems
have sensors to enable input of information about the surroundings
 Passive (e.g. microphone) vs active (receives and outputs)
 Digital (yes or no measurement) vs analogue (variety of answers i.e. temperature in a
room)
 LDR – light dependent resistor (analogue and passive)
 LIDAR – Light detection and ranging (analogue and active)
 PIR – passive Infared sensor (digital)
Machine vision:
 Machine vision deals with the ability of mechatronics systems to see, and interpret
information from, visible and IR/UV
Automated solutions:
 Manufacturing and processing industries: automation
 The feature: humans coexisting with robots-cobots
Haptics:
 Detecting and creating the sense of touch
- Input and output
- Pressure sensors

Production plan for chair

Processes used in the metal poles:
 Cold metal bending
 Welding
 Metal cutting / laser cutter
Processes used in the polymer seat:
 Injection Moulding
 Vacuum forming
Making 500 chairs between 5 people may be possible but making 50,000 chairs will be
extremely difficult. For both the chairs, tubes can be bought to fit the the chairs for use.

When making 500 chairs the seat can be vacuum formed and cut down with saws and sanded
down.

Websites for materials and manufacturing:

www.matweb.com
www.basa.uk.com = Trade association website e.g. BASA (British adhesives and sealants
association)

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