Q .what is metadata?

Metadata in DBMS is characterized as data about data. It implies it is a context and description of the data. It assists in understanding,
finding, and organizing data.
Q.define system catalog ?
The system catalog consists of tables and views that describe the structure of the database. Sometimes called the data dictionary, these table
objects contain everything that the database knows about itself. Each system catalog table contains information about specific elements in
the database.
Q. what is the role of database administrator in dbms?
A database is a storehouse for a large amount of data, which is used in organizations and firms. A database management system is a
program that helps in updating, accessing, retrieving, representing, and manipulating the data in a database system.Database
administration involves every activity that is performed by an individual to ensure that a database is available when needed. Maintaining
the integrity of a database is the primary goal of database administration.
Q.differentiate database schema and database state?
A database schema is the skeletal structure that represent the logical view of all the entire datasets defining how the data are organized and
how the relations among them are associated. While Database state refers to the content of a database at any point in time.A database state
provides the present state of the database and its data. It can be considered as an extension of the database schema. When a database is
newly defined, the corresponding database state is empty. Factors that affect a database state are entering, deleting or modifying
information in the database.
Q.how is E R data model useful?
An ER model is used to represent real-world objects. An Entity is a thing or object in real world that is distinguishable from surrounding
environment. For example, each employee of an organization is a separate entity
Q.define an attribute and identifier?
The identifier attribute can be used on a component of a group. The identifier indicates the components that can be used to identify the type
to which a data object belongs. All the components, from the first, up to and including the component with the identifier attribute, are used
for type identification.
Q.What do you mean by relational model?
The relational model means that the logical data structures—the data tables, views, and indexes—are separate from the physical
storage structures. This separation means that database administrators can manage physical data storage without affecting access to that
data as a logical structure.
Q.What is a relation? Explain relational data model.?
A relation is defined as a set of n-tuples. In both mathematics and the relational database model, a set is an unordered collection of unique,
non-duplicated items, although some DBMSs impose an order to their data. In mathematics, a tuple has an order, and allows for
duplication.

Q.What do you mean by redundancy?

Data redundancy refers to the practice of keeping data in two or more places within a database or data storage system. Data redundancy
ensures an organization can provide continued operations or services in the event something happens to its data -- for example, in the case
of data corruption or data loss.
Q.What do you mean by normalization? Explain
Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database. This includes creating tables and establishing relationships between those
tables according to rules designed both to protect the data and to make the database more flexible by eliminating redundancy and
inconsistent dependency.
Q.Explain the term data security?
Data security is the process of safeguarding digital information throughout its entire life cycle to protect it from corruption, theft, or
unauthorized access. It covers everything—hardware, software, storage devices, and user devices; access and administrative controls; and
organizations' policies and procedures.
.Q Explain transaction support in brief?
With SQL, there is no explicit Begin_Transaction statement. Transaction initiation is done implicitly when particular SQL statements are
encountered. However, every transaction must have an explicit end statement, which is either a COMMIT or a ROLLBACK. Every
transaction has certain characteristics attributed to it
Q.What is the function of SELECT command?
A SELECT statement retrieves zero or more rows from one or more database tables or database views. In most applications, SELECT is
the most commonly used data manipulation language (DML) command. As SQL is a declarative programming language, SELECT queries
specify a result set, but do not specify how to calculate it.
Q. What is the significance of NULL values?
NULL values are used to indicate that you could have a value, but you don't know what that value should be yet. They are
placeholders until you finally collect the data needed to fill the table field with a real value. You should never confuse NULL
values for zeros or blank strings.
Q. What is the function of ORDER BY clause?
The ORDER BY clause is used to get the sorted records on one or more columns in ascending or descending order. The ORDER BY
clause must come after the WHERE, GROUP BY, and HAVING clause if present in the query. Use ASC or DESC to specify the sorting
order after the column name.
Q.What do you mean by logical operators?
An operator that performs a logic operation on nodes, groups, or numbers. AHDL logical operators are NOT ( ! ), AND ( & ), NAND ( !
& ), OR ( # ), NOR ( !# ), XOR ( $ ), and XNOR ( !$ ).
Q. What do you mean by Nested If statements? Explain.
Nested if refers to an if statement within an if statement. When we write an inner if condition within an outer if condition, then it is
referred to as a nested if statement in java.
Nested if is a decision-making statement that works similar to other decision-making statements such as if, else, if..else, etc. It executes a
block of code if the condition written within the if statement is true. However, in the nested-if statement, the block of code is placed inside
another if block. And the inner block of code will execute only when the outer condition holds true.
Therefore, we use the nested if statement to evaluate more than one condition in a program and return multiple values depending on the
test condition.
An example of a nested if statement could be a person should be qualified as well as an adult to be hired in a company. Therefore, in this
example, first, the condition for the person's qualification is checked, and if it is true, then only the company checks if the person is an adult
or not. So, there are two conditions checked, one within another. Therefore they are nested if statements.
Q. What do you mean by stored procedures? Explain.
A stored procedure provides an important layer of security between the user interface and the database. It supports security through data
access controls because end users may enter or change data, but do not write procedures. A stored procedure preserves data
integrity because information is entered in a consistent manner. It improves productivity because statements in a stored procedure only
must be written once.
Stored procedures offer advantages over embedding queries in a graphical user interface (GUI). Since stored procedures are modular, it is
easier to troubleshoot when a problem arises in an application. Stored procedures are also tunable, which eliminates the need to modify the
GUI source code to improve its performance. It's easier to code stored procedures than to build a query through a GUI.
Q. What are the limitations of SQL? Explain.
One of the limitations of a RDBMS (relational database) is the rigidity which comes from organising data into tables and relations. Not all
data fits naturally into a tabular structure -- think of trees and graph structures in particular. Relational databases typically work around this
limitation by modelling such data in normalised form with parent-child records. Essentially there are techniques which allow us to fit non-
tabular data into a tabular, record-oriented format. A consequence of this is that the schema (or structure) of all records in a table must be
the same. If you've encountered tables with many empty columns for optional fields, it's a result of this rigidity. Tables with many empty
columns waste a lot of space. Typically, we work around this by breaking up a record into sub-parts, creating a sub-table which holds the
sub-fields and then do cross table joins when querying to create complete records. In a document oriented database (like MongoDB or
ElasticSearch for example) each document is stored independent of the other and so there is no wastage of space for optional fields.

Q. What are the different types of database and users? Discuss the main activities of each.?
We can always provide security to our database from being accessed by the unauthorized users. Different database users with
different login IDs and passwords can only have unrestricted access to that part of the database with which they are associated as per the
requirements. Database users in DBMS can be categorized based on their interaction with the databases. According to the tasks performed
by the database users on the databases, we can categorize them into seven categories as follows:

 Database Administrators (DBA).

 Database Designers.
 System Analysts.
 Application Programmers / Back-End Developers..
 Naive Users / Parametric Users.
 Sophisticated Users.
 Casual Users / Temporary Users.

Q. What are the various levels of data abstraction ion a database?

The level of Data abstractions in DBMS reduces the time complexity and helps make the system efficient.
1. Physical or Internal Level
It is the lowest level of abstraction for DBMSs, defining how data is stored, data structures for storing data, and database access
mechanisms.
Developers or database application programmers decide how to store data in the database. It is complex to understand.
2. Logical or Conceptual Level
The logical level is the next higher level or intermediate level. It explains what data is stored in the database and how those data are related.
It seeks to explain the complete or entire data by describing what tables should be constructed and what the linkages between those tables
should be. It is less complex than the physical level.
3. View or External Level
This is the top level. There are various views at the view level, with each view defining only a portion of the total data. It also facilitates
user engagement by providing a variety of views or numerous views of a single database. All users have access to the view level. This is
the easiest and most simple level.
Q. What do you mean by hierarchical data model? Explain.
A hierarchical model represents the data in a tree-like structure in which there is a single parent for each record. To maintain order there is
a sort field which keeps sibling nodes into a recorded manner. These types of models are designed basically for the early mainframe
database management systems, like the Information Management System (IMS) by IBM.This model structure allows the one-to-one and a
one-to-many relationship between two/ various types of data. This structure is very helpful in describing many relationships in the real
world; table of contents, any nested and sorted information.The hierarchical structure is used as the physical order of records in storage.
One can access the records by navigating down through the data structure using pointers which are combined with sequential accessing.
Therefore, the hierarchical structure is not suitable for certain database operations when a full path is not also included for each record.
Q. Explain the concept of participation constraints.?
In a Relationship, Participation constraint specifies the presence of an entity when it is related to another entity in a relationship type. It is
also called the minimum cardinality constraint.This constraint specifies the number of instances of an entity that are participating in
the relationship type.

 There are two types of Participation constraint:

o Total participation 

o Partial participation 
Total participation constraint:
It specifies that each entity present in the entity set must mandatorily participate in at least one relationship instance of that
relationship set,for this reason, it is also called as mandatory participationIt is represented using a double line between the entity set and
relationship set .
Partial participation :
It specifies that each entity in the entity set may or may not participate in the relationship instance of the relationship set, is also
called as optional participation .It is represented using a single line between the entity set and relationship set in the ER diagram .
Q. What do you mean by integrity constraints?
Integrity constraints are rules that help to maintain the accuracy and consistency of data in a database. They can be used to enforce
business rules or to ensure that data is entered correctly. For example, a simple integrity constraint in DBMS might state that all
customers must have a valid email address. This would prevent someone from accidentally entering an invalid email address into the
database. Integrity constraints can also be used to enforce relationships between tables.For example, if a customer can only have one
shipping address, then an integrity constraint can be used to ensure that only one shipping address is entered for each customer.
Enforcing integrity constraints in SQL can help prevent data inconsistencies and errors, making it easier to manage and query the data.
Q. Define 4NF. Why is it useful? Explain in detail.
Fourth normal form (4NF) is a level of database normalization where there are no non-trivial multivalued dependencies other than
a candidate key.
Helps in removing redundancy and anomalies in the database. Data integrity and consistency can be maintained through normalization
and restricted constraints.

Q. Describe the terms GRANT and REVOKE statements.?

1. Grant : 
SQL Grant command is specifically used to provide privileges to database objects for a user. This command also allows users to grant
permissions to other users too. 
Syntax: 
grant privilege_name on object_name
to {user_name | public | role_name}
Here privilege_name is which permission has to be granted, object_name is the name of the database object, user_name is the user to
which access should be provided, the public is used to permit access to all the users.  
2. Revoke : 
Revoke command withdraw user privileges on database objects if any granted. It does operations opposite to the Grant command. When
a privilege is revoked from a particular user U, then the privileges granted to all other users by user U will be revoked.  
Syntax: 
revoke privilege_name on object_name
from {user_name | public | role_name}
Example:  
grant insert,
select on accounts to Ram
Q. What are the various locking methods used in Data Security?
Security of databases refers to the array of controls, tools, and procedures designed to ensure and safeguard confidentiality, integrity, and
accessibility. This tutorial will concentrate on confidentiality because it's a component that is most at risk in data security breaches.

Security for databases must cover and safeguard the following aspects:

o The database containing data.

o Database management systems (DBMS)

o Any applications that are associated with it.

 o Physical database servers or the database server virtual, and the hardware that runs it.

o The infrastructure for computing or network that is used to connect to the database.

o Security of databases is a complicated and challenging task that requires all aspects of security practices and technologies. This is
inherently at odds with the accessibility of databases. The more usable and accessible the database is, the more susceptible we are
to threats from security. The more vulnerable it is to attacks and threats, the more difficult it is to access and utilize.

Q. What is difference between 3NF and BCNF? Explain.

3NF
 There shouldn’t be any transitive dependency.
 There shouldn’t be any non-prime attribute that depends transitively on a candidate key.
 It is not as strong as BCNF.
 It has high redundancy.
 The functional dependencies are already present in INF and 2NF.
 It is easy to achieve.
 It can be used to achieve lossless decomposition

BCNF
 For any relation A->B, ‘A’ should be a super key of that specific relation.
 It is stronger than 3NF.
 The functional dependencies are present in 1NF, 2NF and 3NF.
 It has low redundancy in comparison to 3NF.
 The functional dependencies may or may not be preserved.
 It is difficult to achieve.
 It is difficult to achieve lossless decomposition using BCNF.
QWhat do you mean by iterative control? Explain
Iterative Learning Control (ILC) is a method of tracking control for systems that work in a repetitive mode. Examples of systems that
operate in a repetitive manner include robot arm manipulators, chemical batch processes and reliability testing rigs.. The iteration
structure executes a sequence of statements repeatedly as long as a condition holds true. The sequence structure simply executes a
sequence of statements in the order in which they occur .

Q.What do you mean by loop? What are different types of loops? Explain.
A Computer is used for performing many Repetitive types of tasks The Process of Repeatedly performing tasks is known as looping .The
Statements in the block may be Executed any number of times from Zero to Up to the Condition is True. The Loop is that in which a task is
repeated until the condition is true or we can say in the loop will Executes all the statements are until the given condition is not to be
false. These are generally used for repeating the statements. In this There is Either Entry Controlled loop or as Exit Controlled Loop We
know that before Execution of Statements all Conditions are Checked these are Performed by Entry Controlled Loops Which First Checks
Condition And in Exit Controlled Loop it Checks Condition for Ending Loop Whether given Condition is False or not if a Loop First
Checks Condition For Execution then it is called as Entry Controlled Loop and if a Loop Checks Condition after the Execution of
Statement then they are Called as Exit Controlled Loops.
There are the three types of loops in the java
1) while
2) do-while
3) for

Q. What are the guidelines for declaring variables? Explain.

All variable names must begin with a letter of the alphabet or an underscore(_). After the first initial letter, variable names can also contain
letters and numbers. Variable names are case sensitive. No spaces or special characters are allowed.
Q. Write Short note on: Relational Constraints and DBMS architecture.