MME 310

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Lecture 1
Introduction to the course
25th July 2011

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Books
• George Dieter
• Hull and Bacon
• Hertzberg

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Mechanical Behaviour of Materials
• Response of materials to forces / loads
– Limiting values without failure
– Contrary: T and rate of loading that minimizes the
forces while performing deformation
• Depending on application we design material
– Large Vs small grain size
– Tough Vs hard

http://www.velteclabs.com/MetallurgicalTesting Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Basic Assumptions: SOM
• Material is in equilibrium
• Body is continuous, homogeneous & isotropic
– Continuous: Body doesn’t contain voids or empty
spaces of any kind
– Homogeneous: Identical properties at all points
– Isotropic: Property does not vary with direction or
orientation
• At microscale
– Non homogeneous
– anisotropic
Microstructure of sintered bronze 200×

http://www.copper.org/resources/properties/129_6/consolidation.html Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Basic Assumptions: SOM
• Most engineering materials
– Different phases  different mechanical properties
– Heterogeneous at microscale
• Statistically homogeneous and isotropic even
though crystal grains have different properties in
different directions

• Severe deformation may lead to anisotropy at

macroscale

http://aluminumsurface.blogspot.com/2009/06/microstructure-of-aluminum-alloys.html
http://hsc.csu.edu.au/engineering_studies/lifting/2521/Normalising.html
Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Elastic and Plastic Behaviour
• Elastic behaviour
– Hooke’s Law: load deformation relationship should
be linear
– How about rubber?
• Does not follow linear relationship
• Still elastic  all materials that behave elastically need not
follow Hooke’s law
• Elastic limit
• Plastic deformation
– Will cover several lectures on this

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Average Stress Strain

Dieter book Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Average Stress Strain

Dieter book Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Tensile Deformation of Ductile Materials
• Typical tension stress – strain curve

Dieter book Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Tensile Deformation of Ductile Materials
• OA: Elastic region
– Hooke’s law obeyed
– A: point of elastic limit
• Greatest stress before permanent strain
• Proportional Limit A’: curve deviates from
linearity
• Yield strength B
• Strain hardening
• Maximum load
– Ultimate tensile strength

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Ductile Vs Brittle Behaviour
• Ductility: ability for plastic deformation
– Allows redistribution of localized stress (Important)
• Brittle: no local yielding  localized stress build
• Brittleness is not absolute
– Temperature, high rate of loading, notches,
embrittaling agents (H2), hydrostatic Vs tension

http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/engr322/Homework/Previous/S09/ENGR322HW7.html Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Ductile Vs Brittle Behaviour

Dieter book Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 What Constitutes Failure
• Excessive elastic deformation
– Under conditions of stable equilibrium (beam under
gradually applied load)
– Sudden deflection (unstable equilibrium)
– Failure due to excessive elastic deformation are
controlled by E and not strength of material
• Change shape
• Increase dimension of cross – section
• Yielding of excessive plastic deformation
– Permanent change  not functional
– Strain hardening, yield criterion, creep
Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 What Constitutes Failure
• Fracture
– Sudden brittle fracture
• Decrease in T, increase in loading rate, notch
– Fatigue (progressive)
– Delayed fracture
• Statically loaded at elevated T for long time
• Mechanical properties can be changed by heat
treatment
• Factor of safety should be considered
• Equation

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Stress and Strain
• Section 1-8 and 1-9 Dieter

Dieter book Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Stress and Strain
• Section 1-8 and 1-9 Dieter

Dieter book Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 MME 310
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Lecture 2
Stress Transformation
27th July 2011

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Books
• George Dieter
• Martin H Sadd

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Introduction
• Equations relating to stress and strain are called
constitutive equations
– Relation between two physical quantities specific to
a material or substance and approximates the
response of material to external forces
– In structural analysis
• Connect applied stresses or force or strain or deformation.
• The stress strain constitutive relation for linear material is
commonly called Hooke’s law

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Description of Stress at a Point
• Tension Vs
Compression (+/-)
• τxy:
– x: plane in which the
stress acts (normal to
x-direction)
– y: direction in which
the stress acts

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Description of Stress at a Point
• Shear is +ve if it points in the positive face of a
unit cube

• Assumption: areas of the faces of the unit cube

are small enough  change in stress over the
face is negligible Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Description of Stress at a Point
• Taking summation of moments about z-axis
τxy = τyx

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

State of Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)
• Plane Stress: Stresses are zero in one of the
primary directions
• Thin plate: σz, τxz, τyz = 0
• Assumption: considering infinitesimal distance
from ‘O’ so variation of stresses over the side of
element can be neglected

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

State of Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)

• For any ‘θ’ you want to see how σx’, σy’, τx’y’ varies
• Transformation of axis to describe stress
component at ‘O’ for any orientation of the axes
through the point
Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
State of Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

State of Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)
• Principal Planes:
– Maximum normal stress
– No shear stress
– Stresses normal to these planes: Principal Stresses
• Principal axes: Direction of principal stresses
• 2D: σ1, σ2 that are 90° apart
• 3D: σ1 (algebraically greatest), σ2, σ3
(algebraically smallest)

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Triaxial state of stress
– General 3D state of stress consists of three unequal
principal stresses acting at a point
• Cylindrical
– Two principal stresses are equal
• Spherical/ hydrostatic
– 3 principal stresses are equal
• Home work: draw Mohr circle for above three
cases

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Notes!

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Three roots σ1, σ2, σ3 are three principal stresses
• To get directions: substitute values of σ1, σ2, σ3 in
Σf(x) = 0, Σf(y) = 0 and Σf(z) = 0 and using l2 + m2
+ n2 = 1
• Invariants!
– Give example of 2D case
– Notes!

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• We developed the equation for the stress on a
particular (principal) oblique plane for which
there is no shear stress
• Now develop the equations for the normal and
shear stress on any oblique plane whose normal
has the direction cosines l, m, n with the x, y, z
axes
• Total stress on the plane S will not be coaxial
with the normal stress
S2 = σ2 + τ2
S2 = Sx2 + Sy2 + Sz2
Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Plastic flow involves shearing stress
– Important to identify planes on which maximum or
principal shear stress occurs
τ2 = (σ1 – σ2)2l2m2 + (σ2 – σ3)2m2n2 + (σ3 – σ1)2n2l2
– l, m, n are the direction cosines between the oblique
plane and the principal axes
– The principal shear stresses occur for the
combinations of direction cosines that bisect the
angle between two of the principal axes

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Insert l = 0, m = 0 and n = 0 image.

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

State of Stress in Three Dimensions

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Note: For each pair of principal stresses there
are two planes of principal shear stresses that
bisect the directions of the principal stresses

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Definitions
• Scalar
• Vector: expressed in forms of 2 or 3D co-
ordinate system
• Matrix variables: more than 3 components to
quantify [σ, ε]

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 MME 310
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Lecture 3
Stress Transformation
29th July 2011

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Books
• George Dieter
• Martin H Sadd

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

State of Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)
• Plane Stress: Stresses are zero in one of the
primary directions
• Thin plate: σz, τxz, τyz = 0
• Assumption: considering infinitesimal distance
from ‘O’ so variation of stresses over the side of
element can be neglected

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

State of Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)

• For any ‘θ’ you want to see how σx’, σy’, τx’y’ varies
• Transformation of axis to describe stress
component at ‘O’ for any orientation of the axes
through the point
Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
State of Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

State of Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)
• Principal Planes:
– Maximum normal stress
– No shear stress
– Stresses normal to these planes: Principal Stresses
• Principal axes: Direction of principal stresses
• 2D: σ1, σ2 that are 90° apart
• 3D: σ1 (algebraically greatest), σ2, σ3
(algebraically smallest)

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Triaxial state of stress
– General 3D state of stress consists of three unequal
principal stresses acting at a point
• Cylindrical
– Two principal stresses are equal
• Spherical/ hydrostatic
– 3 principal stresses are equal
• Home work: draw Mohr circle for above three
cases

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Notes!

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Three roots σ1, σ2, σ3 are three principal stresses
• To get directions: substitute values of σ1, σ2, σ3 in
Σf(x) = 0, Σf(y) = 0 and Σf(z) = 0 and using l2 + m2
+ n2 = 1
• Invariants!
– Give example of 2D case
– Notes!

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• We developed the equation for the stress on a
particular (principal) oblique plane for which
there is no shear stress
• Now develop the equations for the normal and
shear stress on any oblique plane whose normal
has the direction cosines l, m, n with the x, y, z
axes
• Total stress on the plane S will not be coaxial
with the normal stress
S2 = σ2 + τ2
S2 = Sx2 + Sy2 + Sz2
Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Plastic flow involves shearing stress
– Important to identify planes on which maximum or
principal shear stress occurs
τ2 = (σ1 – σ2)2l2m2 + (σ2 – σ3)2m2n2 + (σ3 – σ1)2n2l2
– l, m, n are the direction cosines between the oblique
plane and the principal axes
– The principal shear stresses occur for the
combinations of direction cosines that bisect the
angle between two of the principal axes

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Insert l = 0, m = 0 and n = 0 image.

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

State of Stress in Three Dimensions

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 State of Stress in Three Dimensions
• Note: For each pair of principal stresses there
are two planes of principal shear stresses that
bisect the directions of the principal stresses

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 MME 310
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Lecture 4
Stress Tensor
1st August 2011

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Books
• George Dieter
• Martin H Sadd

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Definitions
• Scalar
• Vector: expressed in forms of 2 or 3D co-
ordinate system
• Matrix variables: more than 3 components to
quantify [σ, ε]

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Stress Tensor
• Easier if we consider stress as a second order
tensor
– Transformation of axes
– Existence of principal stresses
• Transformation of vector
S = S1i1 + S2i2 + S3i3
– Will use x1, x2, x3 for axes
– S1, S2, S3, are components of S along x1, x2, x3
– Find component of S referred to x1’, x2’, x3’
– Figure 2-9

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Transformation of vector

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

• Breaking into smaller steps

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 X2

S2 S

S1’

S1
X1

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 X2’ X2

X1’

S2 S

• Rotation of axes
S1’

S2’

S1
X1

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 X2’ X2

X1’

S2 S

• Resolving vector
S1’

S2’

S1
X1

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 X2’ X2

X1’

S2 S

• Geometry
S1’

S2’

S1
X1

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 X2’ X2

X1’

S2 S

S1’

S2’ φ
θ
S1
X1

• Components in new axes

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 X2’ X2

X1’

S2 S

S1’

S2’ φ
S2 cos (x2, x1’)
θ
S1
X1
S1 cos (x1, x1’)

• Components in new axes

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 X2’ X2

X1’

S2 S

S2 cos (x2, x2’) S1’

S2’

S1
X1
S1 cos (x1, x2’)

• Components in new axes

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Stress Tensor
• Suffix notation is useful way of compactly
expressing systems of equations usually found in
continuum mechanics
• Dummy Vs free suffix
• Vector requires specification of 3 components
• State of stress requires specification of 9
components on orthogonal faces of the
elements at a point
• Physical quantities that transform with co-
ordinate axes: Tensor
• Scalar: tensor of zero rank Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Transformation
• n = rank  3n components required to specify
the quantity
• Product of two vectors A and B results in a
second rank tensor Tij
• Explain how to get this using matrices
• Upon transformation:
A  A’ and B  B’
Tij  ???

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Stress Tensor
• T’ik
• σkl = aki alj σij
– Do example
• General case
• Kronecker delta

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 MME 310
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Lecture 5
Stress Tensor
3rd August 2011

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Books
• George Dieter
• Martin H Sadd

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 MME 310
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Lecture 7
(a) Hydrostatic and Deviator Components of Stress
(b) Elastic Stress Strain Relations
(c) Calculation of Stresses from Elastic Strains
8th August 2011

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Book
• George Dieter (Chapter 2)

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Strain Tensor
• Strain tensor can be divided into
– Hydrostatic (mean) strain
– Strain deviator
• Volume strain
– First invariant of the strain tensor
εm = (εx + εy + εz) / 3 = εkk / 3 = Δ/3
• Strain deviator (ε’ij)
– Part of strain tensor that is involved in shape change
rather than volume change
– Matrix
εij = ε’ij + εm = (εij – (Δ/3)δij) + (Δ/3)δij
Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
Hydrostatic and Deviator Components of Stress
• Total stress tensor is sum of
– Hydrostatic (mean) tensor σm
• Pure tension or compression
– Deviator stress tensor σ’ij that represents shear
stresses in the total state of stress
• Yield stress independent of hydrostatic stress
• Fracture strain is strongly influenced by
hydrostatic stress
σm = (σx + σy + σz) / 3 = σkk / 3 = (σ1 + σ2 + σ3) / 3

Hydrostatic (mean) stress

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Stress Deviator Tensor
• Equations, matrix
• Stress deviator as system of principal stresses
• σ‘ij is a second rank tensor  has principal axes
– Principal values of stress deviator are the roots of the
following equation
(σ‘)3 – J1(σ‘)2 + J2σ‘ – J3 = 0
• J1, J2, J3 are invariants of deviator stress tensor
J1 = (σx – σm) + (σx – σm) + (σx – σm)
• J2: sum of principal minors of σ‘ij  Value
• J3: determinant of the equation
Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Elastic Stress Strain Relations
σx = E εx
• Poisson’s Ratio: ν (= 0.33 for most metals)
ε y = ε x = - ν ε x = ν σx / E
• Assumptions
– Elastic stresses are small
– Material is isotropic  σx does not produce shear in
x, y, z and τxy does not produce normal strain on x, y,
or z planes
• Equations
• Bulk modulus: K
– Derivation
Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
Calculation of Stresses from Elastic Strains
• Stress strain relationships
• Plane stress
• Plane strain

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 MME 310
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Lecture 8
(a) Strain Energy
(b) Stress Concentration
10th August 2011

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Book
• George Dieter (Chapter 2)

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Calculation of Stresses from Elastic Strains
• Stress strain relationships
• Plane stress
• Plane strain

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Strain Energy
• Elastic strain energy U
– Energy expanded by the action of external forces in
deforming an elastic body
U = (1/2) P δ
• Only tensile stress along x-axis
dU = (1/2) P δ = (1/2) (σx A)(εxdx)
– Strain energy per unit volume
• Strain energy density (U0): Equation
– Lateral strain in simple tension do not enter
• Forces do not exist in the direction of lateral strains

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Strain Energy
• Strain energy per unit volume of an element
subjected to pure shear
– Equation
• Elastic strain energy for a general three
dimensional stress distribution
– From superposition
– Equation
• Derivative of U0 w.r.t. Any strain component
gives corresponding stress component
– Equation

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Stress Concentration
• Geometric discontinuity (hole, notch) result in a
non uniform stress distribution at the vicinity of
the discontinuity
• Stress concentration occur at the discontinuity
• Figure 2-20

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Stress Concentration

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Stress Concentration

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Stress Concentration
• Stress concentration expressed by a theoretical
stress concentration factor Kt
– Ratio of maximum to nominal stress based on the
net section
Kt = σmax / σnominal

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Stress Concentration
• Notch also created localized condition of biaxial
or triaxial stress
– Circular hole in plate subjected to axial load  radial
and longitudinal stress
• Figure 2-20
– Infinitely wide plate containing a circular hole and
axially loaded

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Stress Concentration

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Stress Concentration
• Discussion on Kt

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Stress Concentration

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Stress Concentration

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Stress Concentration

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Stress Concentration

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Stress Concentration

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Stress Concentration

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 Stress Concentration
• Effect of stress raiser is more pronounced in
brittle materials
• Ductile material: yielding
– Redistribution of stresses

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

 MME 310
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Lecture 9
Problem Solving
12th August 2011

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
 Book
• George Dieter (Chapter 2)

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma

Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma
Instructor: Dr. Vivek Verma