Human Behavior Module

A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of NEMSU CANTILAN|Human Behavior and Victimology
A Module in
CRIM 3- HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY
Compiled by :
LAURENCE P. BAZAN- DEAN, CCJE
ROCHELLE M. BUQUE, RCRIM
CARL IAN CLAPERO, RCRIM
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Segment 1. Overview on Human Development
What is Behavior?
Behaviour refers to the actions of an organism or system, usually in relation to its movement,
which includes the other organisms or systems around as well as the physical environment. It is the
response of the organism or system to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external,
conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntarily or involuntarily.
Behavior can also be defined as anything that you do that can be directly observed, measured,
and repeated. Some examples of behavior are reading, crawling, singing, holding hands and the
likes.
What is Human Behavior?
Human Behavior is the range of actions and mannerisms exhibited by humans in conjunction
with their environment, responding to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious
or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. Human Behavior is influenced by many
factors, including:
a. Attitudes
b. Emotions
c. Cultures
d. Ethics
e. Authority
f. Motivation
g. Coercion
h. Beliefs
i. Reasoning
j. Values
k. Religion
l. Rapport
m. Persuasion, and
n. Genetics
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What is Human Development?
Human Development is the process of a person’s growth and maturation throughout their
lifespan, concerned with the creation of an environment where people are able to develop their full
potential, while leading productive and creative lives in accordance with their interests and needs.
Development is about the expansion of choices people have in order to lead lives they value.
Four Pillars of Human Development
1. Equity- It is the idea that every person has the right to an education and health care, that there
must be fairness for all.
2. Sustainability- It compasses the view that every person has the right to earn of living that can
sustain him or her, while everyone also has the right to access to goods more evenly
distributed among populations.
3. Production- It is the idea that people need more efficient social programs to be introduced by
their governments.
4. Empowerment- It is the view that people who are powerless, such as women, need to be
given power.
Theories of Child (Human) Development
A. Personality Theory
I. Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
The Structure of Personality (Tripartite Personality)
The structure of personality, according to Sigmund Freud, is made up of three major systems:
the id, the ego and the superego. Bahavior is always the product of an interaction among these
three systems; rarely does one system operate to the exclusion of the other two.
1. Id- Id allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on the
pleasure principles i.e. it wants immediate satisfaction, with no consideration for the reality of
the situation. Id refers to the selfish, primitive, childish, pleasure-oriented part of the personality
with no ability to delay gratification. Freud called the id the “true psychic reality” because it
represents the inner world of subjective experience and has no knowledge of objective reality.
2. Ego- As the child interacts more with world, the ego begins to develop. The Ego’s job is to
meet the needs of the id, while taking into account the constraints of reality. The Ego
acknowledges that being impulsive or selfish can sometimes hurt us, so the id must be
constrained (reality principle). Ego is the moderator between the id and superego which
seeks compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as our “sense of time and place”.
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3. Super Ego (Conscience of Man)- The Superego develops during the phallic stage as a result
of the moral constraints placed on us by our parents. It is generally believed that a strong
superego serves to inhibit the biological instincts of the id (resulting in a high level of guilt),
whereas a weak superego allows the id more expression-resulting in a low level of guilt.
Superego internalizes society and parental standards of “good” and “bad”, “right” and “wrong”
behaviour
Levels of Awareness (Topographical Model by Sigmund Freud)
1. The Conscious Level- It consists of whatever sensations and experiences you are aware of
at a given moment of time.
2. The Preconscious Level- This domain is sometimes called “available memory” that
encompasses all experiences that are not conscious at the moment but which can easily be
retrieved into awareness either spontaneously or with a minimum of effort. Examples might
include memories of everything you did last Saturday night, all the towns you over lived in,
your favourite books, or an argument you had with a friend yesterday.
3. The Unconscious Level- It is the deepest and major stratum of the human mind. It is the
store house for primitive instinctual drives plus emotion and memories that are so threatening
to the conscious mind that they have been repressed, or unconsciously pushed into the
unconscious mind. Examples of material that might be found in your unconscious include a
forgotten trauma in childhood, hidden feelings of hostility toward a present, and repressed
sexual desires of which you are unaware. (Figure 1).
Freud’s Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages)
a. Oral Stage (0-18 months)
This is the first psychosexual stage in which the infant’s source of id gratification is the
mouth. Infants gets pleasure from sucking and swallowing. Later when he has teeth, infant
enjoys the aggressive pleasure of biting and chewing. A child who is frustrated at this stage
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may develop an adult personality that is characterized by pessimism, envy and suspicion. The
overindulged child may develop to be optimistic, gullible, and full of admiration for others.
b. Anal Stage (18 months- 3 years)
When parents decide to toilet train their children during anal stage, the children learn how
much control they can exert over others with anal sphincter muscles. Children can have the
immediate pleasure of expelling feces, but that may cause their parents to punish them.
This represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion of
bodily wastes, and the superego which represents external pressure to control bodily functions. If
the parents are too lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of an anal expulsive
character of the child who is disorganized, reckless and defiant. Conversely, a child may opt to
retain feces, thereby spiting his parents, and may develop an anal retentive character which is
neat, stingy and obstinate.
c. Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
Genitals become the primary source of pleasure. The child’s erotic pleasure focuses on
masturbation, that is on self-manipulation of the genitals. He develops a sexual attraction to the
parent of the opposite sex; boys develop unconscious desires for their mother and become rivals
with their father for her affection. This reminiscent with Little Han’s case study. So, the boys
develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings (castration anxiety) so decide to
identify with him rather than fight him. As a result, the boy develops masculine characteristics and
repress his sexual feelings towards his mother. This known as:
a. Oedipus Complex- this refers to an instance where in boys build up a warm and loving
relationship with mothers (mommy’s boy).
b. Electra Complex- this refers to an occasion where in girls experience an intense
emotional attachment for their fathers (daddy’s girl).
d. Latency Stage (6-11 years)
Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this stage. Sexual energy is going through the
process of sublimation and is being converted into interest in schoolwork, riding bicycles
playing house and sports.
e. Genital Stage (11 years on)
This refers to the start of puberty and genital stage. There is renewed interest in
obtaining sexual pleasure through the genitals. Masturbation often becomes frequent and
leads to orgasm for the first time. Sexual and romantic interests in others also become a
central motive.
Interest now turns to heterosexual relationships. The lesser fixation the child has in
earlier stages, the more chances of developing a “normal” personality, and thus develops
healthy meaningful relationships with those of the opposite sex.
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Freud’s Psychosexual Theory believes that we are born with two basis instincts:
1. Eros- This is named after the Greek God for love. Eros includes the sex drives and drives
such as hunger and thirst.
2. Thanatos- This is named after Greek god for death. This includes not only striving for death
but also destructive motives such as hostility and aggression. These drives highly influence the
personality of a person.
II. Trait Theory
Trait approach identifies where a person might lie along a continuum of various personality
characteristics. Trait theories attempt to learn and explain the traits that make up personality, the
differences between people in terms of their personal characteristics, and how they relate to actual
behaviour.
Trait refers to the characteristics of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving,

thinking, and feeling.
Kinds of Trait by Allport
1. Common Traits- These are personality traits that are shared by most members of a
particular culture.
2. Individual Traits- These are personality traits that define a person’s unique individual
qualities.
3. Cardinal Traits- These are personality traits that are so basic that all person’s activities
relate to it. It is a powerful and dominating behavioural predisposition that provides the pivotal point in
a person’s entire life. Allport said that only few people have cardinal traits.
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4. Central Traits- These are the core traits that characterize an individual’s personality.
Central traits are the major characteristics of our personalities that are quite generalized and
enduring. They form the building blocks of our personalities.
5. Secondary Traits- These are traits that are inconsistent or relatively superficial, less
generalized and far less enduring that affects our behaviours in specific circumstances.
Kinds of Trait by Golbdberg (Big Five or Five Factor Theory)
1. Extraversion- This dimension contrasts such traits as sociable, outgoing, talkative, assertive,
persuasive, decisive, and active with more introverted traits such as withdrawn, quiet, passive,
retiring, and reserved.
2. Neuroticism- People high on neuroticism are prone to emotional instability. They tend to
experience negative emotions and to be moody, irritable, nervous, and prone to worry.
3. Conscientiousness- This factor differentiates individuals who are dependable, organized, reliable,
responsible, thorough hard-working, and preserving from those undependable, disorganized,
impulsive, unreliable, irresponsible, careless, negligent and lazy.
4. Agreeableness- This factor is composed of a collection of traits that range from compassion to
antagonism towards others. A person high on agreeableness would be a pleasant person, good
natured, warm, sympathetic, and cooperative.
5. Openness to Experience- This factors contrasts individuals who are imaginative, curious, broad-
minded and cultured with those who are concrete minded and practical and whose interests are
narrow.
Personality Trait by Eysenck
1. Extrovert- It refers to a person that is sociable, out-going, and active.

2. Introvert- It refers to a person that is withdrawn, quiet, and introspective.
3. Emotionally Unstable- It is a trait that is being anxious, excitable, and easily disturbed.
Eysenck theorized that criminality and antisocial behaviour are both positively and casually related to
high levels of psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism. The theory says that in extroverts, and
possibly also in people high on the psychoticism scale, biologically determined low degrees of arousal
and arousability lead to impulsive, risk-taking and sensation-seeking behaviour that increase the level
of cortical (brain)arousal to a more acceptable and enjoyable amount.
Eysenck did find that extroverts experience cortical under arousal, prefer higher levels of stimulation,
and are less responsive to punishment they therefore do not learn behavioural alternatives with the
use of disciplinary action.
What is Temperament?
Temperament refers to the fundamental groundwork of character, generally presumed to be

biologically determined and existent early in life, inclusive of traits like emotional reactiveness, energy
level, reaction tempo, and motivation to explore.
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Four Types of Temperament
Melancholic – sad, gloomy

Choleric – hot-tempered, irritable
Phlegmatic- sluggish, calm
Sanguine- cheerful, hopeful
Psychological Studies in Relation to Crime and Delinquency
1. August Aichorn
Aichorn in his book entitled Wayward Youth (1925) said that the cause of crime and
delinquency is the faulty development of the child during the first few years of his life. The child as a
human being normally follows only his pleasure impulse instinctive. Soon he (child) grew up and find
some restriction to these pleasure impulses which he must control. Otherwise, he suffers from faulty
ego development and become delinquent. He then concluded that many of the offenders with whom
he had worked had underdeveloped consciences. Aichorn identified two further categories of criminal
a. those with fully developed consciences but identified with their criminal parents, and
b. those who had been allowed to do whatever they like by over-indulgent parents.
2. Cyril Burt (Young Delinquent, 1925)
Burt gives the theory of General Emotionality. According to him many offenses can be traced
to either in excess or a deficiency of a particular instinct which accounts for the tendency of many
criminals to be weak willed or easily led. Fear and absconding may be due to the impulse of fear.
Callous type of offenders may be due to the deficiency in the primitive emotion of love and an excuse
of the instinct of hate.
3. William Healy (Individual Delinquency, 1916)
He claimed that crime is an expression of the mental content of the individual. Frustration of
the individual causes emotional discomfort; personality demands removal of pain and pain is
eliminated by substitute behaviour, that is, crime delinquency of the individual.
Healy and Bonner (1936) conducted a study of 105 pairs of brothers where one was a
persistent offender and the other a non-offender. It was found that only 19 of the offenders and 30 of
the non-offenders had experienced good quality family conditions. These findings suggested that
circumstances within a household may be favourable for one child but not the sibling. It then
proposed that the latter had not made an emotional attachment to a “good parent”, hence impeding
the development of superego.
4. Walter Bromberg (Crime and the Mind, 1946)
He noted that criminality is the result of emotional immaturity. A person is emotionally matured
if he has learned to control his emotion effectively and who lives at peace with himself and harmony
with the standards of conduct which are acceptable to the society. An emotionally immature person
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rebel against rule and regulations, engage in usual activities and experience a feeling of guilt due to
inferiority complex.
B. Psychosocial Theory of Development (Erik Erikson)
Erikson’s Stages of Human Development
Development psychologist Erik H. Erikson was best known for his theory on social
development of human beings, and for coining the phrase identity crisis
This theory describes eight stages through which a healthily developing human should pass from
infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges.
Each stage builds on the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not
successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future.
C. Cognitive Development Theory (Jean Piaget)
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding the nature of
intelligence.
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Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little
scientists ad they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids
interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing
knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.
D. Socio-Cultural Theory (Lev Vygotzky)
Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky.
Vygotsky’s work was largely unknown to the West until it was published in 1962. Vygotsky’s theory is
one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes regarding social interaction,
the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal development.
Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development;

consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behaviour.
Social Interaction
Social Interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast
to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes
learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s
cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first,
between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)”.
Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a

teacher or lecturer “transmits” information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes
learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student
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are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with this or her students in order to help
facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for
the students and teacher.
E. Bio Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner)
This is known as the Human Ecology Theory, the Ecological Systems theory states that
human development is influenced by the different theory states that human development is influenced
by the different types of environment systems. Formulated by famous psychologist Urie
Bronfenbrenner, this theory help us understand why we may behave differently when we compare our
behaviour in the presence of our family and our behaviour when we are in school or at work.
The Five Environment Systems
The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments throughout our
lifespan that may influence our behaviour in varying degrees. These systems include the micro
systems, the meso system, the exo system, the macro system, and the chrono system.
1. The Micro System- The micro system’s setting is the direct environment we have in our
lives. Your family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors, and others people who have a direct
contact with you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we have
direct social interactions with these social agents. The theory states that we are not mere recipients of
the experiences we have when socializing with these people in the micro system environment, but we
are contributing to the construction of such environment.
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2. The Mesosystem- The mesosystem involves the relationships between the microsystems
in one’s life. This means that your family experience may be related to your school experience. For
example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of developing positive
attitudes towards his teachers. Also, this child may feel awkward in the presence of peers and may
resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates.
3. The Exosystem- The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context
where in the person does not have any active role, and the context where in is actively participating.
Suppose a child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for
several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the child’s social relationship, or on
the other hand, this event may result to a tighter bond between the mother and the child.
4. The Macrosystem- The macrosystem setting id the actual culture of an individual. The
cultural contexts involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race
and living in a still developing or a third world country. For example, being born to a poor family
makes a person work harder every day.
5. The Chronosystem- The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one’s lifespan.
This may also involve the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person.
One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the couple’s
relationship but also their children’s behaviour. According to a majority of research, children are
negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The next years after it would reveal that the
interaction within the family becomes more stable and agreeable.
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F. Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)
The theory of Moral Development is a very interesting subject that stemmed from Jean
Piaget’s theory of moral reasoning. Developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, this theory made
us understand that morality starts from the early childhood years and can be affected by several
factors.
Kohlberg ideas started from the research he performed with very young children as his
subjects. He found out that children are faced with different moral issues, ad their judgements on
whether they are to act positively or negatively over each dilemma are heavily influenced by several
factors. In each scenario that Kohlberg related to the children, he was not really asking whether or not
the person in the situation is morally right or wrong, but he wanted to find out the reasons why these
children think that the character is morally right or not.
Levels of Moral Development
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
The first level of morality, preconventional morality, can be further divided into two stages:
obedience and punishment, and individualism and exchange.
Stage 1: Punishment- Obedience Orientation- Related to Skinner’s Operational

Conditioning, this stage includes the use of punishment so that the person refrains from doing the
action and continues to obey the rules. For example, we follow the laws because we do not want to
go to jail.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation- In this stage, the person is said to judge
the morality of an action based on how it satisfies the individual needs of the doer. For instance, a
person steals money from another person because he needs that money to buy food for his hungry
children. In Kohlberg’s theory, the children tend to say that this action is morally right because of the
serious need of the doer.
Level 2: Conventional Morality
The second level of morality involves the stage 3 and 4 or moral development. Conventional
morality includes the society and societal roles in judging the morality of an action.
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation- In this stage, a person judges an action
based on the societal roles and social expectations before him. This is also known as the
“interpersonal relationships” phase. For example, a child gives away her lunch to a street peasant
because she thinks doing so means being nice.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation- This stage includes respecting the authorities
and following the rules, as well as doing person’s duty. The society is the main consideration of a
person at this stage. For instance, a policeman refuses the money offered to him under the table and
arrests the offender because he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and order.
Level 3: Postconventional Morality

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The post conventional morality includes stages 5 and stage 6. This is mainly concerned with
the universal principles that relation to the action done.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation- In this stage, the person is look at various opinions
and values of different people before coming up with the decision on the morality of the action.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation- The final stage of moral reasoning, this
orientation is when a person considers universally accepted ethical principles. The judgement may
become innate and may even violate the laws and rules as the person becomes attached to his own
principles of justice.
Segment 2. Abnormal Behavior
What is Abnormal Behavior?
Abnormal Behavior is something deviating from the normal or differing from the typical, is a
subjectively defined behavioural characteristics, assigned to those with rare or dysfunctional
conditions. It may be abnormal when it is unusual, socially unacceptable, self-defeating, dangerous or
suggestive of faulty interpretation of reality or of personal distress.
Abnormal Behavior is a behaviour that is deviant maladaptive, or personally distressful over a

long period of time.
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The American Psychiatric Association defines abnormal behaviour in medical terms as a

mental illness that affects or its manifested in a person’s brain and can affect the way a person thinks,
behaves, and interacts with people.
What is Psychopathology?
Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders, including efforts to understand

their genetic, biological, psychological and social causes; effective classification schemes (nosology);
course across all stages of development; manifestations; and treatment. It is also defined as the
origin of mental disorder, how they develop and the symptoms they might produce in a person.
The 4 Ds
A description of the four Ds when defining abnormality:
1. Deviance- This term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviors and emotions are
considered deviant when they are unacceptable or not common in society. Clinicians must, however,
remember that minority groups are not always deemed deviant just because they may not have
anything in common with other groups. Therefore, we define an individual’s actions as deviant or
abnormal when his or her behaviour is deemed unacceptable by the culture he or she belongs to.
2. Distress- This term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the disorder. He or
she may feel deeply troubled and affected by their illness.
3. Dysfunction- This term involves maladaptive behaviour that impairs the individual’s ability
to perform normal daily functions, such as getting ready to work in the morning, or driving a car. Such
maladaptive behaviors prevent the individual from living a normal, healthy lifestyle. However,
dysfunctional behaviour is not always caused by a disorder; it may be voluntary, such as engaging in
a hunger strike.
4. Danger- This term involves dangerous or violent behaviour directed at the individual, or
others in the environment. An example of dangerous behaviour that may suggest a psychological
disorder is engaging in suicide activity.
Model of Abnormality
1. Behavioral
Behaviorists believe that our actions are determined largely by the experiences we have in life,
rather than by underlying pathology of unconscious forces. Abnormality is therefore seen as the
development of behaviour patterns that are considered maladaptive for the individual. Behaviourism
states that all behaviour and that all behaviour that has been learnt can also be unlearnt (which id
how abnormal behavior is treated). The emphasis of the behavioural approach is on the environment
and how abnormal behaviour is acquired, through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and
social learning.
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Classical conditioning has been said to account for the development of phobias. The feared
object (e.g. spider or rat) is associated with a fear or anxiety sometime in the past. The conditioned
stimulus subsequently evokes a powerful fear response characterized by avoidance of the feared
object and emotion of fear whenever the object is encountered. Learning environments can reinforce
(re: operant conditioning) problematic behaviours. E.g. an individual may be rewarded for being
having panic attacks by receiving attention from family and friends, this would lead to the behaviour
being reinforced and increasing in later life. Our society can also provide deviant maladaptive models
that children identify with and imitate (re: social learning theory).
2. Cognitive
The cognitive approach assumes that a person’s thoughts are responsible for their behaviour.
The model deals with how information is processed in the brain and the impact of this on behaviour.
The basic assumptions are:
a. Maladaptive behaviour is caused by faulty and irrational cognitions.

b. It is the way you think about the problem, rather than the problem itself that causes mental
disorders.
c. Individuals can overcome mental disorders by learning to use more appropriate cognitions.
d. The individuals is an active processor of information. How a person, perceives, anticipates and
evaluates events rather than events themselves, which will have an impact on behaviour. This is
generally believed to be an automatic process, in other words we do not really think about it.
In people with psychological problems these thought processes tend to be negative and the
cognitions (i.e. attributions, cognitive errors) made will be inaccurate: These cognitions cause
distortions in the way we see things; Ellis suggested it is through irrational thinking, while Beck
proposed the cognitive triad.
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3. Medical/Biological
The medical model of psychopathology believes that disorders have an organic or physical
cause. The focus of this approach is on genetics, neurotransmitters, neurophysiology, neuroanatomy,
biochemistry etc. For example, in terms of biochemistry the dopamine hypothesis argues that
elevated levels of dopamine are related to symptoms of schizophrenia. The approach argues that
mental disorders are related to the physical structure and functioning of the brain. For example,
differences in brain structure (abnormalities in the frontal and pre-frontal cortex, enlarged ventricles)
have been identified in people with schizophrenia.
4. Psychodynamic
The main assumptions include Freud’s belief that abnormality came from the psychological
causes rather than the physical causes that unresolved conflicts between the id, ego, and superego
can all contribute to abnormality, for example:
a. Weak ego- Well-adjusted people have a strong ego that is able to cope with the demands of
both the id and the superego by allowing each to express itself at appropriate times. If, however, the
ego is weakened, then either the id or the superego, whichever is stronger, may dominate the
personality.
b. Unchecked Id Impulses- If Id impulses are unchecked they may be expressed in self-

destructive and immoral behaviour. This may lead to disorders such as conduct disorders in
childhood and psychopathic (dangerously abnormal) behaviour in adulthood.
c. Too Powerful Superego- A superego that is too powerful, and therefore too harsh and
inflexible in its moral values, will restrict the id to such an extent that the person will be deprived of
even socially acceptable pleasures. According to Freud this would create neurosis, which could be
expressed in the symptoms of anxiety disorders, such as phobias and obsessions.
Freud also believed that early childhood experiences and unconscious motivation were responsible
for disorders.
Identification of Abnormal Behavior
Abnormal Behavior could be recognized through any of the following:
1. Deviation from Statistical Norm
The word abnormal means ‘away from the norm’. Many population facts are measured such
as height, weight and intelligence. Most of the people fall within the middle range of intelligence, but a
few abnormally stupid. But according to this definition, a person who is extremely intelligent should be
classified as abnormal. Examples are:
a. Intelligence- It is statistically abnormal for a person to get a score about 145 on in IQ test or
to get a score below 55, but only the lowest score is considered abnormal.
b. Anxiety- A person who is anxious all the time or has a high level of anxiety and someone
who almost never feels anxiety are all considered to be abnormal.
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2. Deviation from Social Norm
Every culture has certain standards for acceptable behaviour; behaviour that deviates from
that standard is considered to be abnormal behaviour. But those standards can change with time and
vary from one society to another.
3. Deviation from Social Norm
This third criterion is how the behaviour affects the well-being of the individual and/or social
group. A man who attempts suicide or a paranoid individual who tries to assassinate national leaders
are illustrations under this criterion. The two aspects of maladaptive behaviour are:
a. Maladaptive to One’s self- It refers to the inability of a person to reach goals or to adapt
the demands of life.
b. Maladaptive to Society- It refers to a person’s obstruction or disruption to social group

functioning.
4. Personal Distress
The fourth criterion considers abnormality in terms of the individual’s subjective feelings,
personal distress rather than his behaviour. Most people commonly diagnosed as “mentally ill” feel
miserable, anxious, depressed and may suffer from insomnia.
5. Failure to Function Adequately
Under this definition, a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the
demands of everyday life. They may be unable to perform the behaviors necessary for day to day
living e.g. self-care, hold down a job, interact meaningfully with others, make themselves understood
etc.
The following characteristics that define failure to function adequately:
a. suffering
b. maladaptiveness (danger to self)
c. vividness and unconventionally (stands out)
d. unpredictably and loss control
e. irrationality/incomprehensibility
f. causes observer discomfort and
g. violates moral/social standards
6. Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

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Under this definition, rather than defining what is abnormal, we define what normal/ideal is and
anything that deviates from this is regarded as abnormal. This requires us to decide on the
characteristics we consider necessary to mental health. The six criteria by which mental health could
be measured are as follows:
a. positive view of the self

b. capability for growth and development
c. autonomy and independence
d. accurate perception of reality
e. positive friendships and relationship and
f. environmental mastery (able to meet the varying demands of day to day situations).
According to this approach, the more of these criteria are satisfied, the healthier the individual
is.
Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior
1. Long Periods of Discomfort- This could be anything as simple as worrying about a calculus test
or grieving the death of a loved one. This distress is related to a real, related, or threatened event and
passes with time. When such distressing feelings, however, persist for an extended period of time
and seem to be unrelated to events surrounding the person, they would be considered abnormal and
could suggest a psychological disorder.
2. Impaired Functioning- Here, a distinction must be made between simply a passing period of
inefficiency and prolonged inefficiency which seems unexplainable. For instance, a very brilliant
person consistently fails in his classes or someone who constantly changes his jobs for no apparent
reason.
3. Bizarre Behavior- that has no rational basis seems to indicate that the individual is confused. The
psychoses frequently result in hallucinations (baseless sensory perceptions) or delusions (beliefs
which are patently false yet held as true by the individual).
4. Disruptive Behavior- means impulsive, apparently uncontrollable behaviour that disrupt the lives
of others or deprives them of their human rights on a regular basis. This type of behaviour is
characteristic of a severe psychological disorder. An example of this is the antisocial personality
disorder.
Segment 3. Mental Disorder
What is a Mental Disorder?
Mental Disorder refers to the significant impairment in psychological functioning.

A mental disorder, also called a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioural or mental
pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning.
According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-IV, a mental

disorder is a psychological syndrome or pattern which is associated with distress (e.g. via a painful
symptom), disability (impairment in one or more important areas of functioning), increased risk of
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death, or causes a significant loss of autonomy; however it excludes normal responses such as grief
from loss of a loved one, and also excludes deviant behaviour for political, religious, or societal
reasons not arising from a dysfunction in the individual.
In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) redefined mental disorders in the DSM-5
as “a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion
regulation, or behaviour that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological or developmental
processes underlying mental functioning.
What is Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders?
It is better known as the DSM-IV; the manual is published by the American Psychiatric
Association and covers all mental health disorders for both children and adults. It also known causes
of these orders, statistics in terms of gender, age at onset, and prognosis as well as some research
concerning the optimal treatment approaches. Mental Health Professionals use this manual when
working with patients in order to better understand their illness and potential treatment and to help 3 rd
party payers (e.g. insurance) understand the needs of the patient. The book is typically considered
the ‘bible’ for any professional who makes psychiatric diagnoses in the United States and many other
countries. Much of the diagnostic information on these pages is gathered from the DSM-IV.
What is American Psychiatric Association (APA)?
APA is a medical specialty society with over 35,000 US and international member physicians
who “work together to ensure humane care and effective treatment for all persons with mental
disorder; including mental retardation and substance-related disorders. It is the voice and conscience
of modern psychiatry. Its vision is a society that has available, accessible quality psychiatric diagnosis
and treatment”. APA is the oldest national medical specialty society in the US.
Relationship between Mental Disorder and Crime
The relationship between mental disorder and crime is an issue of significant empirical
complexity. It has been subject of extensive research, using both cross-sectional and longitudinal
designs and including samples of the general population, birth cohorts, psychiatric patients, and
incarcerated offenders. Nevertheless, findings have been equivocal.
On the one hand, the following are several results of studies that have found a relationship
between mental disorder and crime:
1. The risk of criminal behaviour was significantly higher among subjects with mental disorders,
regardless of the socioeconomic status of the childhood family. In particular, the higher risk for violent
behaviour was associated with alcohol-induced psychoses and with schizophrenia with coexisting
substance abuse.
2. A review on the five epidemiological investigations of post-second World War birth cohorts, came
to the conclusion that persons who develop major mental disorders are at increased risks across the
lifespan of committing crimes. However, this increased risk may be limited to generations of persons
with major mental disorders born in the late 1940s, 1950s and 1960s,as they do not have received
appropriate mental health care.
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3. After examining data from national hospital and crime registers in Sweden, researchers found that
the overall population attributable risk fraction of patients was 5%, indicating that patients with severe
mental disorder commit one in 20 violent crimes.
4. A comparison on Swiss in-patients with the general population and came to the conclusion that
patients were more frequently registered in all crime categories, although there were differences
between the diagnostic groups; while alcoholics and drug users of both sexes had a significantly
higher criminality rate was found among female, but not male, patients suffering from schizophrenia
or related disorders.
5. Finally, homicidal behaviour appears to have a statistical association with schizophrenia and
antisocial personality disorder.
On the other hand, there are also studies that discard any relationship between mental
disorder and crime. They are as follows:
1. In a study which examined the ability of personal demographic, criminal history, and clinical
variables to predict recidivism in mentally disordered offenders in the United Kingdom, researchers
found that reconviction in mentally disordered offenders can be predicted using the same
criminogenic variables that are predictive in offenders without mental disorders.
2. Researchers analysed the relationship between violence and substance abuse among patients
with chronic mental disorder and found that major mental disorder alone with no history of alcohol or
drug abuse associated with a considerably lower risk of violence. Overall, the study showed no
difference in the rate of violence between patients with major mental disorder and patients with other
diagnoses.
3. Other studies suggest that the diagnosis of schizophrenia and delusional disorder, contrary to
previous empirical findings, do not predict higher rates of violence among recently discharged
psychiatric patients.
4. Along the same lines, researchers found that the crime rate among male schizophrenia patients
was almost the same as that in the general male population. However, the crime rate among females
was twice that of the general female population, so the overall results of the study were mixed.
What is Mental Retardation (MR)?
MR is a condition of limited ability in which an individual has a low Intelligence Quotient (IQ),
usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life; he/she
first exhibited these characteristics during the so called developmental period- by age 18.
MR is a developmental disability that first appears in children under the age of 18. It is defined
as a level of intellectual functioning (as measured by standard intelligence tests) that is well below
average and results in significant limitations in the person’s daily living skills needed for daily life.
Such skills are a term that refers to and understand language (communication); home-living skills;
use of community resources; health, safety, leisure, self-care, and social skills; self-direction;
functional academic skills (reading, writing and arithmetic); and job related skills.
Four Different Levels of Mental Retardation

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1. Mild Mental Retardation- Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly
retarded category. Their IQ score ranges from 50-70, and they can often acquire academic skills up
to about the sixth-grade level. They can become fairly self-sufficient and, in some cases, live
independently, with community and social support.
2. Moderate Mental Retardation- About 10% of the mentally retarded. Moderately retarded persons
have IQ scores ranging from 35-55. They can carry out work and self-care tasks with moderate
supervision. They typically acquire communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function
successfully within the community in such supervised environments as group homes.
3. Severe Mental Retardation- About 3-4% of the mentally retarded population is severely retarded.
Severely retarded persons have 20-40%. They may master very basic self-care skills and some
communication skills. Many severely retarded individuals are able to live in a group home.
4. Profound Mental Retardation- Only 1-2% of the mentally retarded population is classified as
profoundly retarded. Profoundly retarded individuals have IQ scores under 20-25. They may be able
to develop basic self-care and communication skills with appropriate support and training. Their
retardation is often caused by an accompanying neurological disorder. Profoundly retarded people
need a high level of structure and supervision.
Causes and Symptoms of Mental Retardation
Low IQ scores and limitations in adaptive skills are the hallmarks of mental retardation.
Aggression, self-injury and mood disorders are sometimes associated with the disability. The severity
of the symptoms and the age at which they are first appear depend on the cause. Children who are
mentally retarded reach developmental milestones significantly later than expected, if at all. If
retardation is caused by chromosomal or other genetic disorders, it is often apparent from infancy. If
retardation is caused by childhood illnesses or injuries, learning and adaptive skills that were once
easy may suddenly become difficult or impossible to master. In about 40% of cases, the cause of
mental retardation cannot be found.
Biological and environmental factors that can cause mental retardation include:
1. Genetic Factors
About 30% of cases of mental retardation is caused by hereditary factors. Mental retardation
may be caused by an inherited genetic abnormality, such as fragile X syndrome.
What is Fragile X Syndrome?
It is a defect in the chromosome that determine sex, is the most common inherited cause of
mental retardation. Single-gene defects such as phenylketonuria (PKU) and other inborn errors of
metabolism may also cause mental retardation if they are not discovered and treated early. An
accident or mutation in genetic development may also cause retardation. Examples of such accidents
are development of an extra chromosome 18 (trisomy 18) and Down syndrome. Down syndrome,
also called mongolism or trisomy 21, is caused by an abnormality in the development of chromosome
21. It is the most common genetic cause of mental retardation.
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2. Prenatal Illnesses and Issues
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) affects one in 3,000 children in Western countries. It is caused
by the mother’s heavy drinking during first twelve weeks (trimester) of pregnancy. Some studies have
shown that even moderate alcohol use during pregnancy may cause learning disabilities in children.
Drug abuse and cigarette smoking during pregnancy have also been linked to mental retardation.
Maternal infections and such illnesses as glandular disorders, rubella, toxoplasmosis, and
cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection may cause mental retardation. When the mother has high blood
pressure (hypertension) or blood poisoning (toxemia), the flow of oxygen to the fetus may be
reduced, causing brain damage and mental retardation.
Birth defects that cause physical deformities of the head, brain, and central nervous system
frequently cause mental retardation. Neural tube defect, for example, is a birth defect in which the
neutral tube that forms the spinal cord does not close accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid inside the
skull (hydrocephalus). Hydrocephalus can cause learning impairment by putting pressure on the
brain.
3. Childhood Illnesses and Injuries
Hyperthyroidism, whooping cough, chickenpox, measles, and Hib disease (a bacterial

infection) may cause mental retardation if they are not treated adequately. An infection of the
membrane covering the brain (meningitis) or an inflammation of the brain itself (encephalitis) can
cause swelling that in turn may cause brain damage and mental retardation. Traumatic brain injury
caused by blow to the head or by violent shaking of the upper may also cause brain damage and
mental retardation in children.
4. Environmental Factors
Ignored or neglected infants who are not provided with the mental and physical stimulation
required for normal development may suffer irreversible learning impairment. Children who live in
poverty and suffer from malnutrition, unhealthy living conditions, abuse, and improper or inadequate
medical care are at higher risk. Exposure to lead or mercury can also cause mental retardation. Many
children have developed lead poisoning from eating the flaking lead based paint often found in older
buildings.
Intelligence Tests to Measure Abilities and Intellectual Functioning
1. Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale

2. Wechsler Intelligence Scales
3. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
4. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Chidlren
Prevention of Mental Retardation
Immunization against diseases such as measles and Hib prevent many of the illness that can
cause mental retardation. In addition, all children should undergo routine developmental screening as
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part of their pediatric care. Screening is particularly critical for those children who may be neglected
or undernourished or may live in disease producing conditions. New born screening and immediate
treatment for PKU and hyperthyroidism can usually catch these disorders early enough to prevent
retardation.
Good prenatal care can also help prevent retardation. Pregnant women should be educated
about the risks of alcohol consumption and the need to maintain good nutrition during pregnancy.
Such tests as amniocentesis and ultrasonography can determine whether a fetus is developing
normally in the womb.
Segment 4. Criminal Behavior and Intelligence
What is Criminal Behavior?
Criminal Behavior refers to a behaviour which is criminal in nature; a behavior which violates
the law. Thus, the moment a person violates the law, he has already committed criminal behaviour.
Criminal Behavior refers to conduct of an offender that leads to an including the commission of an
unlawful act.
According to Goldoozian for human behaviour to be considered a crime, three elements are
necessary:
1. Legally, the criminal act should be prohibited by law

2. Materially, the criminal act should be executed or realized
3. Spiritually, the criminal act should be accompanied by criminal intention or guilt. These three
elements must be present for an act to be labelled as a crime.
Origins of Criminal Behavior
1. Biological Factor
Heredity as a factor implies that criminal acts are unavoidable, inevitable consequences of the
bad seed or bad blood. It emphasizes genetic predisposition toward antisocial and criminal conduct.
The following are some studies and theories related to biological causes of crime:
a. Born Criminals (Cesare Lombroso)

b. Physique and Somatotype (Ernst Kretschmer & William Sheldon)
c. Juke and Kallikak (Richard Dugdale & Henry Goddard)
2. Personal Disorder Factor
Personal Disorder Factor refers to an act that exhibits a pervasive pattern of disregard for and
violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into
adulthood such as Anti-Social Personality Disorder (Psychoanalytic Theory- Sigmund Freud)
3. Learning Factor
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Learning Factor explains that criminal behaviour is learned primarily by observing or listening
to people around us. The following are related learning theories, to wit:
a. Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland)

b. Imitation Theory (Gabriel Tarde)
c. Identification Theory (Daniel Classer)
4. Biological Approach
Biological Approach points to inherited predispositions and physiological processes to explain

individual differences in personality. It is a perspective that emphasizes the role of biological
processes and heredity as the key to understanding behaviour.
5. Humanistic Approach
Humanistic Approach identifies personal responsibility and feelings of self-acceptance as the

key causes of differences in personality. This perspective focuses on how humans have evolved and
adapted behaviour required for survival against various environmental pressures over the long course
of evolution.
6. Behavioral/Social Learning Approach
Behavioral/Social Learning Approach explains consistent behaviour patterns as the result of

conditioning and expectations. This emphasizes the role of environment in shaping behaviour.
What is Behavioral Personality Theory? – It is a model of personality that emphasizes

learning and observable behaviour.
What is Behavioral Personality Theory? - It is an explanation of personality that combines

learning principles, cognition, and the effect of social relationships.
What is Social Learning Theory? - It is an explanation of personality that combines learning

principles, cognition, and the effects of social relationships.
What is Self-reinforcement? - This is the praising or rewarding oneself for having made a
particular response.
What is Identification? – It is a feeling from which one is emotionally connected to a person

and a way of seeing oneself as himself or herself. The child admires adults who love and care for
him/her and this encourages imitation.
7. Cognitive Approach
Cognitive Approach looks at differences in the way people process information to explain
differences in behaviour. This perspective emphasizes the role of mental processes that underlie
behaviour.
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Intelligence and Criminality
What is Human Intelligence?
Human intelligence generally points to at least three characteristics. First, intelligence is best
understood as a compilation of brain-based cognitive abilities. According to 52 eminent intelligence
researchers, intelligence reflects “a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves
the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly
and learn from experience.
The earliest casual explanation, popular during the early 1900s, portrayed criminals as so
“feebleminded” and “mentally deficient” that they could neither distinguish right from wrong nor
resist criminal impulses. This feeblemindedness hypothesis, however, lost favour long ago as it
became clear that few criminals are actually mentally deficient and most recognize, though may not
follow, behavioural norms. A more recent, and more compelling, casual explanation emphasizes the
importance of intelligence especially intelligence during childhood socialization. The socialization of
children involves constant verbal communication and comprehension of abstract symbols; therefore;
children with poor verbal and cognitive skills have greater difficulty completing the socialization
process, which puts them at risk of under controlled, antisocial behaviour. Empirical studies overall
have supported this developmental hypothesis, and it fits with the especially strong correlation
between verbal IQ and crime.
A final causal explanation links IQ to crime through school performance. Less intelligent
students do less well in school, which results in academic frustration. This frustration, in turn,
weakens their attachment and commitment to schooling, and a weakened bond to school as per
social control theory, allows for more criminal behaviour. This school performance hypothesis has
received strong support from empirical studies, and it is probably the most widely accepted
explanation of the IQ crime correlation.
Criminal Law and Intelligence
What is the McNaughton (M’Naghten) Rule?
26
In 1724 an English court maintained that a man was not responsible for an act if “he does not
know what he is doing, no more a wild beast”. Modern standards of legal responsibility, however,
have been based on the McNaughten decision of 1843.
The formal insanity defense has its beginnings in 1843, when Daniel McNaughton tried to kill
Robert Peel, the british prime minister (he shot and killed his secretary instead). At his trial,
McNaughten testified that he believed that the British government was plotting against him, and he
was acquitted of murder. The McNaughton Rule requires that a criminal defendant (a) not know
what he was doing at the time or (b) not know that his actions were wrong (because of his delusional
belief, McNaughton thought he was defending himself).
The rule created a presumption of sanity, unless the defense proved “at the time of committing
the act, the accused was labouring under such as defect of reason, from disease of the mind, as not
to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing was wrong”. This rule was adopted in the U.S.,
and the distinction of knowing right from wrong remained the basis for most decisions of legal
insanity.
What is the Durham Rule?
The Durham rules states that, “an accused is not criminally responsible if his unlawful act
is the product of mental disease or mental defect”. Some states added to their statutes this
doctrine which is also known as “irresistible impulse” recognizing some ill individuals may respond
correctly but may be unable to control their behaviour.
In the United States, the next advance in the insanity defense was The Durham Rule or
“product test” adopted in 1954, which states that “an accused is not criminally responsible if his
unlawful act was the product of mental disease or defect”. This “product test” was overturned in 1972,
largely because its ambiguous reference to “mental disease or defect” places undue emphasis on
subjective judgements by psychiatrists, and can easily lead to a “battle of the experts”.
Many states now adopt a version of guidelines set out by the American Law Institute in 1962,
which allows the insanity defense if, by virtue of mental illness, the defendant (a) lacks the ability to
understand the meaning of their act or (b) cannot control their impulses. This is sometimes known as
the “irresistible impulse test”.
What is ALI “Substantial Capacity” Test?
The Test was integrated by the American Law Institute (ALI) in its Model Penal Code Test,
which improved in the M’Naghten and irresistible impulse test. The new rule stated that a person is
not responsible for his criminal act if, as a result of the mental disease or defect, he lacks substantial
capacity to appreciate the criminality of his act, or to conform his conduct to the requirements of the
law. Still, this test has been criticized for its use of ambiguous word like “substantial capacity” and
“appreciate” as there would be differences in expert testimonies whether the accused’s degree of
awareness was sufficient. Objections were also made to the exclusion of psychopaths or persons
whose abnormalities are manifested only by repeated criminal conduct. Critics observed that
psychopaths cannot be deterred and thus underserving of punishment.
In 1984, however, the U.S. Congress repudiated this test in favour of the M’naghten style
statutory formulation. It enacted the Comprehensive Crime Control Act which made the appreciation
27
test the law applicable in all federal courts. The test is similar to M’Naghten as it relies on the
cognitive test. The accused is not required to prove lack of control as in the ALI test. The appreciation
test shifted the burden of proof to the defense, limited the scope of expert testimony, eliminated the
defense of diminished capacity and provided for commitment of accused found to be insane.
Insanity and Criminal Law in the Philippines
In the Philippines, the courts have established a more stringent criterion for insanity to be
exempting as it is required that there must be a complete deprivation of intelligence in committing the
act, i.e. the accused is deprived of reason; he acted without the least discernment because there is a
complete absence of the power to discern, or that there is a total deprivation of the will. Mere
abnormality of the mental faculties will not exclude imputability.
The issue of insanity is a question of fact for insanity is a condition of the mind, not susceptible
of the usual means of proof. As no man can know what is going on in the mind of another, the state or
condition of a person’s mind can only be measured and judged by his behaviour. Establishing the
insanity of an accused requires opinion testimony which may be given by a witness who has rational
basis to conclude that the accused, or by a witness who is qualified as an expert, such as
psychiatrist. The testimony or proof of the accused’s insanity must relate to the time preceding or
coetaneous with the commission of the offense with which he is charged.
The Revised Penal Code
Article 12 of the Code exempts a person from criminal liability in consideration of intelligence.
Paragraph 1: Any person who has committed a crime while the said person was imbecile or insane
during the commission.
When the imbecile or an insane person has committed an act which the law defines as a
felony (delito), the court shall order his confinement in one of the hospitals or asylums established for
persons thus afflicted, which he shall not be permitted to leave without first obtaining the permission
of the same court.
Suggested Readings:
1. People of the Philippines vs. Tibon, G.R. No. 188320, June 29, 2010
2. People of the Philippines vs. Roger Austria Y Navarro (alias Bernie), G.R. No. 111517-19,
July 31, 1996
3. People of the Philippines vs. Fernando Madarang Y Magno, G.R. No. 132319. May 12,
2000.
4. People of the Philippines vs. Celestino Bonoan Y Cruz, G.R. No. L-45130. February 17,
1937.
Paragraph 2: Any person over nine years of age and under fifteen, unless he has acted with
discernment, in which case such minor shall be proceeded against in accordance with the provisions
of Art. 80 of this Code (Revised Penal Code).
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Paragraph 3: Any person having an age of 9 years old and below.
Suggested Reading:
1. People of the Philippines vs. Morales, G.R. No. 148518, April 15, 2004.
Note: In connection to paragraph 2 and 3, Repubilic Act 9344 otherwise known as Juvenile and
Welfare Act of 2006, as amended by Republic Act 10630, raised the criminal exemption from 9 to
15 years old. In addition, a person of this age is totally exempted, whether he/she acted with or
without discernment during the commission of crime.
Why raise the age of criminal exemption from 9-15 years old?
Fifteen (15) years old is within the stage of adolescence the transition age which is
characterized by curiosity, try-outs and identity crisis. These circumstances expose them risky and
delinquent behaviour. At this age, children are not yet emotionally stable and their social judgement
has not yet matured.
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CHAPTER II
HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND

COPING/DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Segment 1. Emotion
Emotions refers to feelings affective responses as a result of physiological arousal, thoughts

and beliefs, subjective evaluation and bodily expression. It is a state characterized by facial
expressions, gestures, postures and subjective feelings.
Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality, and disposition. The English word
emotion is derived from the French word ėmouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e-
(variant of ex-) means ‘out’ and movere means move. The related term motivation is also derived
from movere.
Theories of Emotion
1. James-Lange Theory by William James and Carl Lange
James-Lange theory states that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli
in the environment: emotion occurs after physiological reactions. This theory and its derivatives states
that a changed situation leads to a changed bodily state. As James says “the perception of bodily
changes as they occur is the emotion”.
James further claims that “we feel sad because we cry; angry because we strike, nor tremble,
and neither have we cried, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case
may be”. The James Lange theory has now been all but abandoned by most scholars.
2. Cannon-Bard Theory by Philip Bard and Walter Cannon
This suggests that people feel emotions first and then act upon them. This is a theory that
emotion and physiological reactions occurs simultaneously. These actions include changes in
muscular tension, perspiration, etc. The theory was formulated following the introduction of the
James-Lange theory of Emotion in the late 1800s, which alternately suggested that emotion is the
result of one’s perception of their reaction, or “bodily change”.
Example: I see a man outside my window. I am afraid. I begin to perspire.
The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion is based on the premise that one reacts to a specific
stimulus and experiences the corresponding emotion simultaneously. Cannon and Bard posited that
one is able to react to a stimulus only after experiencing the related emotion and experience.
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3. Two Factor Theory
This theory was provided by Schachter & Singer, in which they posited that emotion is the
cognitive interpretation of a physiological response. For many, this remains the best formulation of
emotion. Most people consider this to be the “common sense” theory to explain physiological
changes; their physiology changes as a result of their emotion.
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What is Emotional Intelligence (EI)?
EI is the area of cognitive ability that facilitates interpersonal behaviour. The term emotional
intelligence was popularized in 1995 by psychologist and behavioural science journalist Dr. Daniel
Goleman in his book, Emotional Intelligence. Dr. Goleman described emotional intelligence as a
person’s ability to manage his feelings so that those feelings are expressed appropriately and
effectively.
EI is the capacity to understand and manage emotion; however, the content and boundaries of
this construct remain unsettled.
Mayer and Salovey, the who originally used the term, defined EI as, The ability to perceive
emotion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions, and to regulate emotions to
promote personal growth.
Five Components of Emotional Intelligence by Goleman
1. Self-Awareness- A person has a healthy sense of emotional intelligence self-awareness if they

understand their own strengths and weaknesses, as well as how their actions affect others. A person
with emotional self-awareness is usually receptive to, and able to learn from, constructive criticism
more than one who doesn’t have emotional self-awareness.
2. Self-Regulation- A person with a high emotional intelligence has the ability to exercise restraint
and control when expressing their emotions.
3. Motivation- People with high emotional intelligence are self-motivated, resilient and driven by an
inner ambition rather than being influenced by outside forces, such as money or prestige.
4. Empathy- An empathy person has compassion and is able to connect with other people on an
emotional level, helping them respond genuinely to other people’s concerns.
5. Social Skills- People who are emotionally intelligent are able to build trust with other people, and
are able to quickly gain respect from the people they meet.
Emotional Intelligence and Criminal Behavior (Research-Based)
1. The group of convicted offenders obtained significantly lower scores on all the domains of MEII
(Mangal Emotional Intelligence Inventory) such as intrapersonal awareness (own emotions),
interpersonal awareness (others emotions), intrapersonal management (own emotions) and
interpersonal management (others emotions), and aggregate emotional quotient in comparison to
their normal counterparts. Researchers concluded that, the convicted offender’s group had
32
significantly lower EI compared to normal subjects. Starting EI enhancement program in prison can
help the inmates better understand their feelings and emotions.
2. Emotional intelligence is deeply related to aggression and offending.
3. Persons with high EI levels are more able to moderate their emotions and less impulsive. On the
other hand, individuals with low EI levels are more prone to risky behaviour. They also have a hard
time understanding situations from the perspectives of others and, therefore, tend to be less
empathetic.
4. A reduced capacity to regulate emotions could possibly maintain offending pattern of behaviour in
criminals. For example, internet child sexual abuse is often preceded by unregulated negative
feelings.
5. A reduced capacity to regulate anger, desire, and sexual arousal may result in an assault, theft,
and sexual assault, respectively.
6. Some recent studies, consistently report EI deficits in criminals. In addition, some studies indicate
that offenders are deficient in subcomponents of EI such as social problem-solving, empathy, social
competency, flexibility, impulse control, and self-regard.
Segment 2. Conflict
Conflict is a stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between
incompatible or contradictory alternatives. It is a negative emotional state caused by an inability to
choose between two or more incompatible goals or impulse. Conflict is the state in which two or more
motives cannot be satisfied because they interfere with one another.
Types of Conflict
1. Psychological Conflict (Internal Conflict)

Psychological conflict could be going on inside the person and no one would know
(instinct may be at odds with values). Freud would say unconsciousness id battling superego and
further claimed that our personalities are always in conflict.
2. Social Conflict
The different kinds of social conflict are:
a. Interpersonal Conflict;
b. Two individuals me against you;
c. Inter-group Struggles- us against them;
d. Individual Opposing a Group- me against them, them against me;
e. Intra-group Conflict- members of group all against each other on a task.
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3. Approach-Avoidance
Conflict can be described as having features of approach and avoidance: approach-
approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance. Approach speaks to things that we
want while Avoidance refers to things that we do not want.
Kinds of Approach-Avoidance
a. Approach-Approach Conflict- In Approach-Approach Conflict, the individual must choose

between two positive goals of approximately equal value. In this, two pleasing things are wanted but
not only one option should be chosen.
Examples: Choice between two colleges, two roommates, or two ways of spending the summer.
b. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict- Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict involves more obvious sources of

stress. The individual must choose between two or more negative outcomes.
Example: Study or do the dishes. I don’t want this and I don’t want that. A woman with an unwanted
pregnancy may be morally opposed by abortion.
c. Approach-Avoidance Conflict- Approach-Avoidance Conflict exists when there is an attractive

and unattractive part to both sides. It arises when obtaining a positive goal necessitates a negative
outcome as well.
Examples: Gina is beautiful but she is lazy. “I want this but I don’t want this entails”.
Another is the dilemma of the student who is offered a stolen copy of an important final exam.
Cheating will bring guilt and reduced self-esteem, but also as good grade.
d. Multiple-Approach-Avoidance Conflict- This refers to conflict with complex combinations of

approach and avoidance conflicts. It requires individual to choose between alternatives that contain
both positive and negative consequences.
Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict
a. Dysfunctional Conflict- There is dysfunctional conflict, if conflict disrupts, hinders job

performance, and upsets personal psychological functioning.
b. Functional Conflict- There is functional conflict if conflict is responsive and innovative
aiding in creativity and viability.
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Crime and Conflict
Criminal behaviour as an indicator of conflict within the person, emphasizing either:

a. failure to resolve tensions generated in the course of interaction between the organism and
human figures in its environment.
b. tensions generated by person’s inability to satisfy the contradictory expectations of others, or
else to mobilize the resources needed to perform a role assigned to him.
Segement 3. Depression
Depression is an illness that causes a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the time. It
is different from normal feelings of sadness, grief, or low energy. Anyone can have depression. It
often runs in families. But it can also happen to someone who doesn’t have a family history of
depression. You can have depression one time or many times.
Causes of Depression
a. Major events that create stress, such as childbirth or a death in the family.
b. Illnesses, such as arthritis, heart disease, or cancer.
c. Certain medicines, such as steroids or narcotics for pain relief.
d. Drinking alcohol or using illegal drugs.
Symptoms of Depression
a. Think and speak more slowly than normal.

b. Have trouble concentrating, remembering, and making decisions.
c. Have changes in their eating and sleeping habits.
d. Lose interest in things they enjoyed before they were depressed.
e. Have feelings of guilt and hopelessness, wondering if life is worth living.
f. Think a lot about death or suicide.
g. Complain about problems that don’t have physical cause, such as headache and
stomachache.
Different Forms of Depression
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1. Major Depressive Disorder- This is also called major depression. It is characterized by a

combination of symptoms that interfere with a person’s ability to work, sleep, study, eat, and enjoy
once-pleasurable activities. Major depression is disabling and prevents a person from functioning
normally. An episode of major depression may occur only once in a person’s lifetime, but more often,
it recurs throughout in a person’s life.
2. Dysthymic Disorder (or also referred to as Dysthymia)- The symptoms do not occur for more than
two months at a time. Generally, this type of depression is described as having persistent but less
severe symptoms than Major Depression. Manifest nearly constant depressed mood for at least 2
years accompanied by at least two (or more) of the following:
a. Decrease or increase in eating;

b. Difficulty sleeping or increase in sleeping;
c. Low energy or fatigue;
d. Low self-esteem;
e. Difficulty concentrating or making decisions; and
f. Feeling hopeless.
3. Psychotic Depression- This occurs when a severe depressive illness is accompanied by some
form of psychosis, such as a break with reality, hallucinations and delusions.
4. Postpartum Depression- This is a major depressive episode that occurs after having a baby. A
new mother develops a major depressive episode within one month after delivery. It is estimated that
10 to 15 percent of women experience postpartum depression after giving birth. In rare cases, a
woman may have a severe form of depression called postpartum psychosis. She may act
strangely, see or hear things that aren’t there, and be a danger to herself and her baby.
5. Seasonal Affective Disoder (SAD)- This is characterized by the onset of a depressive illness
during the winter months, when there is less natural sunlight. The depression generally lifts during
spring and summer. SAD may be effectively treated with light therapy, but nearly half of those with
SAD do not respond to light therapy alone. Antidepressant medication and psychotherapy can reduce
SAD symptoms, either alone or in combination with light therapy.
6. Bipolar Disorder- This is also called manic-depressive illness, is not as common as major
depression or dysthymia. Bipolar disorder is characterized by cyclical mood changes from extreme
highs (e.g. mania) to extreme lows (e.g. depression).
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7. Endogenous Depression- Endogenous means from within the body. This type of depression is
defined as feeling depressed for no apparent reason.
8. Situational Depression or Reactive Depression- This is also known as Adjustment Disorder

with Depressed Mood. Depressive symptoms develop in response to a specific stressful situation or
event (e.g. job loss, relationship ending). These symptoms occur within 3 months of the stressor and
lasts no longer than 6 months after the stressor (or its consequences) has ended. Depression
symptoms cause significant distress or impairs usual functioning (e.g. relationships, work, school) and
do not meet the criteria for major depressive disorder.
9. Agitated Depression- This kind of major depressive disorder is characterized by agitation such as
physical and emotional restlessness, irritability and insomnia, which is the opposite of many
depressed individuals who have low energy and feel slowed down physically and mentally
inappropriate social behaviour.
How to Battle Depression?
a. Socializing- eating out, movies, ballgames with family or friends.

b. Helping others in need- volunteer work, feeding the homeless, etc.
c. Praying- work for all moods, especially depression.
Depression and Criminality
People with depression might be more likely to commit a violent crime that those without
depression, a new study suggests. Researchers analysed data from more than 47,000 people in
Sweden who were diagnosed with depression and followed for an average of three years. They were
compared to more than 898,000 gender and age matched people without depression.
People with depression were five to six times more likely than those in the general population to
harm others or themselves, according to the researchers at Oxford University in England.
One important findings was that the vast majority of depressed persons were not convicted of
violent crimes, and that the rates reported are below those for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder,
and considerably lower than for alcohol or drug abuse.
Specifically, almost 4% of depressed men and 0.5% of depressed woman committed a violent
crime after their depression diagnosis, compared with slightly more than 1% of men and 0.2 % of
women in the general population. “Quite understandably, there is considerable concern about self-
harm and suicide in depression”.
Segment 4. Stress
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Stress refers to the consequences of the failure of an organism human or animal to

respond appropriately to emotional or physical threats, whether actual or imagined. Stress is a form of
the Middle English destresse, derived via Old French from the Latin stringere, to draw tight. The
term stress was first employed in a biological context by the endocrinologist Hans Selye in the 1930s.
Stress can thought of as any event that strains or exceeds an individual’s ability to cope.
What is Stressor?
Stressor is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or positive).
For example, getting a promotion is a positive event, but may also produce a great deal of stress with
all the new responsibilities, work load, etc.
Two Types of Stress
1. Eustress (Positive)- Eustress is a word consisting of two parts. The prefix derives from the Greek
eu meaning either well or good. When attached to the word stress, it literally means good stress.
It is a stress that is healthy or gives one a feeling of fulfilment or other positive feelings.
Eustress is a process of exploring potential gains. A stress that enhances function (physical or mental
as through strength training or challenging work) is considered eustress. Examples of positive
personal stressors include:
a. receiving a promotion or raise at work,
b. starting a new job,
c. marriage,
d. buying a home,
e. having child,
f. moving,
g. taking a vacation,
h. holiday seasons,
i. retiring, and
j. taking educational classes or learning a new hobby.
2. Distress (Negative)- Distress is known as the negative stress. Persistent stress that is not
resolved through coping or adaption, deemed distress, may lead to anxiety or withdrawal
(depression) behaviour. Effects of distress are:
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a. ineffectiveness at tasks,
b. self-defeating behaviour,
c. transitional suicidal behaviour
d. anxiety and fear
e. loss of interest and initiative
f. poor decision-making
g. dangerous action
h. accidents, and
i. apathy and cynicism.
Examples of negative personal stressors include:

a. the death of a spouse,
b. filing for divorce
c. losing contact with loved ones,
d. the death of a family member
e. hospitalization (oneself or a family member)
f. injury or illness (oneself or a family member)
g. being abused or neglected
h. separation from a spouse or committed relationship
i. conflict in interpersonal relationship partner
j. bankruptcy/Money problems
k. unemployment
l. sleep problems
m. children’s problems at school, and
n. legal problems
Three Stages of Stress (General Arousal [adaptation] Syndrome/GAS)
1. Alarm- Alarm is the first stage. When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the
body’s response is a state of alarm. During the stage adrenaline will be produced in order to
bring about the fight-flight response.
2. Resistance- Resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to
attempt some means of coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try to adapt to the strains
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or demands of the environment, the body cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its resources are
gradually depleted.
3. Exhaustion- Exhaustion is the third and final stage in the GAS model. At this point, all of the
body’s resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain normal function. The
initial autonomic nervous system symptoms may reappear sweating, raised heart rate etc.
The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses such as ulcers, depression, diabetes, trouble with
the digestive system or even cardiovascular problems, along with either mental illnesses.
Types and Categories of Stress
1. Acute Stress- is what most people identify as stress. It makes itself felt through tension,
headaches, emotional upsets, gastrointestinal disturbances, feelings of agitation and pressure.
2. Episodic Acute- Stress is more serious and can lead to migraines, hypertension, stroke, heart
attack, anxiety, depression, and serious gastrointestinal distress.
3. Chronic Stress- is the most serious of all. It’s the stress that never ends. It grinds us down until
our resistance is gone. Serious systematic illness such as diabetes, decreased immune-competence,
perhaps cancer is it hallmark.
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4. Traumatic Stress- is the result of massive acute stress, the effects of which can reverberate
through our systems for years. Posttraumatic stress disorder is treatable and reversible and usually
requires professional aid.
The most common types of stress and anxiety problems are defined by the DSM1V-TR of the
American Psychiatric Association (APA).
A. Types of Short Term Stress
1. Acute Time- refers to limited stress that come on suddenly (acute) and are over relatively quickly.
Situations like public speaking and doing math in your head fall into this category. These things may
come on without warning but are short in duration.
2. Brief Naturalistic Stress- relatively short in duration. Think of a classroom test or a final exam.
These are stresses that rise out of other things (like a course of study) and are over quickly.
B. Types of Long Term Stress
1. Stressful Event Sequences- is a single event that starts from a chain of challenging situations.
From example, losing a job or surviving a natural disaster.
2. Chronic Stress- lacks a clear end point. Often, they force people to assume new roles or change
their self-perception. Think of a refugee leaving their native country or an injury leading to permanent
disability. These are life-changing events- you rarely get to go back to the way things were.
3. Distant Stress- may have been initiate in the past (like childhood abuse or trauma resulting from
combat experiences) but continue to affect the immune system. Distant stressors have long lasting
effects on emotional and mental health.
How does Stress Affect Human Behavior?

Stress can contribute to health problems such as headaches, high blood pressure, heart
problems, and skin conditions. Stress may also influence cognitive processes because it is
associated with elevated levels of cortisol, a hormone that can influence brain functioning.
Stress and Criminality

Criminal actors and victims experience various forms of stress related to criminal activity.
Stress and crime are interrelated in a linear fashion (e.g.,stress causes crime) and in reciprocal cycle
(e.g. victimization inducing stress). Strain theories posits the causal relationship of stress to crime,
and psychological conditions, such as, post-traumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder,
explain the experience of stress caused by criminal action. Using general strain theory to explain the
casual relationship, recent research explores the circumstances that cause stress and result in crime.
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Stress can Trigger Violent Crimes
A stressful life event like the death of a present can trigger individuals to commit violent
crimes, a new study has found. Researchers discovered that in the week after being exposed to
stress, people were more likely to go on to commit a violent crime themselves.
Stress Related Crimes
According to research, pervasive stress on a societal scale also correlates with higher
crime, including homicide, aggravated assault, rape, and robbery and contributes to the outbreak of
war, terrorism, and other social violence.
According to prevailing theories in the field of conflict management, the first stage in the
emergence of war is mounting stress, political, ethnic, and religious tensions. Such social stress, if
unchecked, erupts as violent conflict or war. When such societal tensions run deep, history confirms
that diplomatic efforts, negotiated settlements, and ceasefires produce fleeting results and provide no
stable basis for lasting peace.
Segment 5. Frustration
Frustration is a negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from reaching
a goal. Frustration is an unpleasant state of tension and heightened sympathetic activity, resulting
from a blocked goal. Frustration is associated with motivation since we won’t be frustrated if we were
not motivated to achieve the goal. Frustration may be external or personal.
What is External Frustration?

External frustration is a distress caused by the outwardly perceivable conditions that
impedes progress towards a goal.
What is Internal/Personal Frustration?

Personal frustration is a distress caused by the individual’s inner characteristics that
impedes progress toward a goal. The sources of frustration are as follows:
1. Physical Obstacles- such as drought, typhoons, flat tire, etc. that prevents a person from doing
his plans or fulfilling his wishes.
2. Social Circumstances- such as obstacles through the restrictions imposed by other people and
customs and laws of social being.
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3. Personal Shortcomings- such as handicapped by diseases, blindness, deafness or paralysis.

4. Conflicts between Motives- such as wanting to leave college for a year to try painting, but also
wanting to please one’s parents by remaining in school.
Is Anger a Source of Frustration?

There is a saying “Frustration” begets anger and anger begets aggression”. Direct anger
and aggression is expressed toward the object perceived as the cause of the frustration. If a machine
does not work, you might hit it or kick it. If someone gets in your way, you could verbally threaten
them or push them aside. If the source of the frustration is too powerful or threatening for direct
aggression, displaced aggression is often used. The aggression is redirected toward a less
threatening and more available object.
An angry person often acts without thinking. The person has given in to the frustration and
they have given up restraint. Anger can be a healthy response if it motivates us to positive action but
all too often the actions we engage in when angry are destructive.
Common Response to Frustration

1. Aggression- It refers to any response made with the intent of harming some person or objects.
The intentional infliction may be physical or psychological harm.
2. Displaced Aggression- It refers to the redirecting of aggression to a target other than the actual
source of one’s frustration.
3. Scapegoating- It refers to the act of blaming a person or group of people for conditions not of their
making.
4. Escape- It is the act of reducing discomfort by leaving frustrating situation or by psychologically
withdrawing from them such as apathy (pretending not to care) or illegal drug use.
What is the Frustration Aggression Theory?

This is an example of frustration turning into aggression. Aggression is a malicious
behaviour or attitude towards someone or something, usually triggered by frustration.
What is Frustration-induced Criminality?

Frustration induced criminality is the idea that when out behaviour is directed at a specific
goal is blocked, arousal increases and the individual experiences a need to reduce it. Individuals
“who employ violence to reduce this frustration, become more vigorous than usual, possibly even
resorting to murder and other violent actions”. A good example of this, is the child who does not have
their needs met and becomes frustrated. “The Frustration of not having dependency needs met
prevents he child from establishing emotional attachments to other people. The individual may thus
become resentful, angry, and hostile toward other people in general.
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What is the Hypothesis of Catharsis?

If you buy a punching bag, or release your aggression by playing Quake, or by screaming,
then you will be less violent and aggressive in day-to-day life, having “released” your aggression.
Segment 6. Coping Mechanism vs. Defense Mechanism
Coping mechanisms are the sum total of ways in which people deal with minor to major
stress and trauma. Some of these processes are unconscious ones, others are learned behaviour,
and still others are skills that individuals consciously master in order to reduce stress, or other intense
emotions life depression. Not all ways coping are equally beneficial, and some can actually be very
detrimental.
Defense mechanisms refers to an individual’s way of reacting to frustration. These are
unconscious psychological strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with reality and to
maintain self-image. Healthy persons normally use different defenses throughout life. According to
Freud, defense mechanisms are methods that ego uses to avoid recognizing ideas or emotions that
may cause personal anxiety; it is the unrealistic strategies used by the ego to discharge tension.
The following is the list of coping mechanisms:

1. Acting Out 19. Passive aggression
2. Aim inhibition 20. Performing rituals
3. Altruism 21. Post-traumatic growth
4. Attack 22. Projection

5. Avoidance 23. Provocation
6. Compartmentalization 24. Rationalization

7. Compensation 25. Reaction Formation
8. Conversion 26. Regression
9. Denial 27. Repression
10. Displacement 28. Self-harming
11. Dissociation 29. Somatization
12. Emotionality 30. Sublimation
13. Fantasy 31. Substitution
14. Help-rejecting complaining 32. Suppression
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15. Idealization 33. Symbolization

16. Identification 34. Trivializing
17. Intellectualization 35. Undoing
18. Introjection 36. Positive Coping
1. Acting Out- this means literally acting out the desires that are forbidden by the Superego and yet
desired by the Id. We thus cope with the pressure to do what we believe is wrong by giving in to the
desire. A person who is acting out desires may do it in spite of his/her conscience or may do it with
relatively little thought. Thus, the act may be being deliberately bad or may be thoughtless
wrongdoing.
Examples:
a. An addict gives in to his/her desire for alcohol or drugs.
b. A person who dislikes another person seeks to cause actual harm to him/her.
2. Aim Inhibition- Sometimes we have desires and goals that we believe or realize that we are
unable to achieve. In aim inhibition, we lower our sights, reducing our goals to something that we
believe is actually more possible or realistic.
Examples:
a. A person who sexually desires another person but is unable to fulfil that desire (for example the
other person is married) convinces himself/herself that all he/she really wants is to be friends.
b. A person who wants to be a veterinarian does not get sufficient exam grades, so becomes a vet’s
assistant instead.
3. Altruism- Avoid your own pains by concentrating on the pains of others. Maybe you can heal
yourself and feel good by healing them and helping them to feel good.
Examples:
a. A self-made millionaire who grew up in poverty sets up a charitable foundation and gains great
pleasure from how it helps others get out of the poverty trap. She receives social accolade and public
recognition for her good deeds gratefully.
4. Attack- The best form of defense is attack is a common saying and is also a common action, and
when we feel threatened or attacked (even psychologically), we will attack back. When a person feels
stressed in some way, he/she may lash out at whoever is in the way, whether the other person is a
real cause or not. He/she may also attack inanimate objects.
Examples:
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a. A person is having problems with his/her computer. He/she angrily bangs the keyboard.
5. Avoidance- In avoidance, we simply having to face uncomfortable, situations, things or activities.

The discomfort, for example, may come from unconscious sexual or aggressive impulses.
Examples:
a. I dislike another person at work. I avoid walking past his/her desk. When people talk about him/her,
I say nothing.
b. My son does not like doing homework. Whenever the subject of school comes up, he changes the
topic. He also avoids looking directly at me.
6. Compartmentalization- It is a ‘divide and conquer’ process for separating thoughts that will
conflict with one another. This may happen when there are different beliefs or even when there are
conflicting values.
Examples:
a. A person who is very religious and is also a scientist holds the opposing beliefs in different
cognitive compartments, such that when they are in church, they can have blind faith, whilst when
they are in the laboratory, they questions everything.
b. There is sometimes honor among thieves, where together they act as honest people. Thieves also
may be very honest in their family lives.
7. Compensation- Where a person has a weakness in one area, they may compensate by
accentuating or building up strengths in another area. Thus, when they are faced with their weakness,
they can say ‘ah, but I am good at..’, and hence feel reasonably good about the situation.
Examples:
a. A person who failed in Math excelled in English.
b. People who are not intellectually gifted may turn their attention to social skills.
8. Conversion- Conversion occurs where cognitive tensions manifest themselves in physical

symptoms. The symptom may well be symbolic and dramatic and it often acts as a communication
about the situation. Extreme symptoms may include paralysis, blindness, deafness, becoming mute
or having a seizure. Lesser symptoms include tiredness, headaches and twitches.
Example:
a. A person's arm becomes suddenly paralyzed after it has been used to threaten to hit someone
else
9. Denial - Denial is simply refusing to acknowledge that an event has occurred. The person affected
simply acts as if nothing has happened; behaving in ways those others may as bizarre.
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Examples:
a. A man hears that his wife has been killed, and yet refuses to believe it, still setting the table tor her
and keeping her clothes and other accoutrements in the bedroom.
b. Alcoholics vigorously deny that they have a problem.
c. Optimists deny that things may go wrong.
d. Pessimists deny they may succeed.
10. Displacement- It refers to the shifting of actions from a desired target to a substitute target when
there are some reasons why the first target is not permitted or not available.
Examples:
a. The boss gets angry and shouts at me. I go home and shout at my wife. She then shouts at our
Son. With nobody is left to displace anger onto, he goes and kicks dog.
b. A man wins the lottery. He turns to the person next to him and gives the person a big kiss.
c. A boy is afraid of horses. It turns out to be a displaced fear of his Father.
d. A religious person who is sexually frustrated focuses his/ her attention on food, becoming a
gourmet.
e. A woman, rejected by her boyfriend, goes out with another man 'on the rebound.
11. Dissociation- involves separating a set of thoughts or activities from the main area of conscious
mind, in order to avoid the conflict that this would cause. This can also appear as taking an objective,
third-person perspective, where you ‘go to the balcony’ and look down on the situation in order to
remove emotion from your perspective (this is Sometimes called dissociation of affect).
Example:
a. A religious person preaches kindness to all, yet is cruelly strict to children, without realizing that
there is a conflict between the two.
12. Emotionality - When we become stressed or tension is a number of negative emotions may start
to build, including anger, frustration, fear, jealousy and so on. When we display these emotions, it can
affect others around us, arousing similar or popular feelings. Some people are neither not good at
restraining their emotions or are less concerned about the effect on others and more about the
personal benefits of emotional outburst. As a result, they regularly and habitually display extreme
emotions.
Examples:
a. Teenagers often cannot contain the emotions caused by physiological and temporal development.
As a result can be very emotional and can contribute significant family problem
b. A man who has had long relationship problems is given to angry outburst that both gives temporary
respite and yet add to the cycle of relational failures.
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13. Fantasy or Day Dreaming- When we cannot achieve or do something that we want, we channel
the energy created by the desire into fantastic imaginings. Fantasy als0 provides temporary relief
from the general stresses of everyday living.
Examples:
a. A boy who is punished by a teacher creates fantasies of shooting the teacher (remember the movie
"If).
b. A student who flunks university exams imagines that they could have passed the exams ‘if they
really wanted to’.
14. Fight-or-Flight Reaction - When we perceive a significant threat to us, then our bodies get ready
either for a fight to the death or a desperate flight from certain defeat by a clearly superior adversary.
It also happens when a creative new idea makes us feel uncertain about things of which we
previously were sure. The biochemical changes in our brain make us aggressive, fighting the new
idea, or make us timid, fleeing from it.
Example:
a. A lion suddenly appeared in front of a person while walking in the forest. That person may choose
to wrestle the lion or run away to save his life.
15. Help-rejecting Complaining - A person becomes upset or otherwise elicits supporting actions
from other people. When helpful suggestions or other comfort is offered, however, he/ she reject this
and return to his/her complaint.
Example: a. A person complains to his/her partner about problems at work. When the partner
suggests ways of resolving the problems, the solutions are rejected out of hand and the person
continues to complain.
16. Idealization- It is the over-estimation of the desirable qualities and underestimation of the
limitations of a desired thing. We also tend to idealize those things that we have chosen or acquired.
The opposite of idealization is Demonization, where something that is not desired or disliked has its
weak points exaggerated and its strong points played down.
Examples:
a. A teenager in awe of a rock star idealizes his/her idol, imagining him/her to have a perfect life, to
be kind and thoughtful, and so on. He/she ignore the star’s grosser habits and rough background.
b. I buy a sports car and look admiringly at its sleek lines. I ignore the fact that it drinks fuel and is
rather uncomfortable.
17. Identification - It occurs when a person changes apparent facets of his/her personality such that
he/she appears to be more like other people. This process may be to copy specific people or it may
48
be to change to an idealized prototype. Areas of identification may include external elements, such as
clothing and hair styles (which may be chosen without consciously realızing the influences that are at
play) as well as internal factors such as beliefs, values and attitudes.
Examples:
a. A girl dresses like her friends, as much because she likes the garb as any conscious desire to be
like them.
b. A person in a meeting adopts similar body language of his/her manager and tends to take the
same viewpoint.
18. Intellectualization- This refers to a "flight into reason, where the person avoids uncomfortable
emotions by focusing on facts and logic. The situation is treated as an resting problem that engages
the person on a rational basis, whilst the emotional aspects are completely ignored as being
irrelevant. Jargon is often used as a device of intellectualization. By using complex terminology, the
focus becomes on the words and finer definitions rather than the human effects.
Example:
a. A person who is in heavily debt builds a complex spreadsheet of how long It would take to repay
using different payment options and interest rates.
19. Introjection- Introjection occurs as a coping mechanism when we take on attributes of other
people who seem better able to cope with the situation than we do.
Examples:
a. I have to give a presentation but feel scared. I put on the hat of Abraham Lincoln and imagine I am
confidently giving an important speech/address to the nation.
b. A child is threatened at his/her school. He/she takes on the strong-defender attributes that he/she
perceives in his/ her father and pushes away the bully.
20. Passive Aggression - A person who uses passive-aggressive method to cope with stresses
does this by ‘attacking’ others through passive means. Thus, the aggressive intent is cloaked by the
passive method. Passive aggression often appears when a person is asked to do something which
he/she wants to avoid for some reason (such as priority of other work). By appearing to agree but not
making any real commitment, he she can avoid the action.
Examples: a. A sales person uses a persuasive sales pattern. The Customer agrees that this is just
what he/she wants, but when it comes to signing the order, he/she finds reasons why he/she cannot
buy today.
b. A change manager asks people to change what they do. They agree but do not actually do what
they agreed to do.
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21. Post-traumatic Growth - An individual who has suffered a traumatic experience somehow finds
ways to turn it into something good. Typically: Interpersonal relationships are improved, with friends
and family valued more and more time being spent in helping others. Self-perception changes
through the increase in resiliency gained from realizing you can cope with hardship.
Examples: a. A mother who has lost a child to cancer raises significant money for cancer charities.
b. After a terrorist attack, people are friendlier with others nearby and help out.
22. Projection- when a person has uncomfortable thoughts or feelings, he/she may project these
onto other people, assigning the thoughts or feelings that he/she need to repress to a convenient
alternative target. Projection may also happen to obliterate attributes of other people with which we
are uncomfortable. we assume that they are like us, and in doing so we allow ourselves to ignore
those attributes they have with which we are uncomfortable.
Examples:
a. An unfaithful husband suspects his wife of infidelity.
b. A woman who is attracted to a fellow worker accuses the person of sexual advances.
23. Provocation or Free-floating - When a person feels stressed, his/her way to avoid dealing with
the real issues 1IS to provoke others into some kind of reaction. The attention can then be put on the
other person and away from the originator's stress.
Examples:
a. A very common context for provocation is between teenagers and their parents, Siblings and
teachers. The teenager deliberately does something reprehensible, gets told off, and then blames the
other person.
b. Provocation is also a common cause of fights, both verbal and physical. A person who needs to
affirm his/her power will provoke a weaker other in order to escalate into a conflict he/she is confident
he/she can win.
24. Reaction Formation- Reaction Formation Occurs when a person feels an urge to do or say
something and then actually does or says something that is effectively the opposite of what he/she
really wants. It also appears as a defense against feared social punishment. If I fear that I will be
criticized for something, I very visibly act in a way that shows I am personally a long way from the
feared position.
Examples:
a. A person who is angry with a colleague actually end being particularly courteous and friendly
towards him/her.
b. A man who is gay has a number of conspicuous heterosexual affairs and openly criticizes gays.
25. Rationalization- When something happens that we find difficult to accept, then we will make up a
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logical reason why it has happened. We rationalize to ourselves. We also find it very important to
rationalize to other people, even those we do not know.
Examples:
a. A person evades paying taxes and then rationalizes it by talking about how the government wastes
money (and how it is better for people to keep what they can).
b. A person fails to get good enough results to get into a chosen university and then says that he/she
didn't want to go there anyway.
26. Regression- Regression involves taking the position of a child in some problematic situation,
rather than acting in a more adult way. This is usually in response to stressful situations, with greater
levels of stress potentially leading to more overt regressive acts. Regressive behavior can be simple
and harmless, such as a person who is sucking a pen (as a Freudian regression to oral fixation), or
may be more dysfunctional, such as crying or using petulant arguments.
Examples:
a. A person who suffers a mental breakdown assumes a fetal position, rocking and crying
b. A college student carefully takes his/her teddy-bear with him/her (and goes to sleep cuddling it).
27. Repression- Repression involves placing uncomfortable thoughts in relatively inaccessible areas
of the subconscious mind. Thus, when things occur that we are unable to cope with now, we push
them away, either planning to deal within them at another time or hoping that they will fade away on
their own accord. The level of forgetting' in repression can vary from a temporary abolition of
uncomfortable thoughts to a high level of amnesia, where events that caused the anxiety are buried
very deep.
Examples:
a. A child who is abused by a parent later has no recollection of the events, but has trouble forming
relationships.
b. A man has a phobia of spiders but cannot remember the first time he was afraid of them.
28. Self-harming- The person physically deliberately hurts himself/herself in some way or otherwise
puts themselves at high risk of harm.
Examples:
a. Slapping oneself
b. Punching a hard wall
c. Cutting oneself with a knife
d. Reckless driving
e. Taking narcotic drugs
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29. Somatization - Somatization occurs where a psychological problem turns into physical and
subconscious symptoms. This can range from simple twitching to skin rashes, heart problems and
worse.
Examples:
a. A policeman, who has to be very restricted in his professional behavior, develops hypertension.
b. A worried actor develops a twitch.
30. Sublimation - It is the transformation of unwanted impulses into something less harmful. This can
simply be a distracting release or may be a constructive and valuable piece of work. Many sports and
games are sublimations of aggressive urges, as we sublimate the desire to fight into the ritualistic
activities of formal competition.
Examples:
a. I am angry. I go out and chop wood. I end up with a useful pile of firewood. I am also fitter and
nobody is harmed.
b. A person with strong sexual urges becomes an artist.
31. Suppression- This is where the person consciously deliberately pushes down any thoughts that
leads to feelings of anxiety. Actions that take the person into anxiety-creating situations may also be
avoided.
Examples:
a. An older man has sexual feelings towards a teenager and quickly suppresses the thought.
b. I am about to take a short-cut down an alleyway. There are some people down there. I decide to
take the longer but more interesting route.
32. Substitution - This takes something that leads to discomfort and replace it with something that
does not lead to discomfort.
Examples:
a. Rather than making a difficult phone call, I call my daughter for a chat.
b. Instead of putting up a mirror, I put up a photograph of myself when I was younger.
33. Symbolization- Symbolization is a way of handling inner conflicts by turning them into distinct
symbols. Symbols are often physical items, although there may also be symbolic acts and metaphoric
ideas.
Examples:
a. A soldier explains his decision to join the army as defending the flag
b. A man asks for the woman's hand, symbolizing the "hand in marriage”.
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34. Trivializing- When we are faced with a disappointment over something that is important to us, we
are faced with the problem or having our expectations and predictions dashed. We may even have
told other people about it beforehand, making it doubly embarrassing that we have not gained what
we expected. One way that we trivialize is to make something a joke, laughing it off.
Examples:
a. A girl rejects the advances of a boy. He tells his friends that she isn’t that pretty anyway.
b. I lose a lot of money due to gambling. I tell myself that I didn't need it anyway.
35. Undoing- It refers to performance of an act to 'undo' a previous unacceptable act or thought.
Confession is a form of undoing, including that done in a church to a priest or a secret admission to a
close friend.
Examples:
a. A man who has been unkind to his wife buys her flowers (but does not apologize).
b. A person who has barged in front of others in a queue holds the door open for them.
36. Positive Coping- There are a number of approaches that we can take to cope in a positive way
with problems, including:
a. Immediate problem-solving: Seeking to fix the problem that is the immediate cause of our
difficulty.
b. Root-cause solving: Seeking to fix the underlying cause such that the problem will never recur.
c. Benefit-finding: Looking for the good things amongst the bad.
d. Spiritual growth: Finding ways of turning the problem into a way to grow spiritually or emotionally.
Example:
a. A student fails an exam. He/she views it as an opportunity to deepen his/her learning and study
hard.
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CHAPTER III
MENTAL DISORDER AND CRIMINALITY
Segment 1. Mental Disorders
What is Mental Disorder?
A mental disorder is a broad term used to group physical and psychological symptoms that
cause abnormal thoughts and behaviors. Mental disorders are more commonly referred to as mental
illnesses. These illnesses cause abnormal behavior that is disruptive to a person's life. Mental
illnesses may be associated with the brain, but they have more in common with other bodily illnesses
than they do differences. In fact, as we learn about mental disorders, it is good to keep in mind how
similar they are to physical illnesses.
Causes of Mental Disorder

The most common model used by psychologists to explain why mental disorder occurs is
called the biopsychosocial model. If you break that word down to its parts it simply means that
biological, psychological and social factors all contribute to mental disorders (figure 12).
Neurosis and Psychosis

What is Neurosis?
Neurosis is a class of functional mental disorder involving distress but neither delusions nor
hallucinations, whereby behavior is not outside socially accepted norms.
Neurosis is also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, and thus those suffering
from it are said to be neurotic. It involves impaired social, intellectual and/ or vocational functioning
without disorganization of personality or loss of contact with reality. The symptoms of neurosis are the
following:
a. Anxiety Reaction -Anxiety reaction has diffused fearfulness, tension, and restlessness with
sometimes snowball into episodes of panic.
b. Dissociative Reaction -Dissociative reaction is a massive repression or dissociation of
certain aspect of experience or memory varying in intensity from walking to amnesias and multiple
personality disturbances.
c. Conversion Reaction- Conversion reaction illustrates symbolic resolution of conflict that
imitates the effects of physical illnesses paralysis, blindness, anesthesia, etc.
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d. Phobic Reaction- Phobic reaction refers to intense, irrational fear of specific objects or
events that may have a symbolic significance on the afflicted individual.
e. Obsessive-Compulsive Reaction- Obsessive-compulsive reaction has repetitive, irrational
thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) which usually involve some symbolic effort at
conflict resolution.
f. Depressive Reaction- Depressive reaction refers to depression, usually accompanied by
guilt, feelings of Inferiority, and anxiety.
What is Psychosis?
Psychosis came from the word psyche, for mind/soul, and osis, for abnormal condition. It
means abnormal condition of the mind, and 15 a generic psychiatric term for a mental state often
described as involving a "loss of contact with reality”.
People suffering from psychosis are said to be psychotic. Disorganization of personality
marked by impaired vocational and social functioning and intellectual deterioration. It has the
following characteristics: disorientation of time, place and/or person: delusion (false beliefs);
hallucination (false perception); bizarre behavior; inappropriate emotional responses; distortion of
thinking, association, and judgment (table 4). The symptoms of psychosis are the following:
a. Involution reaction- Involution reaction demonstrates severe depression during the
involution period without previous history of psychosis.
b. Affective Reaction - There is a presence of inappropriately exaggerated mood and marked
change in activity level with associated thought disorder reaction
e. Manic-Depressive Reaction- Manic-depressive shows cyclical disturbances involving
various combination of or alternation between excitement and delusional optimism on the one hand
and immobilizing, delus1onal depression on the other.
d. Schizophrenic Reaction- Schizophrenic reactions are bizarre behavior: disturbances of
thought and reality testing; emotional withdrawal; and varying levels of psychotic thinking and
behavior.
Segment 2. Anxiety Disorder
Anxiety Is psychological disorder that involves excessive levels of negative emotions, such as
nervousness, tensions, worry, fright and anxiety. It is a generalized feeling of apprehension, fear, or
tension that may be associated with a particular object or situation or may be free-floating, not
associated with anything specific. Anxiety can cause such distress that it interferes with a person's
ability to lead a normal life.
What is the difference between Anxiety and Fear?
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Anxiety is defined as an unpleasant emotional state for which the cause is either not readily
identified or perceived to be controllable or unavoidable, whereas, fear is an emotional and
physiological response to a recognized external threat or a response to a real danger or threat.
What are the symptoms of an Anxiety Disorder?

Symptoms vary depending on the type of anxiety disorder, but general symptoms include:
a. feelings of panic, fear, and uneasiness,
b. uncontrollable, obsessive thoughts,
c. repeated thoughts or flashbacks of traumatic experiences,
d. nightmares
e. ritualistic behaviors, such as repeated hand washing,
f. problems sleeping, g. cold or sweaty hands and/or feet,
h. shortness of breath,
j. palpitations, an inability to be still and calm,
k. dry mouth,
l. numbness or tingling in the hands or feet,
m. nausea,
n. muscle tension, and
o. dizziness.
Types of Anxiety Disorder

1. Generalized Aniety Disorder- This disorder involves excessive, unrealistic worry and
tension, even if there is little or nothing to provoke the anxiety. Accordingly, symptoms include
restlessness or feeling keyed up, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension and jitteriness,
deep disturbance, and unwanted, intrusive worries.
2. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)- People with OCD are plagued by constant
thoughts or fears that cause them to perform certain rituals or routines. The disturbing thoughts are
called obsessions- are anxiety-provoking thoughts that will not go away (ex.: one may have
repetitive thoughts of killing a child, of becoming contaminated by a handshake, or of having
unknowingly hurt someone in a traffic accident; and the rituals are called compulsions are irresistible
urges to engage in behaviors (ex.: a person with an unreasonable fear of germs who constantly
washes his or her hands, compulsive counting, touching, and checking).
3. Panic Disorder- This disorder keeps recurring attacks to a person of intense fear or panic,
often with feelings of impending doom of death. People with this condition have feelings of terror that
strike suddenly and repeatedly with no warning. Other symptoms of a panic attack include sweating,
chest pain, palpitations (irregular heartbeats), and a feeling of choking, which may make the person
feel like he or she is having a heart attack or "going crazy”.
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4. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) -PTSD is a condition that can develop following a
traumatic and/or terrifying event, such as a sexual or physical assault, he unexpected death of a
loved one, or a natural disaster. People with PTSD often have lasting and frightening thoughts and
memories of the event, and tend to be emotionally numb. The Vietnam War appears to have
produced an unprecedented 500,000 veterans with at least mild problems of PTSD
5. Specific Phobias - A Specific Phobia is an intense fear of a specific object or situation, such
as snakes., heights, or flying. Phobia is an exaggerated, unrealistic fear of a specific situation,
activity, or object.
The level of fear usually is inappropriate to the situation and may cause the person to avoid
common situations. Some specific phobias are:
✓ Arachnophobia- The fear of spiders
✓ Ophidiophobia- The fear of snakes
✓ Acrophobia- The fear of heights
✓ Agoraphobia- The fear of open or crowded spaces.
✓ Cynophobia- The fear of dogs
✓ Astraphobia- The fear of thunder/lightning
✓ Claustrophobia- The fear of enclosed spaces
✓ Mysophobia- The fear of germs
✓ Aerophobia- The fear of flying.
✓ Trypophobia- The fear of holes
✓ Carcinophobia- The fear of cancer
✓ Thanatophobia- The fear of death
✓ Glossophobia- The fear of public speaking
✓ Monophobia- The fear of being alone
✓ Atychiphobia- The fear of failure
✓ Ormithophobia- The fear of birds
✓ Alektorophobia- The fear of chickens
✓ Enochlophobia - The fear of crowds.
✓ Aphenphosmphobia- The fear of crowds.
✓ Irypanophobia- The fear of intimacy
✓ Anthropophobia- The fear of needles.
✓ Aquaphobia- The fear of people
✓ Autophobia- The fear of water.
✓ Hemophobia- The fear of abandonment.
✓ Gamophobia -The fear of blood. The fear of commitment/marriage.
✓ Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia- Fear of long words
✓ Aenophobia -The fear of the unknown.
✓ Vehophobia- The fear of driving
✓ Basiphobia- The fear of falling.
✓ Achievemephobia- The fear of success.
✓ Theophobia-The fear of God
✓ Ailurophobia- The fear of cats.
✓ Metathesiophobia- The fear of change
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✓ Globophobia- The fear of balloons.

✓ Nyctophobia- The fear of darkness
✓ Androphobia - The fear of men
✓ Phobophobia - The fear of fear.
✓ Philophobia- The fear of love
✓ Triskaidekaphobia- The fear of the number 13/bad luck
Social Anxiety Disorder – This is also called social phobia. It involves overwhelming worry and
self-consciousness about everyday social situations. The worry often centers on a fear of being
judged by others, or behaving in a way that might cause embarrassment or lead to ridicule.
Three Types of Anxiety According to Freud
1. Reality Anxiety - Reality anxiety refers to fear of real dangers in the external world.
2. Neurotic Anxiety - Neurotic anxiety refers to fear that instincts will get out of control and cause the
person to do something for which he or she will be punished.
3. Moral Anxiety - Moral anxiety is the fear of the conscience. People with well-developed superegos
tend to feel guilty when they do something that is contrary to the moral code by which they have been
raised.
Anxiety Disorder and Criminality
Among offenders with Anti-social Personality Disorder (APD), the presence of anxiety
disorders may increase behaviour problems and limit participation in offender rehabilitation programs
and work training. People with APD and anxiety disorders have high rates of helping-seeking
behavior. An untreated anxiety disorder may also increase the risk of substance misuse, in turn,
increases the risk of repeat offending.
Segment 3 Delusional Disorder: False Belief

Delusional disorder is sometimes referred to as paranoia; delusions are false, sometimes
even preposterous, beliefs that are not part of the person's culture. One might think he is Jesus Christ
another Napoleon. The concept "delusional disorders" derives from the Greek Word paranous
(paranoia). Para means besides, while nous means mind, or in other words it refers to a mind
besides itself. The term paranoia was previously used to describe a number of observable
phenomena including delirium associated with fever, delusional jealousy and being overly suspicious.
Seven Types of Delusional Disorder

The following are the seven sub-types of delusional disorder based on American Psychiatric
Association (APA) Diagnostic statistical manuals of mental disorders-Text Revised (DSM-IV-TR).
1. Persecutory Type (Delusion of Persecution)
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In this subtype the central theme of the delusion is that the individual is being conspired
against, spied on, followed, poisoned, cheated, harassed or obstructed Individuals who hold these
beliefs are either suspicious generally, or may be suspicious of one or more persons. These
individuals may often show anger, resentment and violence, and therefore the persecutory type is
commonly associated with violent criminal conduct. Individuals suffering from such delusions could
also hold the belief that there is some injustice that may need to be remedied by legal action. They
may attempt to appeal to a court and other government agencies repeatedly in order to gain
satisfaction and to prove that they are right.
2. Jealous Type
In this subtype the central theme of the delusion is that the individual's spouse or lover is
being unfaithful. The individual's belief is confirmed by drawing incorrect inferences from "evidence"
he or she has gathered to support the belief. For example, stains on bed sheets or ruffled clothing
may be used as supporting "evidence", individual may confront his or her spouse or lover with the
evidence, restrict the spouse’s autonomy, follow the spouse or lover to investigate the belief, or even
attack the spouse or love lover.
3. Erotomanic Type
The central theme of this subtype of delusional disorder is that another person is in love with
the individual The other person is usually of a high status such as a famous person or a sports hero,
or could be a complete stranger. The delusion is that the other person and the deluded person have a
romantic and spiritual relationship, rather than a sexual relationship. The individual suffering from
erotomania may try to contact the object of the delusion by telephone, sending letters, stalking or
gifts. Individuals suffering from this subtype of delusional disorder, especially males may experience
some form of confrontation with the law during their efforts to "rescue" the objects of their delusions
from some sort of "danger”.
4. Grandiose Type (Delusion of Grandeur)

In this subtype the central theme of the delusion is that the individual believes he or she has
an extraordinary talent or has made an important discovery. The individual may also believe that he
or she has a special relationship with a prominent person such as being the adviser to the president,
or that he or she is the prominent person. In this case the actual person is considered the impostor.
14 In some cases, individuals suffering from grandiose delusions may believe that they are the
Saviour or the Virgin Mary about to give birth to baby Jesus
5. Somatic Type
The core theme of the somatic subtype is centred on bodily functions or sensations. In some
cases, the individuals may believe that they omit a foul odour from their skin, mouth or rectum.
Sometimes it is believed that there are Internal parasites in the body, or that a certain part of the body
is ugly or not functioning properly. Self-mutilation can take place to free the body from the parasites.
6. Mixed Type
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In this subtype no delusional theme is predominant. There could be a combination of

delusional themes, for example, having delusions of love as well as delusions of jealousy. Guenter
Parche, a 38-year-old man, stabbed the tennis star Monica Seles with a serrated steak knife with a
five-inch blade, not because he hated her enough to kill her but rather because he was a fan of the
number two-ranked Steffi Graf. He was obsessed and jealous to such a degree that he wanted to put
the number one-ranked Seles out of action. By stabbing Seles he paid heed to his delusion of love
and Jealousy. He was convicted of causing Seles grievous bodily harm, which usually carries a hefty
sentence in prison, Du because of diminished responsibility, he only received Two-year suspended
sentence.
7. Unspecified Type
Where a dominant delusional belief cannot be clearly determined or does not fall within the
description of the other Subtypes, it is classified as an unspecified type of delusional disorder. For
example, this would be where an individual has delusions of reference but there is no predominant
persecutory component. In this case the person believes that others actions, or specific occurrences,
refer to him or her. Such a person may believe that a group of friends who are innocently talking to
each other about sports may be referring to him or her. The person with the delusion of reference
may feel threatened and it is possible that he or she may react on the basis of the unsubstantiated
belief. Although the person is out of hearing range and cannot follow the conversation, there might be
an attack if he or she is convinced that they are mocking him or her.
Types of Delusional Disorders not Included in the DSM-IV.-TR 1.

1. Delusions of Control
The central theme of this delusion is the belief that others control you. The individual may
believe that his or her thoughts are being controlled or influenced from outside him or her. These
delusions are often accompanied by delusions of description of how the individual's thoughts are
being controlled by means of, for example, electronic devices, computers or telepathy.
2. Delusions of Reference
The predominant delusional theme is the false belief that others are talking about one. It
could also refer to instances where an individual falsely believes that the behavior of others refers to
him or her. A person acting under this delusional theme could be considered dangerous, for example
if the individual tries to "defend” himself or herself against another individual who he or she believes is
referring to them. In this case, the deluded individual will not be acting in self-defense but would be
committing a crime.
3. Delusions of Self-accusation
This delusion is associated with intense feelings of guilt and remorse, and could be
regarded as the extreme opposite of the grandiose delusion, where the individual replaces feelings of
saving the world with the delusional belief that the world is coming to an end. The depressed
individual could feel that the salvation of the world depends on his or her own death, and may
mutilate himself or herself or have suicidal tendencies.
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What causes Delusional Disorder?

Researchers are, however, looking at the role of various etic. biological, environmental or
psychological factors.
1. Genetic
The fact that delusional disorder is more common in people who have family members with
delusional disorder or schizophrenia suggests there might be a genetic factor involved. It is believed
that, as with other mental disorders, a tendency to develop delusional disorder might be passed on
from parents to their children.
2. Biological
Researchers are studying how abnormalities of certain areas of the brain might be involved
in the development of delusional disorders. Abnormalities in the functioning of brain regions that
control perception and thinking may be linked to the formation of delusional symptoms.
3. Environmental/Psychological
Evidence suggests that delusional disorder can be triggered by stress. Alcohol and drug
abuse also might contribute to the condition. People who tend to be isolated such as immigrants or
those with poor sight and hearing, appear to be more vulnerable to developing delusional disorder.
Delusion and Criminality

Delusional disorders may be uncommon but they are a reality. Those suffering from
delusional disorders may seem harmless or eccentric until they commit a crime. Criminal behavior is
sometimes motivated by delusional thinking. For example, individuals with persecutory delusions may
act violently in pre-emptive (perceived) self-defense. Those with erotomanic delusions may stalk the
object of their delusional affection, and those with jealous delusions may seek retribution for
perceived infidelity. Mental illness in general is observed more often in prison than would be expected
in a general community sample.
Segment 4. Mood Disorders
Mood Disorders are disorders characterized by extreme and unwanted disturbances in feeling
or mood. These are major disturbances in one's condition or emotion, such as depression and mania.
It is otherwise known as affective disorder.
Types of Mood Disorder

1. Bipolar Disorder
In bipolar disorder, formerly known as manic- depression, there are swings in mood from
elation (extreme happiness) to depression (extreme sadness) with no discernable external cause.
Two Phases of Bipolar

a. Manic Phase - During the manic phase of this disorder, the patient may show
excessive, unwarranted excitement or silliness, carrying jokes too far. They may also show poor
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judgment and recklessness and may be argumentative. Manic may speak rapidly, have unrealistic
ideas, and jump from subject to subject. They may not be able to sleep or sit still for very long.
b. Depressive Episode - The other side of the bipolar coin is the depressive episode.
Bipolar depressed patients often sleep more than usual and are lethargic. During bipolar depressive
episodes, a patient may also show irritability and withdrawal.
Accordingly, the depressed person speaks slowly and monotonously while the manic person speaks
rapidly, dramatically, often with many jokes and puns. The depressed person has low self-esteem
while the manic person has inflated self-esteem.
2. Depressive Disorder - depressive disorder is when the person experiences cd, unexplainable
periods of sadness.
Three Types of Depressive Disorder
a. Major Depressive Disorder - A person suffering from major depressive disorder is in a depressed
mood for most of the day, nearly every day or has lost interest or pleasure in all, or almost all,
activities, for a period of at least two weeks.
b. Single Episode - Single episode depression is like major depression only it strikes in one dramatic
episode.
c. Recurrent - Recurrent depression is an extended pattern of depressed episodes. Depressed
episodes can include any of the features of major depressive disorder.
Mood Disorder and Criminality
Arrest and incarceration are potential complications of bipolar disorder which has a higher
prevalence among incarcerated individuals than in the community. Early onset of bipolar disorder is
associated with juvenile antisocial behavior2 and greater likelihood of arrest. Individuals with bipolar
disorder who had been arrested had more hospitalizations than those who had not and were more
likely to be experiencing manic symptoms. Bipolar disorder is associated with a heightened risk of
suicide compared with the general population. A 15-fold increased risk of suicide in men and a 20-fold
increased risk in women. Similarly, 1n a single year approximately 0.017% of the international
population died by suicide, whereas for people with bipolar disorder was as high as 0.4%. More
controversially, bipolar disorder has been linked with aggressive and criminal behaviors such as
robbery and assault, especially during manic episodes. A systematic review found that people with
bipolar disorder were more likely to have committed a violent crime than the general population.
Segment 5. Personality Disorder

Personality disorders are chronic maladaptive cognitive- behavioral patterns that are thoroughly
integrated into the individual's personality and that are troublesome to others or whose pleasure
sources are either harmful or illegal.
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Ten Types of Personality Disorder (Clusters A, B & C)

Cluster A: Odd or Eccentric Behaviors
1. Schizoid Personality Disorder (SPD) - Those with SPD may be perceived by others as somber,
aloof and often are referred to as loners.
Manifestations:
a. Social isolation and a lack of desire for close personal relationships.
b. Prefers to be alone and seem withdrawn and emotionally detached.
c. Seem indifferent to praise or criticism from other people.
2. Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD) - Although they are prone to unjustified angry or aggressive
outbursts when they perceive others as disloyal or deceitful, those with PPD more often come across
as emotionally "cold" or excessively serious.
Manifestations:
a. They feel constant suspicion and distrust toward other people.
b. They believe that others are against them and constantly look for evidence to support their
suspicions.
c. They are hostile toward others and react angrily to perceived insults.
3. Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD) - This disorder is characterized both by a need for
isolation as well as odd, outlandish, or paranoid beliefs. Some researchers suggest this disorder is
less than schizophrenia.
Manifestations:
a. They engage in odd thinking, speech, and behavior.
b. They may ramble or use words and phrases in unusual ways.
c. They may believe they have magical control over others
d. They feel very uncomfortable with close personal relationships and tend to be suspicion of others.
Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Behaviors

1. Antisocial Personality Disorder (APB) - APD i characterized by lack of empathy or conscience, a
difficulty controlling impulses and manipulative behaviors. Antisocial behavior in people less than 18
years old is called conduct disorder.
Manifestations:
a. Act in a way that disregards the feelings and rights of other people.
b. Anti-social personalities often break the law.
c. Use or exploit other people for their own gain.
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d. They may lie repeatedly, act impulsively, and get into physical fights.
e. They may mistreat their spouse, neglect or abuse n children and exploit their employees.
f. They may even kill other people. & People with this disorder are also sometimes a sociopaths or
psychopaths.
People with this disorder are at high risk for premature and violent death, injury, imprisonment, loss of
employment, bankruptcy, alcoholism, drug dependence, and failed personal relationships.
2. Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) - This mental illness interferes with an individual's ability
to regulate emotion. Borderlines are highly sensitive to rejection, and fear of abandonment may result
in frantic efforts to avoid being left alone, such as suicide threats and attempts.
Manifestations:
a. They have intense emotional instability, particularly in relationship with other.
b. They make frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment by others.
c. They may experience minor problems as major crises.
d. They express their anger, frustration, and dismay through suicidal gestures, self-mutilation, and
other self- destructive acts.
e. They tend to have an unstable self-image or sense of self.
Borderline personalities are at high risk for developing depression, alcoholism, drug dependence,
and bulimia; dissociate disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Furthermore, 10 percent of
people with this disorder commit suicide by the age of 30.
3. Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD)- NPD is characterized primarily by grandiosity, need for
admiration, and lack of empathy. Narcissistic tend to be extremely self- absorbed, intolerant of others
perspectives, insensitive to others' needs and indifferent to the effect of their own egocentric
behavior.
Manifestations:
a. They a grandiose sense of self-importance.
b. They seek excessive admiration from others and fantasize about unlimited success or power.
c. They believe they are special, unique, or superior to others. However, they often have very fragile
self-esteem.
4. Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD) - Individuals with this personality disorder exhibit a
pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and attempt to get attention in unusual ways, such as
bizarre appearance or speech.
Manifestations:
a. They strive to be the center of attention.
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b. They act overly flirtatious or dress in ways that draw attention.

c. They may also talk in dramatic or theatrical display exaggerated emotional reactions.
Cluster C: Anxious, Fearful Behaviors
1. Avoidant Personality Disorder (APD) - Those avoidant personalities are often hypersensitive to
rejection and unwilling to take social risks. Avoidant displays a high level of social discomfort, timidity,
fear of criticism avoidance of activities that involve interpersonal contact.
Manifestations:
a. They possess intense, anxious shyness.
b. They are reluctant to interact with others unless they feel certain of being liked.
c. They fear being criticized and rejected.
d. They often view themselves as socially inept and inferior to others.
2. Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD) - People with dependent disorder typically exhibits a
pattern of needy and submissive behavior, and rely on others to make decisions for them.
Manifestations:
a. They have severe and disabling emotional dependency on others.
b. They have difficulty in making decisions without a great deal of advice and reassurance from
others.
c. The urgently seek out another relationship when a close relationship ends.
d. They feel uncomfortable by themselves.
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) - Individuals with OCPD, also called

Anankastic Personality Disorder, are so focused on order and perfection that their lack of flexibility
interferes with productivity and efficiency They can also be workaholics, preferring the control of
working alone, as they are afraid that work completed by others will not be done correctly.
Manifestations:
a. They have a preoccupation with details, orderliness, perfection, and control.
b. They devote excessive amounts of time to work and productivity and fail to take time for leisure
activities and friendships.
c. They tend to be rigid, formal, stubborn, and serious.
This disorder differs from obsessive-compulsive disorder, which often includes more bizarre
behavior and rituals.
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Personality Disorder and Criminality

Eysenck believes that personality is the main factor in criminal behavior, has a decisive role in
crime, and their study is d only systematic method through which criminal behavior can be explained.
The findings of a study on 440 prisoners in Tehran, Iran, showed that 88% of prisoners were
men. Moreover, 51.8%, 15.7%. 10 2.8.6%, 5.0%, 1.4%, 3.0%, and 1.6% were imprisoned due to
fraud, theft, blood money payment, infidelity, denying, and failure to pay dowry, murder, and
smuggling, respectively. Furthermore, the prevalence of avoidant personality disorder (AvPD),
narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), aggressive-
masochistic personality disorder, passive-aggressive personality disorder, and self-defeating
personality disorder was higher than other disorders. A significant relationship was observed between
type of crime and sch1zoid personality disorder (SPD).
The prevalence of clinical personality patterns among prisoned women was 61.2% and
schizotypal personality disorder PD), paranoid personality disorder (PPD), and borderline disorder
(BPD) were, respectively, the most prevalent among men, and PPD, SPD, and histrionic personality
disorder (BPD) were, respectively, the most prevalent among women.
In the study conducted in the prison of Kashan, Iran, the highest prevalence was, respectively,
observed in ASPD (12 individuals; 24%), MDD (10 individuals; 20%), hypomania (7 individuals; 14
%), hypochondriasıs (5 individuals; 10%), HD (5 individuals; 10%), PPD (4 individuals; 8%), anxiety
disorder (4 individuals; 8%), and SPD (3 individuals; 6%).
In a study on prisoners charged with narcotics-related crimes, 85.2% of the studied individuals
had personality disorders the most prevalent disorders were HPD (42.4 %) and ASPD (404 o) and the
least prevalent disorder was SPD (14.6 %). Moreover, mixed personality disorder was observed in
52.6% of the subjects. Furthermore, occupation, education, and marital status had a siggnificant
correlation with drug trafficking.
Another study reported a 55.2% prevalence (112 individuals) of personality disorders among
prisoners .ASPD (18.2) was the most prevalent disorder. SPD (84), dependent persona disorder
(DPD) (8.46), BPD (74%), mixed personality disorder (3.46), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
(3.0%), HPD (3.0 PPD (2.5o), and other personality disorders (090) were also observed. The
evaluation of the prevalence of personality disorders based on crime type showed that the highest
prevalence was related to theft (64.19%), drug addiction (60.9%), iniquity and murder (55.6%), drug
trafficking (55.06), and financial crimes (40.9) respectively.
Paranoid persons committing violent crimes and whose personality characteristics are
primarily paranoid belong to a variety of subtypes. Some exhibits pathological jealousy, others,
extreme bigotry: still others, persecutory ideation and grudge-holding. Within the latter category will
be situated the majority of persons committing mass murder (i.e. the murder of three or more people
in one outburst). Almost all mass murderers are male.
A diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) has consistently been linked to the
criminal behavior, including violent offending, of prisoners. Further evidence for a relationship
between personality disorder and violence has emerged from research investigating perpetrators of
violence in the community. A large number of cross-sectional studies have demonstrated that
individuals who engage in violent and nonviolent offending, aggression, and intimate partner violence,
are more likely to meet diagnosis for a personality disorder. Also, individuals diagnosed with a cluster
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A or B personality disorder, as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
fourth edition, had a threefold likelihood of committing violent acts in the future. A high propensity for
aggression has also been identified in individuals seeking treatment for personality disorder.
Violent Recidivism
Personality disorder is a central criterion in current approaches to violence risk assessment
and management, and has been documented to increase the risk of violent recidivism. A diagnosis of
ASPD is especially predictive, for instance, found that reconviction rates for attempted or completed
murder, manslaughter, assault, robbery, or rape were 3.7 times higher for individuals with this
diagnosis. Psychopathy has also been found to strongly predict violent recidivism.
Segment 6. Somatolorm Disorder

Somatoform Disorder is a mental disorder characterized by physical symptoms that mimic
physical disease or injury for which there is no identifiable physical cause. The symptoms that result
from a somatoform disorder are due to mental factors. In people who have somatoform disorder,
medical test results are either who explain the person’s symptoms.
People who have this disorder may undergo several medical evaluation and test to be sure
that they do not have an illness related to physical cause or central lesion. Patients with this disorder
often become very worried about their health because the doctors are unable to find a cause for their
health problems.
Six Major Types of Somatoform Disorder
1. Conversion Disorder (Hysteria) -This is a condition where a patient displays neurological

symptoms such as numbness, paralysis, or fits, even though no neurological explanation is found and
it is determined that the symptoms are due to the patient s psychological response to stress.
Symptoms are grouped as follows
a. Sensory Symptoms - These include anesthesia, excessive sensitivity to strong
stimulation (hyper anesthesia), loss of sense of pain (analgesia), and unusual symptoms such as
tingling or crawling sensations.
b. Motor Symptoms- any of the body’s muscle groups may be involved: arms, legs, vocal
chords. Included are tremors, tics (involuntary twitches), and disorganized mobility or paralysis.
c. Visceral Symptoms Examples includes trouble Swallowing, frequent belching, spells
of coughing or vomiting, all carried to an uncommon extreme. In both sensory and motor symptoms,
the areas affected may not correspond at all to the nerve distribution in the area.
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2. Hypochondriasis- It is a somatoform disorder in which persons are preoccupied with their health
and are convinced that they have some serious disorder despite reassurance from doctors to the
contrary.
3. Somatization Disorder- Also Briquet's Disorder or, in antiquity, hysteria is a psychiatric
diagnosis applied to patients who chronically and persistently complain or varied physical symptoms
that have no identifiable physical origin.
4. Pain Disorder- It is when a patient experiences chronic pain in one or more areas, and is thought
to be caused by psychological stress. The pain is often so severe that it disables the patient from
proper functioning. It can last as short as a few days, to as long as many years.
5. Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)- It is previously known as Dysmorphophobia and sometimes
referred to as body dysmorphia or dysmorphic syndrome. It is a (psychological) somatoform
disorder in which the affected person is excessively concerned about and preoccupied by a perceived
detect in his or her physical features (body image).
6. Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder- Only one unexplained symptom is required for at least 6
months. Included among these disorders are false pregnancy, psychogenic urinary retention, and
mass psychogenic illness (so-called mass hysteria).
What is the Difference between Factitious Disorder and Malingering?
Factitious disorder is the term used to describe a pattern of behavior centered on the
exaggeration or outright falsifications of one's own health problems or the health problems of others.
Some people with this disorder fake or exaggerates physical problems; others fake or exaggerate
psychological problems (combination of physical and psychological problems. Factitious disorder
differs from a pattern or falsified or exaggerated behavior called malingering. While malingerers
make their claims out of a motivation for personal gain, people with factitious disorder have no such
motivation.
Malingering is not a form of mental illness. However, people who adopt malingering
behaviors often have a diagnosable mental illness called antisocial personality disorder. Individuals
with this disorder have a long-standing pattern of involvement in activities that purposefully exploit or
manıpulate others, or blatantly disregard the legal rights of others. Malingerers also frequently exhibit
signs of another personality-related condition, called histrionic personality disorder. Individuals with
this condition habitually and reflexively use excessive displays of drama and emotion to gain attention
from others.
Factitious disorder and malingering can both potentially bear a strong resemblance to a
mental disorder called conversion disorder, which also belongs to the somatic symptom and related
disorders category. In a manner similar to malingerers and individuals with factitious disorder,
individuals with conversion disorder come to their doctors with medical problems that don't stand up
to extensive scrutiny. However, unlike factitious disorder patients or malingerers, people with
conversion disorder truly believe that they have the ailments they report to their doctors.
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Somatoform Disorder and Criminality

Cloninger and colleagues have also found genetic links between somatization disorder
and antisocial personality and alcoholism. The biological fathers of adopted-away women who were
"high-frequency somatizers" tended to have a history of violent crime.
Cloninger suggested that persons with somatization disorder are characterized by
distractibility, impulsivity, and failure to habituate to repetitive stimuli. It is possible that these traits
contribute to the link between somatization and antisocial personality disorder.
Segment 7. Dissociative Disorder

Dissociative disorder refers to disorders in which, under stress one loses the integration of
consciousness, identity, and memories of important personal events. This is formerly called as
multiple personality disorder, dissociative identity disorder (DID). These include four recognized
varieties:
1. Psychogenic Amnesia
It is also known as Dissociative Amnesia is the temporary or permanent loss of a part or all
of the memory. When this is due to extreme psychosocial stress, it is labeled psychogenic amnesia.
This stress is most often associated with catastrophic events.
Four Sub-categories of Psychogenic Amnesia

a. Localized Amnesia - This is most often an outcome of a particular event. The disease renders the
afflicted unable to recall the details of a usually traumatic event, such as a Violent incestuous rape.
This is undoubtedly the most common type of amnesia.
b. Selective Amnesia - As its name implies, this is similar to localized amnesia except that the
memory retained is very selective. Often a person can remember certain general occurrences of the
traumatic situation, but not the specific parts which make it so.
c. Generalized and Continuous Amnesia- These fewer common forms of amnesia exists when a
person either forgets the details of his/her entire retime, or as in the case of continuous amnesia,
he/she can’t recall the details prior to a certain point in time, including the present.
2. Psychogenic Fugue
It is also known as Dissociative Fugue. Psychogenic fugue is simply the addition to
generalized amnesia of a flight from family, problem, or location. In highly uncommon cases, the
person may create an entirely new life (fugue means flight).
3. Multiple Personality Disorder
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It is also known as Dissociative ldentity Disorder. It is defined as the Occurrence of two

or more personalities within the same individual, each of which during sometime in the person's life is
able to take control. This is not often a mentally healthy thing when the personalities vie for control.
4. Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder
This is the continued presence of feelings that the person is not himself/herself or that he/she can't
control his/her own actions. This is labeled as disorder when it is recurrent and impairs social and
occupational function.
Dissociative Disorder and Crimninality

Individuals may commit criminal acts while in a dissociated state. A study that tracked 21
reported dissociative disorder (DID) cases found that 47% of men and 35% of women reported
engaging in criminal activity, including 19% of men and 7% of women who committed homicide.
The concept of dissociation is relevant to forensic psychiatry as illustrated by the fact that
amnesia and dissociation have frequently been associated with violent crimes.
Moskowitz found that higher levels of dissociation were associated with increased violence
in a diverse range of populations, including college students, military veterans, psychiatric patients,
and perpetrators of sexual/domestic violence and homicide. Amnesia for the violent crime was
reported in nearly one-third (30%) of homicides. Several studies found an association between
amnesia, dissociation and crimes characterized by lack of planning and lack of premeditation,
heightened emotional states, emotional ties to the victim, and alcohol use.
Evans et al. conducted a systematic and descriptive investigation of amnesia in a group of
105 young offenders convicted of violent crimes (lethal and nonlethal bodily harm). Twenty percent
reported either partial or complete amnesia for at least the most violent part of the assault. All recalled
the events preceding violence and most could identify a precise cut off by which they could not recall
subsequent events. Only one subject had complete amnesia, leading the authors to conclude that
complete amnesia is rare.
Patients with dissociative disorders have higher rates of suicidal ideation, suicide attempts,
and self-injurious behavior than do people with other disorders.
Moskowitz and Evans reported that a notable proportion of violent offenders experience
Peritraumatic dissociation (PTD) and amnesia and that dissociative experiences are more likely to
occur when the violence is more extreme.
Segment 8. Impulse Control Disorder
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Impulse control disorders (ICDs) are common psychiatric conditions in which affected
individuals typically report significant impairment in social and occupational functioning, and may
incur legal and financial difficulties as well.
A simple definition of an impulse disorder is one where individual cannot resist an impulse
to behave in a certain way not stop repeated behavior, even when they know that the behaviour must
stop. In some cases, the individual has repeatedly tried and failed to stop the behaviour.
Types of Impulse-Control Disorders

1. Intermittent Explosive Disorder- Outbursts of anger or extreme temper tantrums.
2. Kleptomania- An urge to steal small items that usually have very little value.
3. Pathological Gambling - The inability to stop gambling
4. Pyromania - When a person sets fires for enjoyment and pleasure.
5. Trichotillomania - Hair loss caused by an impulse to twirl and pull hair. Some people then have an
urge to eat the hair.
6. Unspecified Impulse-Control Disorder When someone has symptoms from various impulse-
control disorders, but it IS not able to be singled down to one
7. Compulsive Sexual Behavior- It is described as excessive or uncontrolled sexual behavior or
thoughts that lead to marked distress and social, occupational, legal, and or financial consequences.
8. Pyromania-Pyromania - is characterized by the following diagnostic criteria: deliberate and
purposeful fire setting on more than one occasion, tension or affective arousal before the act,
fascination with, interest in, curiosity about, or attraction to fire and its situational contexts, and
pleasure gratification, or relief when setting fires or when either witnessing or participating in their
aftermath.
These disorders are characterized by difficulties in resisting urges to engage in behaviors
that are excessive and/or ultimately harmful to oneself or others.
Impulse Control Disorder and Criminality

Pathological Gambling is associated with impaired functioning; reduced quality of life; and
high rates of bankruptcy, divorce, and incarceration. Financial and marital problems are common.
Many pathological gamblers engage in illegal behavior, such as stealing, embezzlement, and writing
bad checks to fund their gambling or to attempt to fix past gambling losses. Suicide attempts have
been reported in 17% of individuals in treatment for PG.
Although kleptomania typically has its onset in late adolescence or early adulthood, the
disorder has been reported in children as young as 4 years and in adults as old as 77 years. Intense
guilt and shame are commonly reported by those with kleptomania. Stolen items are typically
hoarded, given away, returned to the store, or thrown away. Many individuals with kleptomania (64%
to 87%) have been apprehended at some time as a result of their stealing behavior.
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Segment 9 Sleep Disorders

A sleep disorder is a condition that frequently impacts your ability to get enough quality
sleep. While it's normal to occasionally experience difficulties sleeping, it's not normal to regularly
have problems getting to sleep at night, to wake up feeling exhausted, or to feel sleepy during the
day. Symptoms can differ depending on the severity and type of sleeping disorder. They may also
vary when sleep disorders are a result of another condition. However, general symptoms of sleep
disorders include:
a. difficulty falling or staying asleep.
b. daytime fatigue.
c. strong urge to take naps during the day.
d. irritability or anxiety.
e. lack of concentration.
f. depression.
Types of Sleep Disorders

1. Insomnia Insomnia
refers to the inability to fall asleep or to remain asleep. It can be caused by jet lag, stress
and anxiety, hormones, or digestive problems. It may also be a symptom of another condition.
Insomnia can be very problematic for your overall health and quality of life, potentially causing:
a. depression,
b. difficulty concentrating
c. irritability,
d. weight gain, and
e. impaired work or school performance.
Three Types Insomnia
a. Chronic -It is when insomnia happens on a regular basis for at least one month.
b. Intermittent- It is when insomnia occurs periodically.
c. Transient- It is when insomnia lasts for just a few nights at a time.
2. Sleep Apnea
Sleep apnea is characterized by pauses in breathing during sleep. This is a serious
medical condition that causes the body to take in less oxygen. It can also cause you to wake up
during the night.
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3. Parasomnias
Parasomnias are a class of sleep disorders that cause abnormal movements and
behaviors during sleep. They include:
a. sleepwalking (somnambulism or noctambulism)
b. sleep talking (somniloquy)
c. groaning
d. nightmares, bedwetting, and teeth grinding or jaw clenching
4. Restless Leg Syndrome

Restless leg syndrome (RLS) is an overwhelming need to move the legs. This urge is
sometimes accompanied by a tingling sensation in the legs. While these symptoms can occur during
the day, they are most prevalent at night. RLS is often associated with certain health condition,
including Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHU) and Parkinson's disease, but the exact
cause isn’t always known.
5. Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is characterized by ‘sleep attacks" that occur during the day. This means that
you will suddenly feel extremely tired and fall asleep without warning. The disorder can also cause
sleep paralysis, which may make you physically unable to move right after waking up. Although
narcolepsy may occur on its own, it is also associated with certain neurological disorders, such as
multiple sclerosis.
What is Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep Behavior Disorder?

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder is a sleep disorder in which you physically act out vivid,
often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden, often violent arm and leg movements during
REM Sleep sometimes called Dream-enacting Behavior.
Sleep Disorder and Criminality

The question of whether sleep apnea can lead to homicide was recently raised during a
criminal trial when a man claimed that he fatally shot his wife during his sleep as a result of his sleep
apnea. While injurious behavior occurring during sleep is well recognized, accidental homicide related
to a sleep disorder is considered rare. The most common sleep disorders that have associated with
sleep-related injurious behavior include sleepwalking, REM sleep behavior disorder, and confusional
arousals. In contrast, there is little information regarding the relationship between sleep apnea and
sleep-related violence.
Sleepwalking, confusional arousals and sleep terrors Disorders of Arousal-have been
reported to be associated with violent behaviors against other individuals for hundreds of years.
Murders, attempted murders, assaults and sexual assaults have been reported to occur during these
73
disorders and have occasionally resulted in criminal charges. Some defendants using sleepwalking
defenses have been acquitted, as sleepwalkers are not thought to have the required conscious
awareness or criminal intent to be judged guilty. The violent act itself is most often described as
release of a primitive form of rage over which the sleepwalker as no control.
Suggested Reading:
1. People of the Philippines vs. Taneo, 284 SCRA 251. 273 (1998).
Segment 10. Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a group of disorders characterized by loss of contact with reality, marked
disturbances of thought and perception, and bizarre behavior. At some phase delusions or
hallucinations almost always occur.
Emil Kraepelin first identified the illness in 1896 when he distinguished it from the mood
disorders. He called it dementia praecox, which means a premature deterioration of the brain. Emil's
thoughts were later disputed by many psychiatrists. One of these was Eugene Bleuler, an eminent
Swiss psychiatrist, who in 1911 gave the term schizophrenia. He developed the word by combining
two Greek words schizein meaning to split and phren meaning mind. This emphasized a splitting
apart of the patient's affective and cognitive functioning, which are heavily affected by the disease.
Also, schizophrenia came from the New Latin words schizo, meaning split, and phrenia, meaning
mind.
Categories of Schizophrenic Hallucinations
1. Tactile (touch)- People with Schizophrenia often have the sensation that there are things (like
bugs or insects) crawling across their skin.
2. Visual (sight) - This kind of hallucination causes the person to see things that are not really there.
3. Auditory (hearing) - This is the most common type of hallucination. People with auditory
hallucinations hear voices and sounds that others cannot hear.
4. Olfactory (smell) - The person experiencing an olfactory hallucination smells thing (usually foul-
smelling things) that others do not smell.
5. Command (hearing) - When a voice commands the person to do something he/she would not
ordinarıly do.
Characteristics of Schizophrenia
1. Disturbance of Thought and Attention
People suffering schizophrenia often cannot think logically and as the result of this they
cannot write a story because every word they write down might make sense, but are meaningless in
74
relation to each other keep their and they cannot attention to the writing. The principal disturbance he
Schizophrenic' s thought processes is multiple delusions. This is divided into two sub-categories
a. Persecutory Delusion - the schizophrenic believes that he/she is being talked about,
spied upon, or his/ her death being planned.
b. Delusion of Reference- the schizophrenic gives personal importance incidents,
objects, or people. to completely unrelated
2. Disturbances of Perception
During acute schizophrenic episodes, people say that the world appears different to them,
their bodies appear 1onger, colors seem more intense and they cannot recognize themselves in a
mirror.
3. Disturbances of Affect
Schizophrenic persons fail to show 'normal’ emotions. This symptom is easiest described
as an excessive lack of correlation between what an individual is saying and what emotion they are
expressing (e.g. recounting an experience horror while chuckling or a patient may smile while talking
over tragic events).
4. Withdrawal from Reality

During schizophrenic episodes, the individual becomes absorbed in his inner thoughts and
fantasies. The self-absorption may be so intense that the individual may not know the month or day or
the place where he is staying.
5. Delusions and Hallucinations

In most cases it is accompanied by delusions. Delusions are inflexible misleading beliefs.
They appear as a result of exaggerations or distortions of reasoning, as well as false interpretations
of things and events.
The most common are beliefs that other persons are tryıng to control his thoughts, he may
become suspicious of friends (paranoid), and this is the reason why Robert Kennedy was
assassinated.
Kinds of Schizophrenia
1. Paranoid Schizophrenia
If a person has paranoid schizophrenia, he or she:
a. Is very suspicious of others.
b. Has a great scheme of persecution at the root of the behavior.
c. Hallucinates and delusions which are also the symptoms of this type of schizophrenia.
d. Displays the psychotic symptoms.
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2. Residual Schizophrenia
Residual schizophrenia is usually:
a. Expressed through a person's being not motivated or interest in everyday life.
b. Advised when an individual has been through at least one episode of schizophrenia (6
months) but then "recover.
3. Disorganized Schizophrenia (Hebephrenic Schizophrenia)

This schizophrenia is characterized by:
a. Person is incoherent verbally and to his/her feeling.
b. Expressing emotions that are not appropriate to situation.
4. Catatonic Schizophrenia
A person diagnosed with catatonic schizophrenia is:
a. Extremely withdrawn, negative, isolated, and has obvious psychomotor disturbances.
b. The subject may be almost immobile or exhibit agitated purposeless movement.
c. Symptoms can include catatonic stupor and waxy flexibility.
5. Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
People with undifferentiated schizophrenia exhibit the symptoms of more than one of the above-
mentioned types of schizophrenia, but without a clear predominance of a particular set of diagnostic
characteristics. This is used when the patient's symptoms clearly point to schizophrenia but are so
clouded that classification into the different types of Schizophrenia is very difficult.
How Schizophrenia Develops?

Schizophrenia develops through any of the following causes:
1. Genetic Cause -A cause of schizophrenia usually lies in a persons having immediate relatives with
a history of schizophrenia or other psychiatric diseases (schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder,
and depression). Some researches consider schizophrenia to be highly heritable (estimates are as
high as 70%).
2. Environmental/Social Cause - There is considerable evidence indicating that stress may trigger
episodes of schizophrenia psychosis. For example, emotionally turbulent families and stressful life
events have shown to be some of the risk factors for the relapses or triggers of schizophrenia
episodes.
The social drift hypothesis suggests that people affected by schizophrenia may be less
able to hold steady, demanding, or high-paying jobs. As a result, low income and problems increase
stress levels and leave such people susceptible to lapsing into a schizophrenic episode.
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3. Prenatal Cause - Causal factors are thought to initially come together in early neurodevelopment
to increase the risk of later developing schizophrenia (Ex. prenatal exposure to infections). One
curious finding is that people diagnosed with schizophrenia are more likely to have been born in
winter or spring, (at least in the northern hemisphere).
4. Substance Abuse Cause - In a recent study of people with schizophrenia and a substance abuse
disorder, over a ten year period, "substantial proportions were above cutoffs selected by dual
diagnosis clients as indicators of recovery.
Example: illegal drugs, tobacco and the like.
However, Eugene Bleuler, one of the pioneers in the diagnosis and study of schizophrenia, divided
the disorder into two forms, they are:
Type I. Reactive or Acute Schizophrenia

Reactive schizophrenia is usually sudden and seems to be reaction to some life crisis.
Reactive schizophrenia is a more treatable form of the illness than process or chronic schizophrenia.
1. Excitement Phase
It is also known as the arousal phase or initial excitement phase. It is the first stage of
the human sexual response cycle. It occurs as the result of any erotic physical or mental stimulation,
such as kissing, petting, or viewing erotic images, that lead to sexual arousal. It is characterized by an
erection in males and a swelling of the clitoris and vaginal lubrication in females.
2. Plateau Phase
It is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm. The plateau phase is the second
phase of the sexual cycle, after the excitement phase with the following manifestations such as:
further increases in circulation and heart rate occur in both sexes, sexual pleasure increases with
increased stimulation, muscle tension increases further, for those who never achieve orgasm; this iS
the peak of sexual excitement. Both men and women may also begin to vocalize involuntarily at this
stage. Prolonged time in the plateau phase without progression to the orgasm; phase may result in
frustration if continued for too long.
3. Orgasmic Phase
Orgasm is the conclusion of the plateau phase of the sexual response cycle, and is
experienced by both males and females. It is accompanied by quick cycles of muscle contraction in
the lower pelvic muscles, which surround both the anus and the primary sexual organs; women also
experience uterine and vaginal contractions; Orgasms are often associated with other involuntary
actions, including vocalizations and muscular spasms in other areas of the body, and a generally
euphoric sensation; in men, orgasm is usually associated with ejaculation. Each ejection is
associated with a wave of sexual pleasure, especially in the penis and loins; the first and second
convulsions are usually the most intense in sensation, and produce the greatest quantity of semen.
Thereafter, each contraction is associated with a diminishing volume of semen and a milder wave of
pleasure.
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Orgasms in females may also play a significant role in fertilization. The muscular spasms
are theorized to aid in the locomotion of sperm up the vaginal walls into the uterus.
4. Resolution Phase (Refractory Period)
The resolution phase occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to relax, blood pressure
to drop and the body to slow down from its excited state. Men and women may or may not experience
a refractory period, and further stimulation may cause a return to the plateau stage.
This allows the possibility of multiple orgasms in both sexes. However, typically men enter
this refractory period and some may find continued stimulation to be painful after the orgasmic phase.
Women may not have a similar refractory period and may be able to repeat the cycle almost
immediately.
Major Categories of Sexual Disorder

I. Sexual Dysfunctions
II. Paraphilias
III. Gender Identity Disorders
Category 1. Sexual Dysfunction

Sexual dysfunction is a persistent or recurrent problem that causes marked distress and
interpersonal difficulty and that may involve any or some combination of the following: sexual arousal
or the pleasure associated with sex, or orgasm. It is a disturbance in any phase of the Human Sexual
Response Cycle.
Types of Sexual Dysfunction

A. Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire (during the Excitement Phase):
1. Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder -It is marked by lack or no sexual drive or interest in
sexual activity. It is characterized by a persistent, upsetting loss of sexual desire.
2. Sexual Aversion Disorder- It is characterized by a desire to avoid genital contact with a
sexual partner. It refers to persistent feelings of fear, anxiety, or disgust about engaging in sex.
B. Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal (during the Arousal/Plateau Phase):

1. Male Erectile Disorder- It refers to the inability to maintain or achieve an erection
(previously called as impotence).
2. Female Sexual Arousal Disorder - It refers to none responsiveness to erotic stimulation
both physically and emotionally (previously called as frigidity).
C. Dysfunctions of Orgasm (during the Orgasmic Phase):
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1. Premature Ejaculation - It is the unsatisfactory brief period between the beginning or

sexual stimulation and the occurrence of ejaculation.
2. Male Orgasmic Disorder – It refers to the inability to ejaculate during sexual intercourse.
3. Female Orgasmic Disorder -It refers to the difficulty in achieving orgasm, either manually
or during sexual intercourse.
D. Sexual Pain Disorders:

1. Vaginismus- It is the involuntary muscle spasm at the entrance to the vagina that prevents
penetration and sexual intercourse.
2. Dyspareunia - It refers to painful coitus that may have either an organic or psychological
basis.
E. Hyper Sexuality:
1. Nymphomania (or furor uterinus) - A female psychological disorder characterized by an
overactive libido and an obsession with sex (etymology of the word is nymph).
2. Satyriasis - In males the disorder is called satyriasis and the etymology is satyr.
Category I. Paraphilias
Paraphilia (in Greek para = over and philia= friendship) is a rare mental health disorder
term recently used to indicate sexual arousal in response to sexual objects or situations that are not
part of societal normative arousal/activity patterns, or which may interfere with the capacity for
reciprocal affectionate sexual activity. The disorder is characterized by a 6-month period of recurrent,
intense, sexually arousing fantasies or sexual urges involving a specific act, depending on the
paraphilia.
Common Foris of Paraphilia

1. Exhilbitionisnm
This is also known as flashing, is behavior by person that invoIves the exposure of private
parts of his/ her body to another person in a situation when they would not normally be exposed.
When the term is used to refer to the psychological compulsion for such exposure, it may be called
Apodysophilia or a Lady Godiva syndrome.
Types of Exposure
a. Flashing - It is the display of bare breasts and/or buttocks by a woman with an up-and-
down lifting of the shirt and/or bra or a person exposing and/or stroking his or her genitals.
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b. Mooning - It refers to the displaying of the bare buttocks while bending down by the pulling-
down of trousers and underwear. This act is more often done for the sake of humor and/or mockery
than for sexual excitement.
c. Anasyrma - It refers to the lifting up of the skirt when not wearing underwear, to expose
genitals.
d. Martymachlia – Is a paraphilia which involves sexual attraction to having others watch the
execution of a sexual act.
2. Fetishism
People with a fetish experience sexual urges and behaviour which are associated with
non-living objects. For Example, the object of the fetish could be an article of female clothing, like
female underwear. Usually the fetish begins in adolescene and tends to be quite chronic into adult
life. Sexual fetishism, first described as such by Sigmund Freud.
Types of Fetishism
a. Sexual Transvestic Fetishism (Tranvestism/Cross Dressing)- Transvestic adolescence, usually
around most practitioners are male who are aroused wearing, fondling, or seeing female clothing.
Lingerie (bras, panties, girdles, corsets, and slips), stockings, shoes or boots may all be the fetishistic
object.
b. Foot Fetishism-It is a pronounced fetishistic sexual interest in human feet. It is also one of the
most common fetishistic interests among humans. A foot fetishist can be sexually aroused by
viewing, handling, licking, tickling, sniffing or kissing the feet and toes of another person, or by having
another person doing the same to his/her own feet.
c. Tickling Fetishism- A sexual fetish related to gaining a specific sexual thrill from either tickling a
sex partner or being subjected to tickling themselves, usually to the point of helpless laughter. Often
tns involves some form of restraint to prevent escap and/or accidentally hurting the tickler.
d. Wet and Messy Fetish (WAM) - A form of sexual fetishism that has a person getting aroused
substances applied on the body like mud, shaving foam, custard custard pudding, chocolate sauce,
etc. It could also involve wet clothes, or any combination above.
Four Major Categories of WAM

1. Messy -The applying of largely opaque substances not usually used in this fashion. This includes
food, shaving cream and mud. A major subdivision of food play involves striking people with cream
pies much like in silent comedy films. This category also includes wrestling in mud, oil or gelatin.
2. Wet - The major varieties are of images of people in completely soaked clothing, usually involving
full clothing ensembles.
3. Quicksand- Images of people sinking in quicksand. In drawn images, the stage where female
characters sink up to their chests and their breasts are up in response is a favorite.
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4. Underwater - Also called Aquaphilia. It involves images of people swimming or posing

underwater. Some subsets of this category are underwater fashion (models posing underwater, often
while fully clothed), scuba, rubber (people in skin-tight rubber wetsuits), simulated drowning, and
underwater sex.
e. Pygmalionism - It is a sexual deviation whereby a person has sexual desire for statues.
.Incendiarism It is a sexual deviation whereby a person derives sexual pleasure from setting fire.
3. Frotteurism (Frottage)
Frotteurism is the act of obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by rubbing one's
genitals against others in public places or crowds or sexual urges are related to the touching or
rubbing of their body against a non-consenting, unfamiliar woman.
4. Scatologia
It is also called Coprolalia, deviant sexual practice in which sexual pleasure is obtained
through the compulsive use of obscene language. The affected person commonly satisfies his
desires through obscene telephone calls (Telephone Scatologia), usually to strangers. Related
terms are copropraxia, performing obscene or forbidden gestures, and coprographia, making
obscene writings or drawings.
5. Necrophilia
Necrophilia is also called thanatophilia and necrolagnia, is the sexual attraction to
corpses. The word is artificially derived from Ancient Greek (nekros; corpse, or dead) and (philia;
friendship).
6. Coprophilia
Coprophilia (trom Greek kopros excrement and filia-liking. fondness), also called
scatophilia or scat the paraphilia involving sexual pleasure from feces.
7. Zoophilia
Zoophilia is the practice of sex between humans and animals (also known as
bestiality/bestosexual). It came from the Greek (zõion, animal) and (philia, friendship or love),
also known as zoosexuality. A person who practices zoophilia is known as a zoophile.
8. Urophilia (Urolagnia)
A paraphilia of the fetishistic/talismanic type in which sexuoerotic arousal and facilitation or
attainment of orgasm is responsive to being urinated upon and/or swallowing urine (Greek. ouron,
urine+ philia].
9. Mysophilia
Mysophilia is obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by filth or a filthy surrounding. Put
simply, this is getting hormy from smelling, chewing or rubbing against dirty underwear (Greek,
mysos, uncleanness + philia).
10. Hypoxyphilia
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Hypoxyphilia is the desire to achieve an altered state of consciousness as an

enhancement to the experience of orgasm. In this disorder, the individual may use a drug such as
nitrous oxide to produce hypoxia, or a "high" due to a lack of oxygen to the brain. Autoerotic
asphyxiation is also associated with hypoxic states, but it is classified as a form of sexual masochism.
Category IIl. Gender Identity Disorder (Transsexualism)

Gender Identity Disorder or Gender Dysphoria refers to a disturbance of gender
identification in which the affected person has an overwhelming desire to change their anatomic sex
or insists that they are of the opposite sex, with persistent discomfort about their assigned sex or
about filling its usual gender role; the disorder may become apparent in childhood or not appear until
adolescence or adulthood. Individuals may attempt to live as members or opposite sex and may seek
hormonal and surgical treatment to bring their anatomy into conformity with their belief.
Category of Sexual Abnormalities

A. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Choice of Sexual Partner:
1. Heterosexual-This refers to a sexual desire towards the opposite sex. This is a normal sexual
behavior, socially and medically acceptable.
2. Homosexual- This refers to a relationship or having desire towards member(s) of his/her own
gender. The term homosexual can be applied to either a man or woman, but female homosexuals are
usually called lesbians.
Kinds of Homosexual
a. Overt Persons- who are conscious of their homosexual cravings, and who make
no attempts to disguise their intention. They make advances towards members of their own gender.
b. Latent -Persons who may or may not be aware of the tendency in that direction
but are inclined to repress the urge to give way to their homosexual yearning.
3. Infantosexual- This refers to a sexual desire towards an immature person such as pedophilia.
4. Bestosexual - This refers to a sexual gratification towards animals. This is similar to bestiality and
zoophilia.
5. Autosexual (Self Gratification or Masturbation)- It is a form of "self-abuse or "solitary vice”
carried without the cooperation of another person or the induction of a state of erection of the genital
organs and the achievement of orgasm by manual or mechanical stimulation.
Types of Masturbation
a. Conscious Type - The person deliberately resorts to some mechanical means of
producing sexual excitement with or without orgasm. In male, masturbation is made through: manual
manipulation to the point of emission, and ejaculation produced by rubbing his sex organ against
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some part of the female body without the use of the hand (frottage). In female, masturbation is made
by manual manipulation of clitoris, and introduction of penis-substitute.
b. Unconscious Type - The release of sexual tension may come about via the
mechanism of nocturnal stimulation with or without emission, which may also be as "masturbation
equivalent".
6. Gerontophilia - This refers to a sexual desire with elder person.
7. Necrophilia- This refers to a sexual perversion characterized by erotic desire or actual sexual
intercourse with a corpse.
8. Incest - This refers to sexual relations between persons who by reason of blood relationship
cannot legally marry.
B. Sexual Abnormalities as to Instinctual strength of Sexual Urge:

1. Over Sex:
a. Satyriasis - This refers to an excessive sexual desire of men to intercourse. The person
is caled Satyr.
b. Nymphomania - This refers to the strong sexual feeling of women. The person is called
Nymph but is commonly called hot or fighter.
Both satyriasis and nymphomania are general expression of compulsive neurosis.
2. Under Sex:
a. Sexual Anesthesia -This refers to the absence of sexual desire or arousal during sexual act in
women.
b. Dyspareunia- It refers to the painful sexual act in women.
c. Vaginismus- It refers to the painful spasm of the vagina during sexual act.
C. Sexual Abnormalities as to Mode of Sexual Expression or Sexual Satisfaction:

1. Oralism - This refers to the use of the mouth as a way of sexual gratification. This includes any of
the followino:
a. Fellatio (Irrumation) The female agent receives the penis of a man into her mouth and
by friction with the lips and tongue coupled with the act sucking the sexual organ.
b. Cunnilingus- licking or sucking the external female genitalia.
c. Anilism (Anilingus) - It is a form of sexual perversion wherein a person derives
excitement by licking the anus of another person of either sex.
2. Sado-masochism (Algolagnia) - This refers to a painful or cruel act as a factor for gratification.
The example of this is flagellation, it is a sexual deviation associated specifically with the act of
whipping or being whipped.
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a. Sadism (Active Algolagnia) -This refers to a form of sexual perversion in which the
infliction of pain on another 1s necessary or sometimes the sole factor in sexual enjoyment.
b. Masochism (Passive Algolagnia) - This refers to the attainment of pain and
humiliation from the opposite sex as the primary factor for sexual gratification.
3. Fetishism - It is a form of sexual perversion wherein the real or fantasized presence of an object or
bodily part is necessary Tor sexual stimulation and/or gratification.
D. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Part of the Body:

1. Sodomy - This refers to a sexual act through anus of another human being.
2. Uranism - This refers to the attainment of sexual gratification by fingering, fondling with the breast,
licking parts of the body, etc.
3. Frottage (Frotteurism) - It is a form of sexual gratification characterized by the compulsive desire
of a person to rub his sex organ against some parts of the body of another.
4. Partialism - It is a form of sexual deviation wherein a person has special affinity to certain parts of
the female body. Sexual libido may develop in the breast, buttock, foot, legs, etc. of women.
E. Sexual Abnormalities as to Visual Stimulus:
1. Voyeurism - It is a form of sexual perversion characterized by a compulsion to peep to see
persons undress or perform other personal activities. The offender is sometimes called "Peeping
Tom”. Usually, alter peeping, the person masturbates in excess.
2. Mixoscopia (Scoptophilia)- It refers to a perversion wherein sexual pleasure is attained by
watching couple undress or during their sex intimacies.
F. Sexual Abnormalities as to Number of Sex Partner:
1. Triolism (from French word, trios which means three) - It is a form of sexual perversion in
which three persons are participating in the sexual orgies. The combination may consist of two men
and a woman or two women and a man. Troilist (a person) becomes aroused and gratified by the
"sharing”
2. Pluralism - It is a form of sexual deviation in which a group of person participates in the sexual
orgies. Two or more couples may perform sexual act in a room and they may even agree to
exchange partners for "variety sake" during "sexual festival”
G. Sexual Abnormalities as to Sexual Reversal:
1. Transvestism (Sexo-esthetic Hermaphroditism, or Metamorphosis Sexualis Paranoica)- It is a
form of deviation wherein a male individual derives pleasure from wearing the female apparel. This
condition is found sometimes in females who desire to dress themselves in male attire. A female
transvestite may imagine that she possesses a penis.
What is Intersexuality?
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Intersexuality is the condition in which an individual has both male and female anatomical
characteristics to varying degrees or in which the appearance of the external genitalia is ambiguous
or differs from that characteristic of the gonadal or genetic.
Classification of Intersexuality
1. Gonadal Agenesis - The sex organs (testes or ovaries) have never developed.
2. Gonadal Dysgenesis -The external sexual structures are present but at puberty the testes or the
ovaries fail to develop.
3. True Hermaphroditism - A state of bisexuality, having both ovaries and testicles. The nuclear sex
is usually female. The character may be neutral or whichever is dominant.
4. Pseudohermaphrodite - The sex organ is anatomically of one sex but the sex character is that of
the opposite sex.
Sexual Disorder and Criminality

Sexual assault is a serious social problem, with high victimization rates among children
(10% of boys and 20% of girls), and adult women (10-20%). Many sexual offenders also engage in
nonsexual criminal activities, 26,127 the same factors that predict general recidivism among
nonsexual criminals may also predict sexual recidivism among sexual offenders. All sexual offending
is, by definition, socially deviant, but not all sexual offenders have deviant sexual interests or
preferences. Some date rapists, for example, may prefer consensual sexual activities but misperceive
their partners' sexual interest (e.g., "No' means 'yes ).
In contrast, the sexual lives of some boy object pedophiles may be completely focused on
their preferred victim type.129,130 Offenders with the most deviant sexual histories tend to show
deviant or abnormal sexual interests on phallometric assessments. Specifically, deviant sexual
interests are most prevalent among those who victimize strangers, use overt force, select boy victims,
Or select Victims much younger (or much older) than themselves.
Suggested Readings:
1. Mirasol Castillo vs. Republic of the Philippines and Felipe Impas. G.R. No. 214064. February 6,
2017.
2. People of the Philippines vs. Jose Abadies y Claveria. G.R. Nos. 139346-50. July 11, 2002.
Segment 12. Response of the Criminal Justice System

In order to determine whether a mentally disordered often should be send to a psychiatric
hospital or to prison, he is examine to assess if he meets the law’s rationality standard in the context
question. This requires him to proof either that he did not know nature and quality of the act he was
doing, or that he did not know that what he was doing was wrong. Offenders who satisfy these criteria
are neither criminally responsible nor competent to stand trial because they are not rational.
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What happens to those mentally disordered offenders who, having been declared mentally
fit to face charges, end up in prison? According to some studies, longer periods of incarceration may
lead to more mental health symptoms. If they are left untreated, the offender may display an
increasing disruptive and aggressive behavior in reaction to the stressful life in prison. This
misbehavior can result in solitary confinement, which has been found to exacerbate symptoms of
mental disorder. Furthermore, it prevents them from participating in programs that would earn them
good-time credits, thus limiting their options for early release.
Despite the availability of mental health services in prison. many inmates remain reluctant
to access them for several reasons:
a. self-preservation concerns, confidentiality and negative perceptions from other inmates (seen as
weak or a snitch);
b. procedural concerns, that is, a lack of knowing how, when, and why to access services and
anticipated length of services;
c. self-reliance, which refers to a reliance on themselves or close others for help; and
d. professional service provider concerns, which relate to questions of staff qualifications and
dissatisfaction with previous mental health services.
In the case of inmates with suicidal tendencies, studies have found that they may
intentionally hide their mental state to avoid restrictions on allowable possessions, close monitoring of
their Dcnavior, worse housing status, and perceptions of weakness from other inmates.
The most effective criminal justice response to mental disorder includes comprehensive
rehabilitative programs at adhere to the risk-need-responsivity principles. According to the risk
principle, rehabilitative services are more effective when they match offender's level of risk for
criminal recidivism. The need principle dictates that these services must target the specific risks
associated with criminal recidivism (for example peer associations, substance use, and work or
school functioning). Finally, the principle of responsivity asserts that rehabilitative services should
match offender's needs and learning styles. Programs that include all three principles address the
holistic needs of mentally disordered people, rather than just focusing on mental health symptoms
and treatment. Studies have demonstrated that they reduce criminal recidivism in 30%, whereas
sanctions alone (incarceration without rehabilitative services) and inappropriate rehabilitative services
(services that only target the underlying mental disorders) increase it.
Suggested Reading:
1. Stanford Prison Experiment (Philip George Zimbardo).
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CHAPTER IV
VICTIMOLOGY
Segment 1: Victimology
Victimology is the scientific study of the psychological effects of crime and the relationship
between victims and offender. It examines victim patterns and tendencies; studies how victims
interact with the police and the legal system; and analyzes how factors of class, race, and sexual
orientation affect the perception of the victim by different constituents, including the public, the court
system, and the media.
According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, victimology the study of the ways in which the
behavior of crime victims may have led to or contributed to their victimization.
Victimology is the scientific study of victimization, including the relationships between
victims and offenders, victims and the Criminal justice system, and victims and other social groups
and situations, such as the media, businesses, and social movements.
Victimology studies victims of crimes and other forms of h rights violations that are not necessarily
crime.
Victimology is the scientific study of victimization including the relationships between victims and
offenders, the interactions between victims and the criminal justice system and the connections
between victims and other societal groups and institutions, such as the media, businesses, and social
movements.
From this definition, victimology encompasses the study of:
a. Victimization,
b. Victim-offender relationships,
c.victim-criminal justice system relationships,
d. Victims and the media,
e. Victims and the costs of crime,
f. victims and social movements.
Who is a Crime Victim?

Crime victim generally refers to any person, group, o who has suffered injury or loss due to
illegal activity. The harm can physical, psychological, or economic. Legally, "victim" typically includes
the following:
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a. A person who has surrered direct, or tnreatened, physical emotional or pecuniary harm as a result
of the commission of a crime; or
b. In the case of a victim being an institutional entity, any of the same harms by an individual or
authorized representative of another entity.
History of Victimology
The scientific study of victimology can be traced back to the 1940s and 1950s. Two
criminologists, Mendelsohn and Hans Von Hentig, began to explore the field of victimology by
creating typologies. They are considered the fathers of the study of victimology. Mendelsohn was
the first to coin the term Victimology in 1940. These new "victimologists" began to study the behaviors
and vulnerabilities of victims, such as the resistance of rape victims and characteristics of the types of
people who were victims of crime especially murder victims.
Mendelsohn interviewed victims to obtain information, and his analysis led him to believe
that most victims had an "unconscious aptitude for being victimized." He created a typology of six (6)
types of victims, with only the first type, the innocent, portrayed as just being in the wrong place at
the wrong time. The other five types all contributed somehow to their own injury, and represented
victim precipitation.
Hans Von Hentig studied victims of homicide, and said that the most likely type of victim is
the depressive type who is an easy target, careless and unsuspecting. The greedy type is easily
duped because his or her motivation for easy gain lowers his or her natural tendency to be
suspicious. The wanton type vulnerable to stresses that occur in a given period of time in the life
cycle, such as juvenile victims. The tormentor, is the victim of an attack from the target of his or her
abuse, such as with battered particularly women.
Victimology versus Criminology

Victimology focuses on helping victims heal after a crime, while criminology aims to
understand the criminal's motives and the underlying causes of crime. Criminologists look at every
conceivable aspect of deviant behavior. This includes the impacts of crime on individual victims and
their families, society at large, and even criminals themselves, according to The Balance.
Criminologists study elements like the frequency, location, causes and types of crime, then work to
develop "ettective and humane means of preventing it.
Victimologists are concerned with fostering recovery, while criminologists seek prevention.
Criminologists seek to understand the social impact of crime.
Victimity and Victimizer

Victimity refers to the state, quality, or fact of being a victim while Victimizer refers to a
person who victimizes others.
Theories of Victimization
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A. First Generation: Early Victimologists

First-generation scholarly work in victimology proposed victim typologies based on the
offender-victim dyad in a criminal act. Common to the ideas of these early victimologists was that
each classified victim in regard to the degree to which they had caused their own victimization. These
early theoretical reflections pushed the budding field of victimology in a direction that eventually led to
a reformulation of the definition of victimization.
1. Hans Von Hentig
German criminologist Hans Von Hentig developed a typology of victims based on the
degree to which victims contributed to causing the criminal act. Examining the psychological, social,
and biological dynamics of the situation, he classified victims into 13 categories depending on their
propensity or risk for victimization. His typology included the young, female, old, immigrants,
depressed, wanton, tormentor, blocked, exempted, or fighting. His notion that victims contributed to
their victimization through their actions and behaviors led to the development of the concept of
"victim-blaming” and is seen by many victim advocates as an attempt to assign equal culpability to the
victim.
2. Benjamin Mendelsohn
Benjamin Mendelsohn (1976), an attorney, has often been referred to as the "father" of
victimology. Intrigued by the dynamics that take place between victims and offenders, he surveyed
both parties during the course of preparing a case for trial. Using these data, he developed a six-
category typology of victims based on legal considerations of the degree of a victim's culpability. This
classification ranged from the completely innocent victim (e.g., a child or a completely unconscious
person) to the imaginary victim (e.g.. persons suffering from mental disorders who believe they are
victims).
3. Marvin E. Wolfgang
The first empirical evidence to support the notion that victims are to some degree
responsible for their own victimization was presented by Marvin E. Wolfgang, who analyzed
Philadelphia's police homicide records from 1948 through 1952. He reported that 26% of homicides
resulted from victim precipitation. Wolfgang identified three factors common to victim-precipitated
homicides:
a. The victim and offender had some prior interpersonal relationship,
b. there was a series of escalating disagreements between the parties, and
c. the victim had consumed alcohol.
4. Stephen Schafer
Moving from classifying victims on the basis of propensity or risk and yet still focused on
the victim- offender relationship, Stephen Schafer's typology classifies victims on the basis of their
"functional responsibility." Victims' dual role was to function so that they did not provoke others to
harm them while also preventing such acts. Schafer's seven- category functional responsibility
typology ranged from no victim responsibility (e.g., unrelated Victims, those who are biologically
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weak), to some degree of victim responsibility (e.g..precipitative victims), to total victim responsibility
(e.g.. self-victimizing).
5. Menachem Amir
Several years later, Menachem Amir undertook one of the first studies of rape. On the
basis of the details in the Philadelphia police rape records, Amir reported that 19% of all forcible
rapes were victim precipitated by such factors as the use of alcohol by both parties; seductive actions
by the victim; and the victim's wearing of revealing clothing, which could tantalize the offender to the
point of misreading the victim's behavior. His work was criticized by the victim s movement and the
feminist movement as blaming the victim.
B. Second Generation: Theories of Victimization
The second generation of theorists shifted attention from the role of the victim toward an
emphasis on a situational approach that focuses on explaining and testing how lifestyles and routine
activities of everyday life create opportunities for victimization. The emergence of these two
theoretical perspectives is one of the most Significant developments in the field of victimology.
1. Lifestyle Exposure Theory

Using data from the 1972-1974 NCS, Hindelang. Gottfredson, and Garofalo noticed that
certain groups of people, namely, young people and males, were more likely to be criminally
victimized. They theorized that an individual's demographics (e.g., age, sex) tended to influence one's
lifestyle, which in turn increased his or her exposure to risk of personal and property victimization. For
instance, according to them, one's sex carries with it certain role expectations and societal
constraints; it is how the individual reacts to these influences that determine one's lifestyle. If females
spend more time at home, they would be exposed to fewer risky situations involving strangers and
hence experience fewer stranger-committed victimizations.
Using the principle of homogamy, Hindelang et al. also argued that lifestyles that expose
people to a large share of would-be offenders increase one's risk of being victimized. Homogamy
would explain why young persons are more likely to be victimized than older people, because the
young are more likely to hang out with other youth, who commit a disproportionate amount of violent
and property crimes (see more below).
2. Routine Activities Theory
Cohen and Felson formulated routine activities theory to explain changes in aggregate
direct-contact predatory (e.g., murder, forcible rape, burglary) crime rates in the United States from
1947 through 1974. Routine activities theory posits that the convergence in time and space of a
motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian provide an opportunity
for crimes to occur. The absence of any one of these conditions is sufficient to drastically reduce the
risk of criminal opportunity, if not prevent it altogether.
Routine activities theory does not attempt to explain participation in crime but instead
focuses on how opportunities for crimes are related to the nature of patterns or routine social
interaction, including one's work, family, and leisure activities. So, for example, if someone spends
time in public places such as bars or hanging out on the streets, he or she increases the likelihood of
coming into contact with a motivated offender in the absence of a capable guardian. The supply of
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motivated offenders is taken as a given. What varies is the supply of suitable targets (e.g.,
lightweight, easy-to-conceal property, such as cell phones and DVD players, or drunk individuals) and
capable guardians (e.g. neighbors, police, burglar alarms).
3. Empirical Support
Researchers commonly have used lifestyle exposure and routine activity theories to test
hypotheses about how Individuals daily routines expose them to victimization risk. These theories
have been applied principally to examine opportunities for different types of personal and property
victimizations using diverse samples that range from school- age children, to college students, to
adults in the general population across the United States and abroad. The data are generally
supportive of the theories, although not all studies fully support the theories.
C. Third Generation: Refinement and Empirical Tests of Opportunity Theories of Victimization

Researchers continued testing of lifestyle exposure and routine activity theories has
generated supportive findings and critical thinking that has led to a refining and extension of them.
Miethe and Meier developed an integrated theory of victimization, called structural-choice theory,
which attempts to explain both offender motivation and the opportunities for victimization. This further
refinement of opportunity theories of victimization was an important contribution to the victimology
literature.
One of the first studies of opportunity theories for predatory crimes was conducted by
Sampson and Wooldredge, who used data from the 1982 British Crime Survey (BCS). Their findings
showed that individual and household characteristics were significant predictors of victimization, as
were neighborhood- level characteristics. For example, although age of the head of the household
was an important indicator of burglary, the percentage of unemployed persons in the area also
predicted burglary. Sampson and Wooldredge's multilevel opportunity model was among the first to
test lifestyle and routine activity theories. Multilevel modeling of lifestyle exposure and routine activity
theories continues to draw the attention of scholars seeking to test how both individual characteristics
and macro level ones for example, neighborhood characteriIstics frame victimization opportunities.
Victimization theories have been expanded to examine nonpredatory crimes and
"victimless crimes”, such as gambling and prostitution, and deviant behavior such as heavy alcohol
use and dangerous drinking in young adults. The theories have also been applied to a wide range of
crimes in different social contexts, such as school-based victimization in secondary schools, stalking
among college students, and even explanations of the link between victimization and offending. Other
scholars have examined how opportunity for victimization is linked to social contexts and different
types of locations, such as the workplace, neighborhoods, and college campuses.
D. Fourth Generation: Moving Beyond Opportunity Theories
Work by Schreck and his colleagues suggests that antecedents to opportunity, such as
low self-control, social bonds, and peer influences, have also been found to be important predictors of
violent and property victimization.
Theories of Victimization
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Over the years, ideas about victim precipitation have come to be perceived as a negative
thing; victim blaming it is called. Research into ways in which victims contribute to their own
victimization is considered by victims and victim advocates as both unacceptable and destructive. Yet
a few enduring models and near- theories exist. I'll mention two or three of them:
1. Luckenbill's (1977) Situated Transaction Model
This one is commonly found in the sociology of deviance textbooks. The idea is that at the
interpersonal level, crime and victimization is a contest of character. The stages go like this:
a. Insult- Your Momma.
b. Clarification - Whaddya say about my Mother
c. Retaliation - I said your Momma and you too.
d. Counter Retaliation - Well, you're worse than my Momma.
e. Presence of Weapon -or search for a weapon or clenching of fists.
f. Onlookers - presence of the audience helps escalate the situation.
2. Benjanmin & Master's Threefold Model

This one is found in a variety of criminological studies, from prison riots to strain theories.
The idea is that conditions that support crime can be classified into three general categories:
a. Precipitating Factors - time, space, being in the wrong place at the wrong time.
b. Attracting Factors - choices, options, lifestyles (the sociological expression "lifestyle" refers to
daily routine activities as well as special events one engages in on a predictable basis).
c. Predisposing Factors – all the sociodemographic characteristics of victims, being male, being
young, being poor, being a minority, Iiving in squalor, being single, being unemployed.
3. Lawrence Cohen & Marcus Felson's (1979) Routine Activities Theory - This one is quite
popular among victimologists today who are anxious to test the theory. Briefly, it says that crime
occurs whenever three conditions come together:
a. Suitable Targets - and we always nave suitable targets as long as we have poverty
b. Motivated Offenders - and we’ll always have motivated offenders since victimology, unlike
deterministic criminology, assumes anyone will try to get away with something if they can.
c. Absence of Guardians - The problem is that there's few defensible spaces (natural surveillance
areas) and in the absence of private security, the government can't do the job alone.
4. Victim Precipitation Theory

Victim Precipitation Theory was first promulgated by Von Hentig in 1941 and applies only
to violent victimization. Its basic premise is that by acting in certain provocative ways, some
individuals initiate a chain of events that lead to their victimization.
Also, this theory suggests that some people actually initiate the confrontation that
eventually to their injury or death. Victim precipitation can be Active or Passive.
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a. Active Precipitation – It occurs when victims provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even
attack first.
b. Passive Precipitation - exhibits some personal characteristic that unknowingly either threatens or
encourages the attacker. The crime can occur because of personal conflict. This may also occur
when the victim belongs to a group whose mere presence threatens the attacker s reputation, status,
or economic well-being.
Victim Precipitation Theory was first propounded by Mendelsohn, and it alludes to the
eriminally provocative collusive or casual impact of the victim in a dyadic relation variously called:
a. Penal Couple (Mendelsohn, 1963:24)
b. Reciprocal Action Between Perpetrator and Victim (Von Hentig, 1940:303);
c. Duet Theory of Crime (Von Hentig, 1948:379);
d. Situated Transaction (Luckenbill, 1977);
e. Functional Responsibility for Crime (Schafer, 1968:55); or
f. Victim-Offender Relationship (Wolfgang. 1957:1)
5. Lifestyle Theory
Some criminologists believe people may become crime victims because their lifestyle
increases their exposure to criminal offenders. Victimization risk is increased by such behaviors as
associating with young men, going out in public places late at night, and living in an urban area.
Conversely one's chances of victimization can be reduced by staying home at night, moving to a rural
area, staying out in public places, earning more money, and getting married. The basis of this theory
is that crime is not a random occurrence v rather a function of victim's lifestyle.
People who have high-risk lifestyles are drinking, taking drugs, getting involved in crime
maintain a much greater chance of victimization.
a. The Equivalent Group Hypothesis: victims and criminals share similar characteristics because
they are not actually separate groups, and a criminal lifestyle exposes people to increased levels of
victimization risks.
b. The Proximity Hypothesis: some people willingly put themselves in jeopardy by choosing high
risk lifestyles or because they are forced to live in close physical proximity to criminals (they are in the
wrong place and the wrong time).
c. The Deviant Place Hypothesis: there are natural areas for crime, e.g. poor, densely populated,
highly transient neighborhoods in which commercial and residential property exist side by side.
6. Deviant Place Theory

According to deviant place theory, victims do not encourage crime but are victim prone
because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas where they have the greatest risk of
coming into contact with criminal offenders, irrespective of their own behavior or lifestyle. Deviant
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places are poor, densely populated, highly transient neighborhoods in which commercial and
residential property exist side by side.
Segment 2. Victim and Victimization

Who are Victims?
Victims, in general, means persons who, by reason of natural disaster or man-made
cause, individually or collectively have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional
suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or
omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within member states, including those laws
prescribing criminal abuse of power.
Victim, in the country, refers to a person who sustains injury or damage as a result of the
commission of a crime. Victims of crime may be any gender, age, race, or ethnicity. Victimization may
happen to an individual, family, group, or community; and a crime itself may be to a person or
property. The impact of crime on an individual victim, their loved ones, and their community depends
on a variety of factors, but often crime victimization has significant emotional, psychological, physical,
financial, and social consequences.
Effects and Consequences of Victimization

A. Physical Consequences
The physical consequences of victimization are often visible and range in seriousness
from bruises and scrapes, to broken bones, to fatal injuries. Other, less foreseeable injuries, such as
the threat of sexually transmitted diseases, can also be the result of a victimization incident. Forensic
evidence collection can detect physical injury and other useful evidence to support the claim of a
crime. For example, a specially trained medical nurse can perform sexual assault forensic
examination and document vaginal-anal and oral injury from an alleged rape victim.
Research Studies:
Physical impact Victims of some crime types are at greater risk of being affected physically
by the crime. Victims of violent crime may be left with a chronic physical condition or even a disability.
A recent Office for National Statistics (ONS) report found that victims sustained physical
injury in 52% of violent incidents. The most common type of injury, accounting for 33% of cases, was
minor bruising or black eyes, followed by cuts (14%), severe bruising (14 %) and scratches (14%).
More serious injuries such as broken bones, broken nose, concussion or loss of consciousness
accounted for a lower proportion of injuries (4%, 2% and 2o, respectively). Other injuries included
facial or head injuries with no bruising (1%), and broken or lost teeth (3%). Those who were
physically injured reported that the crime had a longer impact on their lives compared with other
victims of violent crime. A quarter (25%) of partner abuse victims reported that they sustained some
sort of physical injury. The most common types of injuries were minor bruising or black eyes (17%)
and scratches (12%).
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B. Psychological/Emotional and Mental Consequences

Emotional, psychological, and mental consequences of victimization may be less
externally obvious but are just as serious as physical injury. Stress, depression, anxiety, and other
mental disorders are but a few that crime victims experience. There are distinct mental stages that
follow a victimization incident: At first, Victims feel shock and fear, and perhaps retreat from society,
after this initial feeling of shock begins to subside, victims experience a range of emotions as they
begin to readapt to their lives; finally, but With the consequences that victimization carries, victims
attempt to reconcile and find a balance to allow them to pick up with their lives and routines where
they left off. Persistent mental consequences such as acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress
disorder, and Substance dependency, can occur.
Research Studies:
Existing evidence on the main effects of crime and victims needs emotional and
psychological impact. Research has found a widespread emotional effect on victims of different crime
types. A recent ONS report on violent crime found that 81% of victims of violence reported being
emotionally affected by the incident, including 17% who were affected very much.
Whitty and Buchanan found that victims of romance fraud were negatively affected by the scam,
experiencing a wide range of emotional responses such as embarrassment, shame, worry, stress,
denial, fear, shock, anger and self-blame. Some of the victims reported lower confidence and a
reduced sense of self-worth.
Cullina and colleagues found that the most common emotional responses to identity theft
included frustration or annoyance (79%), rage or anger (626), fear regarding personal financial
security (66%), and a sense of powerlessness or helplessness (54%). The long-term emotional
responses (two months or more) to identity theft included 19% of victims feeling captive and a sense
of grieving, 29% feeling ready to give up, 10% feeling that they had lost everything, and 8% feeling
suicidal. The emotional effect on Victims of identity theft is still present 26 weeks after victimization.
Handbag snatching can produce not only a financial but also an emotional, long-term
effect on victims. As well as losing photographs of loved ones that are often carried in a purse, victims
sense of security may be impaired; they tend to distrust and feel suspicious towards other people,
and develop a fear of walking in public and even in familiar environments. Wirtz and Harrell reported
that victims of burglary showed symptoms of anxiety and fear six months after the incident. What's
more, the intensity of their fear one or six months after the crime was no different than that
experienced by victims of serious crime such as robbery or assault.
Research into the emotional effect of burglary found that 73% of burglary victims reported
considerable fear of revictimization, 70% were very distressed following the burglaryl33 and 40%
were afraid to be alone in their property for some weeks following the incident.Burglary victims also
reported long-term worry.
Research suggests that victims of sexual violence experience more acute and chronic
physical health problems than non-victims they are at higher risk for abdominal and pelvic pain,
gastrointestinal and gynaecologic disorders, headaches and physical symptoms associated with
anxiety, panic or PTSD.56) Sexual assault a affects victim's sexual health risk-taking behaviors and
places some at greater risk of contracting HIV.
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C. Financial Consequences
The monetary costs of victim1zation to the victim are at times easy to calculate and at
other times impossible to measure. Medical expenses, property losses, lost wages and legal costs
are financial consequences that victims and their families must bear. Losses to the victim that are not
as easy to estimate a dollar value for, but are nevertheless salient, are pain and suffering, and fear,
among others. There are also financial consequences of victimization that society must bear, it
includes:
1. victim services,
2. witness assistance programs,
3. costs to the criminal justice system, and
4. negative public opinion.
Research Studies:
Research found out that older victims feel distressed about losing their children's
inheritance and being unable to financially support themselves. For some victims, the financial loss
was so severe that they became bankrupt, were made homeless, had to sell their home or business,
had to postpone retirement or return to work after retiring, or had to move in with other family
members. Others found that victims of fraud experienced credit problems, were unable to buy food,
had lost all their superannuation, had to pay off loans over months or even years, had lost their life
savings due to paying for lawyers and civil proceedings against the perpetrator, and had to downsize.
Trauma in Victimization
A. Primary Injuries
Primary injuries include physical trauma, intense stress reactions, and emotional trauma.
1. Physical Trauma
Crime Victims may experience physical trauma- serious injury or shock to the body, as
from a major accident. Victims may have cuts, bruises, fractured arms or legs, or internal injuries.
2. Intense Stress Reactions
Victims breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate may increase, and their muscles may
tighten. They may feel exhausted but unable to sleep, and they may have headaches, increased or
decreased appetites, or digestive problems.
3. Emotional Trauma
Victims may experience emotional trauma emotional wounds or shocks that may have
long-lasting effects. Emotional trauma may take many different forms:
a. Shock or Numbness - Victims may feel "frozen" and cut off from their own emotions.
Some victims say they feel as if they are ‘watching a movie’ rather than having their own experiences.
Victims may not be able to make decisions or conduct their lives as they did before the crime.
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b. Denial, Disbelief, and Anger - Victims may experience "denial, an unconscious defense against
painful or unbearable memories and feelings about the crime. Or they may experience disbelief,
telling themselves, "this just could not have happened to me!" They may feel intense anger and a
desire to get even with the offender.
c. Acute Stress Disorder - Some crime victims may experience trouble sleeping, flashbacks,
extreme tension or anxiety, Outbursts of anger, memory problems, trouble Concentrating, and other
symptoms of distress for days or weeks following a trauma. A person may be diagnostics as having
acute stress disorder (ASD) if these or o mental disorders continue for a minimum of two day up to
four weeks within a month of the trauma. If these symptoms persist after a month, the diagnosis
becomes post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Research showed that victims of identity fraud reported that even though the financial loss
related to the fraud was substantial, the emotional trauma and stress were the most difficult aspects
of the situation to deal with.
B. Secondary Injuries
When victims do not receive the support and help they need after the crime, they may
suffer "secondary injuries. They may be hurt by a lack of understanding from friends, family, and the
professionals they come into contact with-particularly if others seem to blame the victim for the crime
(suggesting they should have been able to prevent or avoid it). Police, prosecutors, judges, social
service providers, the media, coroners, and even clergy and mental health professional may
contribute to such secondary injuries.
C. Common Injuries
It includes bruises, cuts, scrapes, broken bones, sexually transmitted diseases, and a wide
range of internal injuries. Also, physical reactions (such as rapid heart rate and breathing, increased
blood pressure, nausea or sleeplessness) to the emotional wounds caused by the crime.
Stages of Trauma Recovery Stage

1: Silence
People who experience adverse situations, such as a traumatic event involving actual or
threatened danger, face incredible challenges. The initial stage following a traumatic event is often a
time of silence for the victim. It's common for recently victimized people to refuse to talk about what
happened. This may be due to a number of things, including stigma, isolation, shame, guilt,
confusion, or denial about the event.
A person emerging from trauma may have low self-esteem at first and may feel
overwhelmed and disconnected from the rest of the world.
Stage 2: Victimhood
Eventually, the traumatized self may start to long for change as the ongoing suffering
interferes with daily life tasks and a need grow and recover begins to form. As this need grows, it
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allows the person to begin exploring ways to move through the trauma. According to available
research, there is often a tug-of-war taking place within the individual between a need to be safe and
protect emotions and a need to grow and confront the traumatic memories.
Stage 2: Victimhood
Eventually, the traumatized self may start to long for change as the ongoing suffering
interferes with daily life tasks and a need to grow and recover begins to form. As this need grows, it
allows the person to begin exploring ways to move through the trauma. According to available
research, there is often a tug-of-war taking place within the individual between a need to be safe and
protect emotions and a need to grow and confront the traumatic memories.
The person may feel compelled to talk openly with everyone about what happened and the
suffering he or she experienced. Some people will likely be more willing than others to listen. For
people working their way through the stage of victimization, having someone to listen and support
them as they process the event can be critical to their ability to move forward into survivor hood.
Many people find support groups helpful during this stage counseling or other support.
Stage 3: Survivorhood
Once a person processes the traumatic event and continues transitioning away from the
victim experience, he or she often begins identifying as a survivor. During this stage, a person has
had an opportunity to talk about his or her experience and has gained some sense of clarity. He or
she may begin to identify the ways in which he/she persevered and the strengths that helped make
moving forward possible. The person hasn’t forgotten the event, but he or she has a greater
understanding about what the event means and the impact it has made on his or her life.
Reaching the stage of survivor hood doesn't happen overnight. It may take months or even
years to work through the victim stage and reach the point where one feels that the wounds are
healing and a sense of relief is possible. Also, the process of healing is not linear. Survivors take one
step forward and two steps back sometimes, and moving through it all and persevering may coincide
with feeling hopeful one day and damaged and wounded the next. People I survivor stage tend to
spend less and less time feeling wounded they continue learning new tools and recognizing
themselves resilient.
Stage 4: Thriving and Transcendence
Most people I've worked with seem content reaching the stage of survivor hood. They feel
like they are managing challenges better and have a greater awareness about themselves and their
experiences. Other people, the person hasn’t forgotten the event, but he or she has a greater
understanding about what the event means and the impact it has made on his or her life. However,
have told me they're not done growing, and some of them have even said they don't want to be called
a survivor.
This group becomes the thriving group, people who transformed their experiences into a
meaningful personal narrative and will not be defined by their adversity. They feel healed and safe,
and take appropriate risks in seeking connection with others, such as asking a new neighbor out for
coffee. They don't feel the need to tell their stories unless it benefits someone else. "Thrivers" feel
motivated to take part in the community and may seek out volunteer opportunities or other ways to
help others.
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Common Victim Behaviors

1. Survivors of Sexual Abuse
a. It is common for survivors of sexual assault to initially deny they were abused.
b. Many survivors wait until well into their adult hood to share their secret. For many male victims, the
shame and secrecy are compounded by the fear that their own Sexuality may have something to do
with it, or at least that others will think so.
c. Delayed reporting of sexual abuse is a common, normal reaction from someone who has
experienced traumatic events.
d. Survivors are often terrified that they will not be believed and ashamed that they don't know how to
stop the abuse. Victims often feel trapped between wanting the abuse to stop and being terrified of
other people learning what has been done to them. That fear can keep victims silent while the abuse
is going on, and for years after it has stopped.
e. Many victims continue to have a relationship with their abuser. Though it may be difficult for the
public to understand, it is common for survivors of sexual abuse to continue relationships with their
abusers after the abuse has stopped. Individuals react to trauma in different ways. For example, it is
common for victims to maintain contact with their abusers because they may still feel affection for
them even though they hate the abuse. This is especially normal when the abuser is a member of the
family or a close family friend. It is also common for some victims to maintain contact in an attempt to
regain control over their assault. Others may maintain contact in an attempt to regain a feeling of
normalcy.
f. A victim's view of the offender's actions changes over time. An adult understands and views
sexuality very differently than a child. The knowledge we gain with experience and time can give us
the tools to better understand an event that happened when he or she was younger. It is common for
survivors to not name their experiences as abuse until they are in adulthood.
g. It is normal for a victim s story to evolve throughout the investigative process. Initially a victim may
say nothing happened. It is not uncommon for victims delay reporting sexual abuse or to deny that
they were abused when they are initially questioned. Reasons could include fear of the stigma
associated with the abuse, embarrassment and retaliation.
h. Victims may deny the abuse they’ve suffered, or misrepresent parts of their story. Many victims try
to hide what is happening to them by outright denying it when others ask (including classmates who
may make jokes. tease or bully them based on the irregular relationship they see or sense), and by
making statements with false bravado. Sometimes victims fear getting in trouble for their own "bad" or
illegal behavior (underage drinking, using drugs, lying to parents about where they are or who they
are with) and will make false statements to friends, family and even investigators about those acts.
i. It is normal for victims to freeze and be unable to physically fend off their abuser. When faced with
imminent threat or danger, most humans will freeze as opposed to fighting or fleeing. This hard-
Wired, biological response is an automatic impulse that is seen in many other species. The brain
instructs parts of the body to literally "shut down in order to improve the odds of surviving a
dangerous traumatic situation.
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j. Male survivor is committed to preventing, healing, and eliminating all forms of sexual victimization or
and men through support, treatment, research, education, advocacy, and activism.
2. Domestic Violence
Victims of domestic violence live in fear, worrying about their safety and impending
danger. Sometimes they need to leave their homes in order to protect themselves and their loved
ones. Even though severing ties with the abuser seems like the best solution, many victims choose to
stay with the abuser for a variety of reasons. Sometimes victims do not leave because they want to
provide a family for their children, depend on the abuser financially, emotionally or their religion
forbids them from breaking up a marriage.
Even when victims decide to leave, it takes them 5 attempts on average before they
succeed. Also, many victims who leave will need to start new independent lives often with limited
resources while feeling mentally and emotionally depleted by the effects of the abuse. Self-protective
skills are also necessary whether victims leave or stay to be able to prevent further injury.
Models of Victimization
1. Victim of Crime Model (Man-made Cause)
This model of victimization is applicable to victims of man-made causes like homicide,
rape and others. The stages are as follows:
a. Stage of Impact and Disorganization - This depicts the attitude or activity of the victim during and
immediately following the criminal event.
b. Stage of Recoil - This stage occurs during which the victim formulates psychological defenses
and deals with conflicting emotions of guilt, anger, acceptance and desire of revenge (this could last 3
to 8 months).
c. Reorganization Stage - This stage occurs during which the victim puts his/her life back to normal
daily living.
2. Victim of Disaster Model (Natural Cause)

This model of victimization is applicable to victims of natural causes like earthquake, flood,
volcanic eruption and others. The stages are as follows:
a. Pre-impact Stage - This describes the state of the victim prior to being victimized
b. Impact Stage -This stage is the phase in which victimization occurs.
c. Post-impact Stage - This stage entails the degree and duration of the personal and social
disorganization following victimization.
d. Behavioral Outcome - This phase describes the victim 's adjusment to the victimization
experience.
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Kinds of Crime Victim

1. Direct or Primary Crime Victim - This kind of victim directly suffers the harm or injury which is
physical psychological, and economic losses.
2. Indirect or Secondary Crime Victim-Victims who experience the harm second hand, such as
intimate partners or significant others of rape victims or children of a battered woman. This may
include family members of the primary victims. However, Karmen also included first responders and
rescue workers who race to crime scenes (such as police officers, forensic evidence technicians,
paramedics, fire- fighters and the like) as secondary victims because they are also exposed to
emergencies and trauma on such a routine basis and that they also need emotional support
themselves.
3. Tertiary Crime Victim - Victims who experience the harm vicariously, such as through media
accounts, the public or community due to watching news regarding incidents.
What is Victim Impact Panel?

A victim impact panel is a form of community-based or restorative justice in which the
crime victims (or relatives and friends of deceased crime victims) meet with the defendant after
conviction to tell the convict about how the criminal activity affected them, in the hope of rehabilitation
or deterrence.
Victim impact statements are written or oral information from crime victims, in their own
words, about how a crime has affected them. All 50 states allow victim impact statements at some
phase of the sentencing process. Most states permit them at parole hearings, and victim impact
information is generally included in the pre-sentencing report presented to the judge.
What is the Purpose of Victim Impact Statements?
The purpose of victim impact statements is to allow crime victims, during the decision-
making process on sentencing or pa to describe to the court or parole board the impact of the crime.
A judge may use information from these statements to help determine an offender.
Victim impact statements may provide information about damage to victims that would otherwise
have been unavailable to courts or parole boards. Victims are often not called to testify in courts, and
if they testify, they must respond to narrow, specific questions.
Victim impact statements are often the victim’s only opportunity to participate in the
criminal justice process or to confront the offenders who have harmed them. Many victims report they
testify, they must respond to narrow, specific n that such statements improves their satisfaction with
the criminal justice process and helps them recover from the crime.
Contents of Victim Impact Statements

1. Physical damage caused by the crime.
2. Emotional damage caused by the crime.
3. Financial costs to the victim from the crime.
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4. Medical or psychological treatments required by the victim or his or her family. The need for
restitution (court-ordered funds that the offender pays the victim for crime-related expenses).
6. The victim's views on the crime or the offender (in some states).
7. The Victim's views on an appropriate sentence (in some states).
Note:
Supreme Court of the United States first recognized the Crime victims to make a victim impact
statement in the sentencing phase of a criminal trial in the case of Payne v. Tennessee 501 U.S. 808
(1991).
Mendelsohn's Types of Victim

Mendelsohn interviewed victims to obtain information his analysis led him to believe that
most victims had an unconscious aptitude for being victimized. The types of victim according to
Mendelsohn are:
1. Innocent - Portrayed as just being in the wrong place at the wrong time.
2. Victim with only minor guilt and was Victimized due to ignorance.
3. Victim who is just as guilty as the offender and the voluntary victim. Suicide case is common to
this category.
4. The victim guiltier than the offender this category was described as containing persons who
provoked the criminal or actively induced their own victimization.
5. The Most Guilty Victim "who is guilty alone" - An attacker killed by a would-be victim in the act of
defending themselves 1S an example of this.
6. The Imaginary Victim- A victim suffering from mental disorders, or those victims with extreme
mental abnormalities.
According to Mendelsohn, the last five types all contributed somehow to their own injury,
and represented as precipitation victim.
Hans Von Hentig's Taxonomy of Murder Victims

1. Depressive Type - A victim who lacks ordinary prudence and discretion. It is an easy target,
careless and unsuspecting They are submissive by virtue of emotional condition.
2. Greedy of Gain or Acquisitive Type - A victim who lacks all normal inhibitions and well-founded
suspicions. This Victim is easily duped because his or her motivation for easy gain lowers his or her
natural tendency to be suspicious.
3. Wanton or Overly Sensual Type - A victim where "females foibles play a role. This victim is
particularly vulnerable to stresses that occur at a given period of time in the life cycle, such as juvenile
Victims. Further, this victim is ruled by passion and thoughtlessly seeking pleasure.
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4. Tormentor Type - The victim of attack from the target of his or her abuse, such as with battered
women. The most primitive way of solving a personal conflict is to annihilate physically the cause of
the trouble.
5. Lonesome Type - This is the same with the acquisitive type of victim, by virtue of wanting
companionship or affection.
6. Heartbroken Type - This victim is emotionally disturbed by virtue of heartaches and pains.
Von Hentig's Classes of Victim

1. The Young - The Young is weak by virtue of age and immaturity.
2. The Female - Female is physically less powerful and is easily dominated by male.
3. The Old - The Old is incapable of physical defense and the common object of illegal scheme.
4. The Mentally Defective - Mentally Defective person is unable to think clearly.
5. The Immigrant- Immigrant is unsure of the rules of conduct in the surrounding society.
6. The Minorities - Racial prejudice may lead to victimization or unequal treatment by the agency of
justice.
Segment 3. Right of Victims
What are Victims' Rights?

All states and the federal government have passed laws to establish a set of victims’
rights. In general, these laws require that Victims have certain information, protections, and a limited
role in the criminal justice process. Victims' rights depend on the laws of the jurisdiction where the
crime is investigated and prosecuted: state, federal or tribal government, or military installation.
Who May Exercise Victims' Rights?

A victim is usually defined as a person who has been directly harmed by a crime that was
committed by another person. In some states, victims’ rights apply only to victims of felonies (more
serious crimes) while other states also grant legal rights to victims of misdemeanors (less serious
crimes). Some states allow a family member of a homicide victim or the parent or guardian of a minor,
incompetent person, or person with a disability to exercise these rights on behalf of the victims.
Overview of Victims' Rights
Below is a list of basic victims' rights provided by law most jurisdictions. These rights vary,
depending on federal, state, or tribal law.
1. Right to Be Treated with Dignity, Respect, and Sensitivity
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Victims generally have the right to be treated with courtesy, fairness, and care by law
enforcement and other officials throughout the entire criminal justice process. This right is included in
the constitutions of most states that have victims rights amendments and in the statutes of more than
half the states. 2 Victim impact statements allow crime Victims, during the decision-making process
on sentencing or parole, to describe to the court or parole board the impact of the crime on their lives.
The victim impact statement may include a description of psychological, financial, physical, or
emotional harm the victim experienced as a result of the crime. A judge may use information from
these statements help determine an offender's sentence; a parole board a use such information to
help decide whether to grant a parole and what conditions to impose in releasing an offender. Many
victims have reported that making victim impact statements improved their satisfaction with the
criminal justice process and helped them recover from the crime. In some states, the prosecutor is
required confer with the victim before making important decisions. In all states, however, the
prosecutor (and not the victim) makes decisions about the case.
2. Right to Be Informed
The purpose of this right is to make sure that victims have the information they need to
exercise their rights and to seek services and resources that are available to them. Victims generally
have the right to receive information about victims’ rights, victim compensation (see "Right to Apply
for Compensation, below), available services and resources, how to contact criminal justice officials,
and what to expect in the criminal justice system. Victims also usually have the right to receive
notification of important events in their cases. Although state laws vary, most states require that
victims receive notice of the following events:
➢ the arrest and arraignment of the offender
➢ bail proceedings pretrial proceedings
➢ dismissal of charges
➢ plea negotiations
➢ trial
➢ sentencing
➢ appeals
➢ probation or parole hearings
➢ release or escape of the offender
States have different ways of providing such information to victims. Usually, information
about court proceedings is mailed to the victim. Some states have an automated victim notification
system that automatically calls or e-mails the victim with updates on the status of the offender, while
others require the victim to telephone the authorities to receive such updates.
3. Right to Protection
In many states, victims have the right to protection from threats, intimidation, or retaliation
during criminal proceedings. Depending on the jurisdiction, victims may receive the following types of
protection:
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➢ police escorts
➢ witness protection programs
➢ relocation
➢ restraining orders
Some states also have laws to protect the employment of victims who are attending
criminal proceedings (see "Right to Attend Criminal Proceedings, above).
4. Right to Apply for Compensation

All states provide crime Victim compensation to reimburse victims of violent crime for
someone of the out-of-pocket expenses that resulted from the crime. The purpose of compensation is
to recognize victim’s financial losses and to help them recover some of these costs. All states have a
cap on the total compensation award for each crime, and not all crime-related expenses are covered.
To be eligible for compensation, victims must submit an application, usually within a certain period of
time, and show that the losses they are claiming occurred through no fault of their own. Some types
of losses that are usually covered include:
➢ medical and counseling expenses
➢ lost wages
➢ funeral expenses
Compensation programs seldom cover property loss or pain and suffering. Also, Victim compensation
is a payer of last resort, compensation programs will not cover expenses that can be paid by some
other program, such as health insurance or workman s compensation.
5. Right to Restitution from the Offender

In many states, victims of crime have the right to restitution, which means the offender
must pay to some of the damage that resulted from the crime, The purpose of this right is to hold
offenders directly responsible to victims for the financial harm they caused. The court orders the
offender to pay a specific amount of restitution either in a lump sum or a series of payments. Some
types of losses covered by restitution include:
➢ lost wages
➢ property loss
➢ insurance deductibles
6. Right to Prompt Return of Personal Property

Crime investigators must often seize some of the victim's property as evidence for a
criminal case. In most states, authorities must return such property to the victim when it is no longer
needed. To speed up the return of property, some states allow law enforcement to use photographs
105
of the item, rather than the item itself, as evidence. The prompt return of personal property reduces
inconvenience to victims and helps restore their sense of security.
7. Right to a Speedy Trial
8. Right to Enforcement of Victims' Rights
To be meaningful, legal rights must be enforced. States are beginning to pass laws to
enforce victims' rights, and several states have created offices to receive and investigate reports of
violations of victims’ rights. Other states have laws that permit victims to assert their rights in court.
United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of
Power
A. Access to Justice and Fair Treatment
1. Victims should be treated with compassion and respect for their dignity. They are entitled to access
to the mechanisms of Justice and to prompt redress, as provided for by national legislation, for the
harm that they have suffered.
2. Judicial and administrative mechanisms should be established and strengthened where necessary
to enable victims, to 0otain redress through formal or informal procedures that are expeditious, fair,
inexpensive and accessible. Should be informed of their rights in seeking redress through victims
such mechanisms.
3. The responsiveness of judicial and administrative processes to the needs of victims should be
facilitated by:
a. Informing victims of their role and the scope, timing and progress of the proceedings and of the
disposition of their cases, especially where serious crimes are involved and where they have
requested such information;
b. Allowing the views and concerns of victims to be presented and considered at appropriate
stages of the proceedings where their personal interests are affected, without prejudice to the
accused and consistent with the relevant national criminal justice system;
c. Providing proper assistance to victims throughout legal process;
d. Taking measures to minimize inconvenience to victims, protect their privacy, when necessary,
and ensure thei safety, as well as that of their families and witnesses on their behalf, from intimidation
and retaliation; and
e. Avoiding unnecessary delay in the disposition of cases and the execution of orders or decrees
granting awards to victims.
4. Informal mechanisms for the resolution of disputes, including mediation, arbitration and customary
justice or indigenous practices, should be utilized where appropriate to facilitate conciliation and
redress for victims.
B. Restitution
106
1. Offenders or third parties responsible for their behavior should, where appropriate, make fair
restitution to victims, their families or dependents. Such restitution should include the return of
property or payment or the harm or loss suffered, reimbursement of expenses incurred as a result of
the victimization, the provision of services and the restoration of rights.
2. Governments should review their practices, regulations and laws to consider restitution as an
available sentencing option in criminal cases, in addition to other criminal sanctions.
3. In cases of substantial harm to the environment, restitution, if ordered, should include, as far as
possible, restoration of the environment, reconstruction of the infrastructure, replacement of
community facilities and reimbursement of the expenses of relocation, whenever such harm results in
the dislocation of a community.
4 Where public officials or other agents acting in an official or quasi-official capacity have violated
national criminal laws, the victims should receive restitution from the State whose officials or agents
were responsible for the harm inflicted. In cases where the Government under whose authority the
victimizing act or omission occurred is no longer existence, the State or Government successor in title
should provide restitution to the victims.
C. Compensation
1. When compensation is not fully available from the offender or other sources, States should
endeavor to provide financial compensation to:
a. Victims who have sustained significant bodily injury or impairment of physical or mental
health as a result of serious crimes; and
b. The family, in particular dependents of persons who have died or become physically or
mentally incapacitated as a result of such victimization.
2. The establishment, strengthening and expansion of national funds for compensation to victims
should be encouraged. Where appropriate, other funds may also be established for this purpose,
including those cases where the State of which the victim is a national is not in a position to
compensate the Victim for the harm.
D. Assistance
1. Victims should receive the necessary material, medical psychological and social assistance
through governmental, voluntary, community-based and indigenous means.
2 Victims should be informed of the availability of health and social services and other relevant
assistance and be readily afforded access to them.
3. Police, justice, health, social service and other personnel concerned should receive training to
sensitize them to the needs of victims, and guidelines to ensure proper and prompt aid.
4 In providing services and assistance to victims, attention should be given to those who have special
needs because of the nature of the harm inflicted or because of factors such as those mentioned in
paragraph 3 above.
107
The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines

Bill of Rights - Article III
Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor
shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against
unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose shall be inviolable and
no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon probable cause to be determined
personally by the Judge after examination under oath or affirmation of the complainant and the
witnesses he may produce, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or
things to be seized.
Section 3.
1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon lawful
order of the court, when the public safety or order requires otherwise, as prescribed by law.
2.) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding any section shall be
inadmissible for any purpose proceeding.
Section 11. Free access to the courts and quasi-Judicial bodies by reason and adequate legal
assistance shall not be denied to any person by reason of poverty.
Section 12.
1) Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense shall have the right to
be informed of his right to remain silent and to have competent and independent counsel preferably of
his own choice. If the person cannot afford the services of counsel, he must be provided with one.
These rights cannot be waved except in writing and in the presence of counsel.
2) No torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other means which vitiate the free
will shall be used against him. Secret detention places, solitary, incommunicado, or other similar
forms of detention are prohibited.
3) Any confession or admission obtained in violation of this or Section 17 hereof shall be
inadmissible in evidence against him.
4) The law shall provide for penal and civil sanctions for violations of this section as well as
compensation to and rehabilitation of victims of torture or similar practices, and their families.
108

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A Module Exclusive to Criminology Students of NEMSU CANTILAN|Human Behavior and Victimology

CRIM 3- HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

Segment 1. Overview on Human Development

What is Human Behavior?

What is Human Development?

Four Pillars of Human Development

Theories of Child (Human) Development

I. Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

The Structure of Personality (Tripartite Personality)

Levels of Awareness (Topographical Model by Sigmund Freud)

Freud’s Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages)

a. Oral Stage (0-18 months)

b. Anal Stage (18 months- 3 years)

c. Phallic Stage (3-6 years)

d. Latency Stage (6-11 years)

e. Genital Stage (11 years on)

II. Trait Theory

Trait refers to the characteristics of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving,

Kinds of Trait by Allport

Kinds of Trait by Golbdberg (Big Five or Five Factor Theory)

Personality Trait by Eysenck

1. Extrovert- It refers to a person that is sociable, out-going, and active.

Temperament refers to the fundamental groundwork of character, generally presumed to be

Four Types of Temperament

Melancholic – sad, gloomy

Psychological Studies in Relation to Crime and Delinquency

2. Cyril Burt (Young Delinquent, 1925)

3. William Healy (Individual Delinquency, 1916)

4. Walter Bromberg (Crime and the Mind, 1946)

B. Psychosocial Theory of Development (Erik Erikson)

Erikson’s Stages of Human Development

C. Cognitive Development Theory (Jean Piaget)

D. Socio-Cultural Theory (Lev Vygotzky)

Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development;

Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory

Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a

E. Bio Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner)

The Five Environment Systems

F. Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

Levels of Moral Development

Level 1: Preconventional Morality

Stage 1: Punishment- Obedience Orientation- Related to Skinner’s Operational

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Level 3: Postconventional Morality

Segment 2. Abnormal Behavior

What is Abnormal Behavior?

Abnormal Behavior is a behaviour that is deviant maladaptive, or personally distressful over a

The American Psychiatric Association defines abnormal behaviour in medical terms as a

Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders, including efforts to understand

A description of the four Ds when defining abnormality:

a. Maladaptive behaviour is caused by faulty and irrational cognitions.

b. Unchecked Id Impulses- If Id impulses are unchecked they may be expressed in self-

Identification of Abnormal Behavior

Abnormal Behavior could be recognized through any of the following:

1. Deviation from Statistical Norm

2. Deviation from Social Norm

3. Deviation from Social Norm

b. Maladaptive to Society- It refers to a person’s obstruction or disruption to social group

5. Failure to Function Adequately