Graph Theory with Algorithms and its Applications

Santanu Saha Ray

Graph Theory
with Algorithms
and its Applications
In Applied Science and Technology

123
Santanu Saha Ray
Department of Mathematics
National Institute of Technology
Rourkela, Orissa
India

ISBN 978-81-322-0749-8 ISBN 978-81-322-0750-4 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-0750-4
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This work is dedicated to my grandfather late
Sri Chandra Kumar Saha Ray, my father late
Sri Santosh Kumar Saha Ray, my beloved
wife Lopamudra and my son Sayantan
Preface

Graph Theory has become an important discipline in its own right because of its
applications to Computer Science, Communication Networks, and Combinatorial
optimization through the design of efficient algorithms. It has seen increasing
interactions with other areas of Mathematics. Although this book can ably serve as
a reference for many of the most important topics in Graph Theory, it even
precisely fulfills the promise of being an effective textbook. The main attention lies
to serve the students of Computer Science, Applied Mathematics, and Operations
Research ensuring fulfillment of their necessity for Algorithms. In the selection
and presentation of material, it has been attempted to accommodate elementary
concepts on essential basis so as to offer guidance to those new to the field.
Moreover, due to its emphasis on both proofs of theorems and applications, the
subject should be absorbed followed by gaining an impression of the depth and
methods of the subject. This book is a comprehensive text on Graph Theory and
the subject matter is presented in an organized and systematic manner. This book
has been balanced between theories and applications. This book has been orga-
nized in such a way that topics appear in perfect order, so that it is comfortable for
students to understand the subject thoroughly. The theories have been described in
simple and clear Mathematical language. This book is complete in all respects. It
will give a perfect beginning to the topic, perfect understanding of the subject, and
proper presentation of the solutions. The underlying characteristics of this book are
that the concepts have been presented in simple terms and the solution procedures
have been explained in details.
This book has 10 chapters. Each chapter consists of compact but thorough
fundamental discussion of the theories, principles, and methods followed by
applications through illustrative examples.
All the theories and algorithms presented in this book are illustrated by
numerous worked out examples. This book draws a balance between theory and
application.
Chapter 1 presents an Introduction to Graphs. Chapter 1 describes essential and
elementary definitions on isomorphism, complete graphs, bipartite graphs, and
regular graphs.

vii
viii Preface

Chapter 2 introduces different types of subgraphs and supergraphs. This chapter

includes operations on graphs. Chapter 2 also presents fundamental definitions of
walks, trails, paths, cycles, and connected or disconnected graphs. Some essential
theorems are discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 3 contains detailed discussion on Euler and Hamiltonian graphs. Many
important theorems concerning these two graphs have been presented in this
chapter. It also includes elementary ideas about complement and self-comple-
mentary graphs.
Chapter 4 deals with trees, binary trees, and spanning trees. This chapter
explores thorough discussion of the Fundamental Circuits and Fundamental Cut
Sets.
Chapter 5 involves in presenting various important algorithms which are useful
in mathematics and computer science. Many are particularly interested on good
algorithms for shortest path problems and minimal spanning trees. To get rid of
lack of good algorithms, the emphasis is laid on detailed description of algorithms
with its applications through examples which yield the biggest chapter in this
book.
The mathematical prerequisite for Chapter 6 involves a first grounding in linear
algebra is assumed. The matrices incidence, adjacency, and circuit have many
applications in applied science and engineering.
Chapter 7 is particularly important for the discussion of cut set, cut vertices, and
connectivity of graphs.
Chapter 8 describes the coloring of graphs and the related theorems.
Chapter 9 focuses specially to emphasize the ideas of planar graphs and the
concerned theorems. The most important feature of this chapter includes the proof
of Kuratowski’s theorem by Thomassen’s approach. This chapter also includes the
detailed discussion of coloring of planar graphs. The Heawood’s Five color the-
orem as well as in particular Four color theorem are very much essential for the
concept of map coloring which are included in this chapter elegantly.
Finally, Chapter 10 contains fundamental definitions and theorems on networks
flows. This chapter explores in depth the Ford–Fulkerson algorithms with neces-
sary modification by Edmonds–Karp and also presents the application of maximal
flows which includes Maximum Bipartite Matching.
Bibliography provided at the end of this book serves as helpful sources for
further study and research by interested readers.
Acknowledgments

I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. R. K. Bera, former

Professor and Head, Department of Science, National Institute of Technical
Teacher’s Training and Research, Kolkata and Dr. K. S. Chaudhuri, Professor,
Department of Mathematics, Jadavpur University, for their encouragement in the
preparation of this book. I acknowledge with thanks the valuable suggestion
rendered by Scientist Shantanu Das, Senior Scientist B. B. Biswas, Head Reactor
Control Division, Bhaba Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai and my former
colleague Dr. Subir Das, Department of Mathematics, Institute of Technology,
Banaras Hindu University. This is not out of place to acknowledge the effort of my
Ph.D. Scholar student and M.Sc. students for their help to write this book.
I, also, express my sincere gratitude to the Director of National Institute of
Technology, Rourkela for his kind cooperation in this regard. I received consid-
erable assistance from my colleagues in the Department of Mathematics, National
Institute of Technology, Rourkela.
I wish to express my sincere thanks to several people involved in the prepa-
ration of this book.
Moreover, I am especially grateful to the Springer Publishing Company for
their cooperation in all aspects of the production of this book.
Last, but not the least, special mention should be made of my parents and my
beloved wife, Lopamudra for their patience, unequivocal support, and encour-
agement throughout the period of my work.
I look forward to receive comments and suggestions on the work from students,
teachers, and researchers.
Santanu Saha Ray

ix
Contents

1 Introduction to Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Definitions of Graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Some Applications of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Incidence and Degree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Complete Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Bipartite Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.1 Complete Bipartite Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Directed Graph or Digraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Subgraphs, Paths and Connected Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.1 Subgraphs and Spanning Subgraphs (Supergraphs) . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Operations on Graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Walks, Trails and Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Connected Graphs, Disconnected Graphs, and Components . . . . 15
2.5 Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Euler Graphs and Hamiltonian Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.1 Euler Tour and Euler Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Hamiltonian Path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.1 Maximal Non-Hamiltonian Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Complement and Self-Complementary Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4 Trees and Fundamental Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.1 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Some Properties of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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4.3 Spanning Tree and Co-Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.3.1 Some Theorems on Spanning Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.4 Fundamental Circuits and Fundamental Cut Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4.1 Fundamental Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4.2 Fundamental Cut Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

5 Algorithms on Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1 Shortest Path Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.1 Dijkstra’s Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.2 Floyd–Warshall’s Algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2 Minimum Spanning Tree Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.2.1 Objective of Minimum Spanning Tree Problem . . . . . . . 67
5.2.2 Minimum Spanning Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.3 Breadth First Search Algorithm to Find the Shortest Path. . . . . . 78
5.3.1 BFS Algorithm for Construction of a Spanning Tree. . . . 79
5.4 Depth First Search Algorithm for Construction
of a Spanning Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 80
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 85

6 Matrix Representation on Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

6.1 Vector Space Associated with a Graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.2 Matrix Representation of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.2.1 Incidence Matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.2.2 Adjacency Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2.3 Circuit Matrix/Cycle Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

7 Cut Sets and Cut Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

7.1 Cut Sets and Fundamental Cut Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.1.1 Cut Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.1.2 Fundamental Cut Set (or Basic Cut Set) . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.2 Cut Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.2.1 Cut Set with respect to a Pair of Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.3 Separable Graph and its Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3.1 Separable Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3.2 Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.4 Edge Connectivity and Vertex Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.4.1 Edge Connectivity of a Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.4.2 Vertex Connectivity of a Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Contents xiii

8 Coloring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.1 Properly Colored Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.2 Chromatic Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.3 Chromatic Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.3.1 Chromatic Number Obtained by
Chromatic Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.3.2 Chromatic Polynomial of a Graph G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.4 Edge Contraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

9 Planar and Dual Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

9.1 Plane and Planar Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.1.1 Plane Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.1.2 Planar Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.2 Nonplanar Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.3 Embedding and Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.3.1 Embedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.3.2 Plane Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.4 Regions or Faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.5 Kuratowski’s Two Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.5.1 Kuratowski’s First Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.5.2 Kuratowski’s Second Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.6 Euler’s Formula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.7 Edge Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.8 Subdivision, Branch Vertex, and Topological Minors. . . . . . . . . 143
9.9 Kuratowi’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.10 Dual of a Planar Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.10.1 To Find the Dual of the Given Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.10.2 Relationship Between a Graph and its Dual Graph . . . . . 151
9.11 Edge Coloring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.11.1 k-Edge Colorable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.11.2 Edge-Chromatic Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.12 Coloring Planar Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.12.1 The Four Color Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.12.2 The Five Color Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.13 Map Coloring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

10 Network Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

10.1 Transport Networks and Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.1.1 Transport Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.1.2 Cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
xiv Contents

10.2 Max-Flow Min-Cut Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

10.3 Residual Capacity and Residual Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
10.3.1 Residual Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
10.3.2 Residual Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
10.4 Ford-Fulkerson Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
10.5 Ford-Fulkerson Algorithm with Modification
by Edmonds-Karp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.5.1 Time Complexity of Ford-Fulkerson Algorithm . . . . . . . 167
10.5.2 Edmonds-Karp Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.6 Maximal Flow: Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.6.1 Multiple Sources and Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.6.2 Maximum Bipartite Matching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
About the Author

Dr. S. Saha Ray is currently working as an Associate Professor at the Department

of Mathematics, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, India. Dr. Saha Ray
completed his Ph.D. in 2008 from Jadavpur University, India. He received his
MCA degree in the year 2001 from Bengal Engineering College, Sibpur, Howrah,
India. He completed his M.Sc. in Applied Mathematics at Calcutta University in
1998 and B.Sc. (Honors) in Mathematics at St. Xavier’s College, Kolkata, in 1996.
Dr. Saha Ray has about 12 years of teaching experience at undergraduate and
postgraduate levels. He also has more than 10 years of research experience in
various field of Applied Mathematics. He has published several research papers in
numerous fields and various international journals of repute like Transaction
ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics, Annals of Nuclear Energy, Physica Scripta,
Applied Mathematics and Computation, and so on. He is a member of the Society
for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM) and American Mathematical
Society (AMS). He was the Principal Investigator of the BRNS research project
granted by BARC, Mumbai. Currently, he is acting as Principal Investigator of a
research Project financed by DST, Govt. of India. It is not out of place to mention
that he had been invited to act as lead guest editor in the journal entitled
International Journal of Differential equations of Hindawi Publishing Corpora-
tion, USA.

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