1

INTRODUCTION TO BOILERS

1. INTRODUCTION

The boiler, with its associated auxiliary plant, is the steam generating equipment of a
power plant unit.

The boiler converts chemical energy, in t he f orm of pulverised coal and air, into
heat energy. This is achieved by the controlled burning of the coal and air in the
combustion chamber of the boiler.

This resultant heat energy is used to convert water, flowing through the furnace wall
tubes, into steam. The steam is then heater further in the superheater areas of the
boiler, by the hot gases of combustion flow ing from the boiler furnace area.

In this w ay, the steam is loaded w ith heat energy, and then used as a carrying
medium to transfer the heat energy to the turbo-generator, w hich t hen converts
the heat energy int o mechanical and then electrical energy.

2. GENERAL SAFETY AWARENESS

The boiler plant harnesses extreme temperat ures and pressures. As such it is
important to be aw are of steam and w ater leaks, and to approach these w ith
caution.

Personal protective clothing and equipment should be w orn at all times w hile
w orking on the boiler plant.

Pulverised fuel and dust leaks can also be experienced on this plant area. It is
therefore advisable t o carry spare paper breathing masks w ith you at all times.

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3. DIFFERENT TYPES AND APPLICATION OF STEAM GENERATORS

3.1 Types of Steam Generators

There are t hree different types of boilers w hich w ill be discussed in this
module namely:

• Boilers w ith circulation w hich is natural, or caused entirely by variations

in density of w ater or w ater/steam mixtures w ithin the tubes.

• Boilers w ith circulation w hich is aided by circulation pumps or w hich

relies entirely on pumps, know n as assisted circulation boilers.

• Once-through boilers, having a continuous single path through the

boiler w ater/steam system, w ith no provision for recirculation w ithin
the boiler, know n as forced circulation boilers.

Water flow is similar in all of these designs. Water is passed to the boiler at
a temperature w hich is below saturation temperature, corresponding to the
pressure of the boiler. The first stage of heating w ithin the boiler is carried
out in the economiser w here sensible heat is added. From the economiser
the w ater is passed into the boiler circulation system for evaporat ion into
steam. In drum designs, the w ater is passed to the drum. In once-through
boilers it is passed t o t he furnace w all tubes w here transition from w ater to
steam takes place.

3.1.1 Natural Circulation Boiler (See Figure 1)

In the majority of boilers in this country w ater is recirculated through
evaporation tubes, passing from a boiler drum located at the top of
the boiler, via dow ncomer pipes to headers located at the bottom of
the tube banks. As the w ater absorbs heat w ithin the evaporation
tubes, steam bubbles are formed and, because these are less dense
than w ater, they rise inside the tubes. The w ater also rises ow ing
to the effects of friction betw een steam and w ater, and

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consequently a mixture of steam and w ater is returned to the boiler

drum.

FIGURE 1 : NATURAL CIRCULATION BOILER

The proportion of steam increases as the mixture flow s through the

evaporation t ubes w here heat is being added, how ever, the

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temperature of the mixture remains virtually constant at boiler

saturation temperature. In the drum the steam and w ater are
separated, the steam being passed to t he superheaters and the
w ater being returned t o the dow ncomer pipes for recirculation and
the addition of further heat.

In nat ural circulation t he dow ncomer pipes contain w ater only and
the evaporation tubes contain a mixture of w ater and steam. The
nett head of t his steam/w ater mixture is less than that in the
dow ncomer, so w ater t ends to fall in the dow ncomers and rise in the
evaporation tubes because of the difference in head, producing a
natural circulation.

With the advance in steam-cycle technology, w hich involves the use

of higher boiler pressures, the difference in specific volume bet w een
w ater and steam has become less. This means that the nett head
differential betw een dow ncomer and evaporation tubes (w hich
maintains natural circulation) has also been reduced. This
reduction in specific volume, as boiler pressure approaches 22,1
MPa, results in the dif ference becoming negligible and disappears
altogether at this pressure (know n as critical pressure). For boiler
pressures of up to 17.9 MPa, natural circulation is still perfectly
acceptable as long as the evaporation tubes and dow ncomers are
designed correctly. Circulation is also aided by introducing “ rifling”
into the low er areas of furnace w all tubes (similar to a rifle barrel),
w hich imparts increased velocity into t he rising w ater/steam mixture.
At pressures in excess of this, frictional resistance inside the tubes
tends to overcome the effect of the head differential and other
methods of circulation have to be utilised.

3.1.2 Assisted Circulation Boiler (See Figure 2)

There is often misunderstanding betw een the terms “ assisted
circulation” and “ forced circulation” . In general, w ithin Eskom, the

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term “ assisted circulation” refers to boilers in w hich circulation of

w ater from boiler drum to w ater tubes is assisted by circulation
pumps. Forced circulation refers to once-through boilers only,
w hich w ill be discussed later.

When boiler pressures exceed 17,9 MPa, t he density differential

betw een steam and w ater caused by a difference in specific volume

FIGURE 2 : ASSISTED CIRCULATION BOILER

becomes so small that natural circulation is no longer sufficient.

This is because the pressure head available for circulation is no
longer sufficient to overcome friction losses inside the boiler tubes.
Indeed, some manufact urers believe that even at 17.0 MPa assisted
circulation is preferable to natural circulation.

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The principle of assisted circulation is as follow s. Water is passed

from the boiler drum into dow ncomer tubes w hich form the suction
pipe w ork of one or more circulation pumps. These pumps
discharge into the low er headers of the various w ater w alls. In
other w ords they feed boiler w ater to the evaporation tubes and
assist its passage through the tube system and back t o the boiler
drum.

This assistance is essential at pressures approaching the critical

pressure of 22,1 MPa, and at pressures considerably below this it is
also of help to t he boiler designer. Among these are tw o
particularly important advantages:

• The designer can use tubes w ith smaller bores and w hich are
made from thinner materials than is possible in natural-
circulation boilers.

• Appropriately sized orifices control the w ater flow to tubes.

This enables the designer to select high rates of flow for zones
of high-heat transfer rates and low er rates of flow for heat -
transfer zones in cooler parts of the boiler.

These factors combine to give the designer greater freedom in

designing and locating the heating surfaces than w ould be possible
w ith a natural-circulation type boiler.

Although the assisted-circulation boiler has advantages some

disadvantages are:

• Although the boiler cost is reduced by the reduction of tube

size, this is partly offset by the cost of providing circulation
pumps (w hich must also include standby capacity).

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• Elaborate instrumentation and controls must be used to guard

against the consequences of the pumping plant failing.

• The pumps must be in service continually, w hich consumes

pow er not necessarily saved by an increase in the boiler
efficiency. The savings achieved are only in the capital cost
of installation.

3.1.3 Once Through (Forced Circulation) Boiler (See Figure 3)

In a once-through boiler the w orking fluid (w ater and stream) is
pumped continuously through the boiler by the boiler feed pump.
There is no natural or assisted circulation as in other types of boilers.
The principal

FIGURE 3 : ONCE THROUGH BOILER

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advantages of the one-through boiler design are that no boiler drum

is required and that t he flow through t he evaporative stages is
controlled. The chief disadvantage is the higher operating cost of
having to pump the feedw ater at a higher pressure to overcome the
frictional resistance of the boiler t ubes under f ull-load conditions. In
other w ords, there is a high pressure drop. At low -load conditions
the flow velocity still has to be high enough to transport the heat
from the furnace w all tubes.

Because of the absence of a boiler drum, a once-through boiler has

the operational advantage of great flexibility. Normally the drum is
the limiting factor on the rate of change of boiler pressure and
temperature w hen lighting up a boiler from cold, or w hen
depressurising a boiler f or maintenance purposes.

Because w ater is pumped through the complete circuit, there is no

need to rely on the differences in specific volume betw een the w ater
and steam t o ensure a balanced absorption of furnace heat release.

The once-through boiler can operate either sub-critically (pressure

below 22.1 MPa) or super-critically (pressure above 22.1 MPa). In
a sub-critical boiler, w ater evaporation takes place over a certain
distance in the evaporator tubes, similar to the manner in w hich
w ater normally boils in a natural or assisted-circulation boiler, as
there w ill be a difference in density of the w ater and steam.

In super-critical operat ion there is no conventional boiling, but a

transition from w ater to steam, so that in essence, evaporation can
be said to be instantaneous.

There are several types of once-through boiler designs w hich are in

common use. The Sulzer design is a once-through unit w hich can be
operated either sub or super-critically. The w ater flow through the

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furnace is controlled to proportion the w ater t o each of the circuits

to maintain circuit temperatures w ithin design and material
limitations.

In the Benson design, there is a complete absence of steam-

separating drums and f luid recirculation. The feed-w ater is heated
in one continuous path to the super-heater outlet. How ever,
because the w ater is pumped through a large number of parallel
tubes, it is important to prevent an uneven distribution of
temperatures w hich could damage the boiler.

To avoid this, the fluid is mixed together frequently to even out any
imbalance (after leaving a heated pass) before being directed to the
inlet of the next stage.

One important aspect of a once-through boiler is the hydrodynamic

stability of flow , i.e. sufficient flow in the parallel-tube configuration.
This requires a minimum pressure differential to be maintained
betw een the inlet and outlet headers. This minimum pressure
differential corresponds to a minimum flow through the tubes. At
low loads it may be less than the pre-specified minimum w hich may
cause the flow system to become unstable and tubes to become
overheated. Thus, in order to ensure flow st ability in parallel tubes
of the evaporator section w hen on low loads, different part -load
operating procedures have had to be employed. These are know n
collectively as combined circulation.

Some boilers are of a Benson design modified to a combined-

circulation design by providing circulating pumps to boost the flow
through the evaporator section once the boiler load falls below 35-
40% , (t he most w idely utilised design w ithin Eskom).

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Below 35-40% load, the w ater and steam passes from the
evaporating tubes into a separating vessel, w here the steam and
w ater are separated. The w ater is draw n off the bottom of the
vessel to a collecting vessel w here the w ater level is controlled in a
manner similar to a boiler drum.

The circulating pumps t ake the w ater from the collecting vessel and
feed it back into the economiser inlet line, thus re-circulating the
w ater.

3.2 Water and Steam Flow Systems

In this section the w at er and steam flow systems of drum boilers and once-
through boilers w ill be discussed.

3.2.1 Drum Type Boiler – Feed and Steam System (See Figure 4)
(Note: Pressure and temperatures quoted are typically applicable for
a 200MW unit, non-reheat, drum-type boiler. Reheat systems w ill
be discussed in the explanation of once-through boilers).

Feedwater for the use of steam generation in the boiler, is supplied via
the boiler feed pumps to the economiser inlet valves (1), at 212°C and

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FIGURE 4 : TYPICAL DRUM BOILER WATER AND STEAM FLOW SYSTEMS

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165 Bar. The feedwater enters the economiser inlet header (2), where it
is distributed and flows through the tubes of the economiser (3). In the
economiser, the hot gases of combustion, which were formed in the
combustion chamber, flow across the economiser tubes, thereby heating
the feedwater further to 280°C.

This feedwater then flows from the economiser into the boiler drum (4).
From the drum, the boiler water is passed through downcomers (5), into
connecting pipes and bottom distribution headers (6A). From these
bottom headers, the boiler water flows upwards through the front, left
hand, right hand, and rear wall tubes of the boiler furnace (6B).

As the water in the furnace wall tubes is heated, a water/steam mixture

is formed. This causes the water/steam mixture to rise and flow
upwards. Colder and therefore heavier, water in the downcomers flows
in to take its place, thus establishing a circulation from the drum, down
the downcomers, up through the furnace walls (risers), back into the
drum via the steam/water headers (7). This is known as “natural
circulation” as no pump is required to force the water around the circuit.

As the water/steam mixture enters the drum, the water and steam is
separated by cyclones in the drum. The water drops back into the drum
and rejoins the natural circulation circuit (See Figure 5).

The steam in the drum is separated further by passing it through further

separators. This saturated steam is then passed to the Superheater
stages of the boiler.

From the drum the saturated steam passes into the inlet header (8) of
Superheater 1, downwards through supporting tubes into the platen
Superheater tubes of Superheater 1 (9), and on to the outlet header
(10). In the Superheaters, the hot gases of combustion are used to heat
the dry steam flowing through the Superheater tubes.

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FIGURE 5 : STEAM DRUM CIRCULATION SYSTEM

From Superheater 1 outlet header (10), the steam flows via connecting
pipes to the inlet header (11) of convection type Superheater 2.

The steam passes through Superheater 2 (12) tubes in a counter-current

flow to the hot gases leaving the furnace. The steam enters the outlet
header (13), and flows via connecting pipes to two distribution headers
(14A). At these connecting pipes, the first stage of attemperation is
carried out at Attemperator 1 (20). At this point, water under a high
pressure, and broken into a fine spray, is sprayed into the steam line.
This decreases the steam temperature, in preparation for when it will be
introduced to the turbine. From the two distribution headers (14A), the
steam passes to inlet header (14B), through convection-type
Superheater 3 (15), in a concurrent flow to the flue gas flow, to outlet
header (16).

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From the outlet header (16), the steam flows via connecting pipes to the
second stage of attemperation at Attemperator 2 (21), on to two
distribution headers (17A). These in turn feed the inlet header (17B) of
the convection-type Final Superheater (18). The steam passes through
the Final Superheater (18) in a counter-current flow to the flue gases
leaving the furnace. The steam flows via outlet header (19) into main
steam lines to be supplied to the turbine at the correct operating
temperature (538°C) and pressure (110 Bar).

3.2.2 Once Through Boiler – Feed and Steam System (See Figures 6 & 7)
This type of boiler has tw o distinct operating conditions. At loads
below 30-40% throughput , a recirculation system is used. At loads
above 30-40% throughput, the recirculation system is no longer in
service and the boiler t hen operates as a once-through boiler. This
is know n as the Benson condition.

• Separating vessels – the steam and w ater are separated w hen

the boiler is below approximately 40% load. In the Benson
condition there is steam in these vessels only.

• Collecting vessel – this acts as a w ater-collection vessel in a

similar manner to a boiler drum and allow s the w ater level to be
controlled. In the Benson condition t his is not in service.

• Blowdown vessel – this acts as a w ater-overflow control

vessel for the collecting vessel.

3.2.2.1 Water Circuit

The quantity of circulating w ater at any given time during its
steam cycle is approximately 20% of that of a drum type
boiler of similar capacit y.

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In the Benson mode, the feedw ater makes one fast

uninterrupted circuit through the t ube system. On its path

FIGURE 6 : SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF WATER AND STEAM SYSTEMS OF A

TYPICAL ONCE THROUGH BOILER

through the boiler the feedw ater absorbs heat from the
combustion zone, w hich changes the state of the feedw ater
from liquid into vapour and then from vapour into
superheated steam.

The feedw ater enters the economiser from both the feed
pump and the circulation pump in t he non-Benson condition.

To ensure adequate cooling of the economiser and

evaporator tubes during low -load (non-Benson) operation, a

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minimum w ater flow must be maintained through these

sections to prevent the tubes from burning out.

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FIGURE 7 : SECTIONAL VIEW OF A TYPICAL 600MW BENSON TYPE ONCE THROUGH

BOILER
The w ater is circulated via the economiser, w ater-division
w all tubes, dow ncomers, evaporator screw tubes to the
separating vessels and collecting vessel. Here the
circulation pump removes the w ater from the collecting
vessel at the rate required to control the level of the vessel
w ithin limits, and returns it to the feed line and on to the
economiser.

As w ater is being evaporated w ithin the boiler, the feed

system provides the makeup w ater required t o maintain the
flow through the tubes at the minimum value.

Should the level of the collecting vessel become too high,

the w ater discharge under boiler pressure to t he blow dow n
vessel w hich is open to atmosphere. From here the excess
w ater is normal discharged to the ash sumps.

In the Benson mode, the boiler has no fixed evaporation

point. The feed flow to the boiler for a given load should
match the specified heat input, such that at the
attemperator 1 inlet, the enthalpy of the steam should be at
the specific value for the load. If the w ater level in the
evaporation tubes is too high the enthalpy drops, too low a
level and the enthalpy increases. The collecting vessel and
circulation pumps cease to be used as the steam in the
separating vessel is now superheated.

In its basic form the boiler is merely a single tube heated

along its full length. The feedw ater absorbs heat initially
until it reaches the temperature at w hich is begins to boil.
Further heat absorption introduces evaporation w ithout a

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change in temperature. Once this saturated steam point is

reached all w ater has been converted to steam. Again
further heat is absorbed w hich increases the steam
temperature to a point w here it is discharged f rom the other
end of the pipe as superheated steam.

Figure 8 show s the change-of -state diagram f rom the sub-

critical range of once-through boilers.

FIGURE 8 : CHANGE OF STATE DIAGRAM FOR SUB-CRITICAL RANGE

3.2.2.2 Steam Circuit

The steam circuits in a once-through system are the same as
those for a drum type boiler.

Common t o bot h the drum and once-through boilers are the

re-heaters (fitted to the larger more modern boilers).
Steam, w hich has passed through t he high pressure section

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of the turbine, is returned to the re-heater section of the

boiler to be “ re-loaded” w ith heat energy prior to being
returned t o the intermediate pressure section of the turbine.

The re-heater normally contains only tw o sections, the

primary re-heater and the secondary re-heater (or high-
temperature re-heater) w hich is situated in the boiler outlet
ducting after the secondary superheater. Bef ore they can be
supplied w ith steam from the turbine, the re-heaters may be
bypassed on the gas side during light up to prevent
overheating.

There are safety valves on the hot and cold re-heat headers,
w ith the hot re-heat safety valves lifting first.

3.3 Water and Steam System Components

In the previous sections of this chapter, w e covered the w ater and steam
systems, w e w ill now discuss the major components w hich go t o make up
these systems.

3.3.1 Economiser (common to all three boiler types)

Normally situated in the boiler gas pass either at the very top of the
boiler (in the case of a tow er type boiler), or at the bottom of the
secondary gas pass just before the air-heater, the economiser is a
convection heat exchanger. Feedw ater on it s w ay to the boiler is
passed through the tubes of the economiser. Hot gases leaving the
boiler gas pass come into contact w ith t he tubes, and heat is
transferred from the tubes, to the w ater flow ing through t he tubes.
This heats the feedw ater to close to its saturated point in
preparation for further heating and production of steam in the
evaporator section of the boiler.

3.3.2 Evaporator

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Both drum type and once t hrough boilers are equipped w ith
evaporators, but their components do vary and as such each w ill be
described separately.

3.3.2.1 Evaporator (drum type boilers)

The separate components making up the evaporator in a
drum type boiler are the drum, dow ncomers, bottom
distribution headers, furnace w alls / risers and t op headers.

Water from the economiser is introduced into the boiler

drum. In the drum, w ater and steam are separated by
cyclone separators and scrubbers (know n as the “ drum
internals” of the boiler drum. See Figure 9 for more detail).
The steam flow s from the drum to the superheaters
(explained in more det ail later), w hile the w ater from t he
drum flow s dow nw ard via the dow ncomers, w hich are
situated outside of t he furnace area of the boiler, to the
bottom distribution headers.

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FIGURE 9 : BOILER DRUM INTERNALS AND FITTINGS

The bottom distribution headers, w hich are a system of

tubes w hich connect the dow ncomers to the front, side and
rear w alls of the furnace tubes, (and also a centre w all, in
the case of a split furnace boiler). The distribution headers
ensure that the w ater is evenly distributed into the furnace
w alls to prevent overheating and tube failure due to
insufficient w ater flow through the tubes.
The w ater rises in the furnace w alls w here heat from the
combustion in the furnace is conducted, via the metal of the
tubes into the w ater f low ing upw ards in the furnace w all
tubes and a w ater/steam mixture starts to form. As the
w ater/steam mixture starts to rise up, colder/heavier w ater
from the dow ncomers flow s in to replace it, and a natural
circulation is established in the evaporat or. In an assisted
circulation boiler, circulation pumps w ould be installed at the

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bottom of the dow ncomers and w ould be utilised to “ assist”

the w ater flow through the furnace w all tubes. The
w ater/steam mixture t hen enters the top headers w hich in
effect “ collects “ the w ater/steam mixture and via pipe w ork
transports it to the boiler drum. As the w ater/ steam
mixture enters the drum, the w ater still present is removed
and rejoins the circulation through the evaporator.

The steam w hich is separated in the drum is passed to the

superheater section of t he boiler.

3.3.2.2 Evaporator (once through boilers)

The separate components making up the evaporator in a
once through boiler are the economiser dow ncomers,
furnace w all screw tubes, intermediate header, furnace w all
vertical tubes, inner ring main, outer ring main, separating
vessel, collecting vessel, circulating pump, economiser inlet
and emergency drain valves.

Water from the economiser is introduced via economiser

dow ncomers into the f urnace w all screw tubes, w hich form
the front, side and rear w alls of the furnace, and in t he case
of a split furnace boiler, also the centre w all of the furnace.
The w ater/steam mixture f rom the screw tubes then enters
an intermediate header w hich distributes the steam/w ater
mixture into the vertical furnace w alls of the boiler. From
the vertical furnace w alls, via an inner and outer ring-main
header system, the steam/w at er mixture is introduced into
the separating vessel. In t he separating vessel, the w ater
and steam are “ separated” w ith the steam being passed to
the superheater sections. The w ater flow s dow n int o the
collecting vessel and a w ater level is established. At a
predetermined level, t he circulating pump w ill start and

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discharge into the feed range at the economiser inlet, thus

establishing a circulation through the evaporat or.

As can be seen from the above, in effect the separating

vessel, collecting vessel and circulating pump perform the
same duty as the boiler drum, dow ncomers and circulating
pump do on an assisted circulation drum type boiler.

The typical once through boiler, w hen steaming at less then

40% load, w ill be in “ assisted circulation” mode. In this
mode the boiler feed pump w ill be discharging into the feed
range as w ill the circulating pump. Flow control w ill be via
feed regulating valves (see Figure 6) and the circulating
pump discharge control valve. These valves w ork in
tandem to ensure that the minimum required flow w ill
alw ays be present through the evaporator. As the load on
the boiler is increased, less and less w ater w ill be present in
the w ater/steam mixture reaching the separator vessel.

This results in the level in t he collecting vessel dropping, the

circulating pumps is shut dow n and the discharge valve
shut. At this point in time the boiler is said t o be in “ once
through” Benson mode of operation.

As load is reduced on the boiler, and 40% load is

approached, w ater w ill start to collect in the collecting
vessel, via the separating vessel, and the boiler w ill return to
“ assisted circulation” mode.

Tw o emergency drains (35 and 65% ) are also provided on

the outlet of the collecting vessel. Should problems be
experienced w ith the circulating pump and an abnormally
high w ater level experienced in the collecting vessel, the

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emergency drains w ill open, sequentially and dump the

w ater to w aste via the blow dow n vessel.

3.3.3 Circulating Pumps

A typical boiler circulating pump is show n in Figure 10. On a large
modern boiler, up to four such pumps may be installed, one of w hich
w ould be a standby pump. The capacity of t hese pumps w ould be
of the order of 900 litres each.

FIGURE 10 : TYPICAL CIRCULATING PUMP

The pumps are of the centrifugal type w it h a motor w hich has

w ater-cooled w indings, sometimes know n as a “ w et” motor. This
enables the pump to be constructed on the glandless principle; in
other w ords the motor barrel is bolted directly onto the pump casing
and the w ater w ithin the motor is subjected to full boiler pressure.
The “ neck” of the pump (the point at w hich the drive shaft passes

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through the narrow section betw een the motor and pump) is
provided w it h a cooling w ater jacket. This enables any flow of
w ater at full boiler pressure flow ing into the pump to be cooled to an
acceptable level before coming into contact w ith the pump motor
w indings. The insulation of these w indings is designed to run “ w et”
at a temperature of approximately 93° C.

When the pump is in service the motor itself generates a certain

amount of heat. Because of this and t he fact that the pump
impeller is pumping w at er at a temperature of approximately 320° C,
an efficient motor-cooling system is necessary to prevent the
insulation being damaged by overheating. The w ater w ithin the
motor is circulated by an impeller attached to the motor shaft.
Water is pumped through the motor and is passed out to an external
pipe at a point near to the pump neck. The w ater passes through
this external pipe to a cooler w here its temperature is reduced to an
appropriate level; it is then passed back to the motor-cooling circuit
adjacent to the impeller. The coolant supply to the external cooler
is normally from a fairly large capacity header tank so that any
failure in the pumps electrical supplies w ould not result in the heat
from the boiler being conducted to t he motor w indings. The
cooling-w ater jacket at the “ neck” of the pump is therefore very
important .

To allow for the thermal expansion of the boiler parts, the pump
casing form part of, and is supported by, the boiler dow ncomer pipe
w ork. The mot or is normally mounted vertically below the pump,
giving several advantages over the reverse arrangement. For
example, any insoluble gases present in the motor-coolant circuit rise
tow ards the pump and are dissipated. The reverse arrangement
w ould result in the gases being collected at the impeller, causing an
eventual loss of prime on the coolant circuit. Also, w ith the pump
stationary, the highest part of the installation is the hottest. With

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the motor above the pump, convection current s could occur and help
to overheat the motor w indings.

Protection circuits are arranged so that the standby pump cuts in

automatically on the loss of a running pump. If the circulating
pumps fail entirely, an ignition trip is applied to the boiler to prevent
w ater tubes from burning out ow ing to a loss of w ater flow .

3.3.4 Superheaters 1, 2, 3 and Final Superheater

In the superheaters, the saturated steam from the drum or separation
vessel, is taken through a series of superheater tubes. Hot flue
gases leaving the boiler come into contact w it h the tubes, and heat
is transferred to the steam flow ing through t he tubes. This dries
the steam and “ loads” it w ith heat energy, and the steam then
transports this heat energy to the turbine, via final steam pipe w ork.

3.3.5 Attemperation Systems

Typically on a drum type of boiler, tw o attemperation stations are
installed on each boiler. Attemperator 1 on connecting pipe w ork
betw een superheater 2 outlet and superheater 3 inlet. And
attemperator 2 on connecting pipe w ork betw een superheater 3
outlet and final superheater inlet. Water, supplied from the feed
range just before the final feed control valves, is sprayed in the form
of a fine mist, into t he steam flow at attemperator 1 and 2 as
mentioned above. This is done, in a controlled manner, to ensure
that the temperature of the final steam leaving the boiler, on its w ay
to the turbine, is in line w ith the turbine operating requirements.

On a once-through boiler, an extra attemperation station is normally

included at the steam outlet pipe w ork of the separating vessel.
When in once through mode, this pipe w ork already contains
saturated steam and as such attemperation is required.
3.3.6 Sootblowing

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During operation of the boiler, fine ash is deposited on the furnace

w alls, super-heaters, re-heaters and economiser tubes, as w ell as on
the air heater elements.

This reduces the heat transfer betw een the flue gases and the
w ater/steam flow s respectively, reducing the general efficiency of
the boiler.

To maintain efficiency, periodic cleaning of the areas mentioned

above must be carried out. This is achieved by means of
sootblow ing. Steam typically tapped off from a superheater outlet
header is supplied to w all blow ers for the cleaning of furnace side
w alls and long retractable sootblow ers for the cleaning of
economiser, superheater and re-heater tubes. Also top and bottom
sootblow ers f or each air heater.

4. STEAM GENERATION CONCEPTS AND THEORIES

As the function of a steam generator (boiler) is to produce steam, it is important to

have an understanding of the concepts and theories associated w it h the steam
generator. In t his section w e w ill discuss these major concepts and theories.

4.1 Energy, Temperature and Pressure

To understand the concepts and theories of steam generation, the basic
concepts of energy, temperature and pressure need to be explained.

4.1.1 Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity w hich a body or object possesses
and has the ability to do w ork. Here, w ork is defined (as in
mechanics) as the force required to move an object or body through
a distance.

Force x Distance = Work Done

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F x D = J

The first law of thermodynamics:

Heat applied = work done + increase of internal energy

Q = J + t

The second law of thermodynamics:

Heat energy cannot be transferred from one body to another at a higher
temperature without the aid of some external supply of energy.

The unique property of energy is that it cannot be created, nor destroyed

but it can merely be changed from one form into another.

Also, the presence of energy can only be observed by its effects, and
these can appear in many different forms. Take a motor car as an
example:

The fuel in the fuel tank must contain a certain form of energy, because
by igniting it in the engine, the motor car through the movement of
various mechanical components is propelled along the road. Thus,
work by definition is being done because the motor car (object) is being
moved by a force through a distance.

As a result of burning the petrol in the engine, the temperature of the

engine components is substantially increased. This increase in
temperature must initially have been responsible for propelling the motor
car (1st law of thermodynamics).

Together with the temperature rise of the engine components as a result

of the combustion, a vast amount of friction also takes place, causing the
temperature to increase even more. This means that the engine
components do contain a certain form of energy which is referred to as
internal energy.

As a result of the difference in temperature between the engine

components and the cooling water flowing through it, some of this
internal heat energy will be displaced to the cooling water. This
phenomenon is referred to as heat transfer.

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An electric alternator is also usually fitted to the engine. A portion of the

propelling energy from the engine is utilised to rotate the alternator
which produces electrical energy that is stored in the battery. Because
the energy is available for rotating the starter motor of the car at any
time required to do so, it is referred to as a form of potential energy.

Once the motor car is in motion, and it has to be stopped, the brakes
need to be applied. Application of the brakes causes the temperature of
the drum to increase, thus the internal energy of the brake drum
materials must have been increased. This means that the motor car
must have possessed a form of energy while it was in motion. This
energy of motion is referred to as “Kinetic Energy”.

This simple example makes it clear that energy through the interaction of
various devices, can be converted from one form into another and can
never be destroyed.

4.1.2 Temperature
To explain the meaning of the word “temperature” it is necessary to refer
to the human sense of feeling. It is quite common to refer to objects
feeling hot or cold.

In some cases the accuracy of the sense of feeling to determine whether

a substance is hot or cold will be satisfactory. When a high degree of
accuracy for temperature measurement is required, the human sense of
feeling will be totally inadequate.

Industrial techniques have advanced rapidly over the past number of

years and require a high degree of accurate and reliable heat measuring
techniques.

A number of devices were developed for this specific purpose. Each

device reacts according to the effects that the hotness or coldness of a
body has on specific substances. For example, all substances, to a
greater or lesser extent, expand when heated and contract when cooled.
Thus, the extent to which this expansion and contraction occurs can be
used as a measure of the change in temperature of a body.

A scale was devised such that each device will indicate the degree of
hotness or coldness when used under identical atmospheric conditions.

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This scale was named a “temperature scale” and the subject of

temperature measurement was called “Thermometry”.

The generally accepted temperature scales which were developed are

called the “Celsius” and “Fahrenheit” scales.

On the Celsius scale the lower fixed point is the temperature of the
melting of pure ice, commonly referred to as “Freezing Point”. This is
designated as 0°C.

The upper fixed point is the temperature at which pure water boils and
this value is 100°C. (At sea level).

When dealing with the properties of solids, liquids and vapours later in
this session, it will be seen that the temperature at which a liquid freezes
or boils largely depends upon the pressure which is exerted on the
surface of the liquid.

To standardise the freezing and boiling temperature on the thermometer

scale, it is required that the pressure at which the freezing or boiling
occurs also be standardised. This is taken as 760 mm of mercury which
is called the “Standard Atmospheric Pressure” being a mean
representative pressure of the atmosphere at sea level.

REMEMBER: Temperature is NOT a form of energy. It is merely the

measure of the heat energy contained in a body or substance.

4.1.2.1 Absolute Temperature

An absolute zero of temperature would be the lowest
temperature possible. This would therefore be a more
reasonable temperature to adopt as the zero for a temperature
scale.

The absolute thermodynamic temperature scale is called the

Kelvin Scale. This scale was devised by Lord Kelvin, a British
scientist, in about 1851. This scale was given the symbol “K”.

A temperature “T” on the Kelvin scale is written “TK” and not “T

K”.

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To obtain a clear understanding of the Kelvin temperature

scale, it is necessary to understand Charles and Boyle’s laws.

• Boyle’s Law
If the temperature of a gas remains constant, the pressure
of the gas is inversely proportional to its volume.

This means that:

• If the pressure is doubled, the volume is halved or

• If the pressure is halved, the volume is doubled.

• Charles Law
If the pressure of a gas remains constant, the volume is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

This means that:

• If the absolute temperature is doubled, the volume

is doubled or
• If the absolute temperature is halved, the volume is
halved.

• Combined Gas Law Equation

If the volume of a gas remains constant, the pressure is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

This means that, if it is possible to cool a gas to a

temperature of -273, 15°C, its volume would shrink by 273
of its volume at 0°C. In other words, at -273, 15°C the
gas would have no volume. Bear in mind that any gas
must first liquefy and then solidify before reaching this
temperature.

That is : °K = °C + 273,5
(Absolute scale)

4.1.2.2 Specific Heat Capacity

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In the basics of science we have learnt that all substances,

whether they are fluids or solids, are composed of atoms, or
atoms combined into groups (molecules).

When the temperature of such a substance is raised, the

molecules and atoms are caused to vibrate quicker. It is
therefore true to say that the temperature of a substance is a
measure of the average energy of the molecules or atoms.

The unit in which heat energy is measured is Joule (Symbol J)

and reflects the quantity of heat energy contained by a
substance.

We can now define specific heat capacity as:

The amount of energy which is required to raise the

temperature of a specific substance with a unit mass through a
unit increase in temperature for example: Heat energy required
to raise the temperature of 1 kg of copper by 1°C.

Specific heat capacity is designated the symbol “Cp”. This is

done such that the quantity of heat needed to raise equal
masses of different types of materials through the same
temperature range varies as:

Heat applied (Q) = Constant x Mass (M) x Temperature rise

(t).

Table 1 is a comparison of the specific heat capacities of a

number of different substances. The temperature range over
which these capacities were calculated is also indicated.

TABLE 1

Temperature
MATERIAL SHC (G) (kJ/kgK)
range (°C)
Water 4,2 0 – 100
Aluminium 0,91 0 – 100
Copper 0,43 0 – 100
Iron 0,54 0 – 100

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Coal 1,05 1 – 150

Air and 1,01+ 0 – 315
Dry Flue gas 0,72* 0 - 315
+ At constant pressure
* At constant volume
It can be seen from this that ten times more heat energy is
required to raise the temperature of water with the same mass
as copper through the same temperature range.

4.1.2.3 Specific Heat

The term “Specific Heat” is often confused with specific heat
capacity although it is a different phenomenon with regards to
thermometry.

Specific heat is defined as “The RATIO of the amount of heat

transferred to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a specific
substance by 1°C”. Specific heat is the ratio of the specific heat
capacity of a substance to that of water. Specific heat has no
units.

TABLE 2

Temperature
MATERIAL SHC (G) (kJ/kgK)
range (°C)
Water 1,0 0 – 100
Aluminium 0,216 0 – 100
Copper 0,102 0 – 315
Iron 0,128 0 – 400
Coal 1,25 1 – 150
Air and 0,24+ 0 – 315
Dry Flue gas 0,17* 0 - 315
+ At constant pressure
* At constant volume

4.1.3 Pressure
Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

If a force (F) is applied to an area (A) and is uniformly distributed, the

pressure (P) which is exerted is equated as P = F x A if:

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F = Force in Newton’s (N) and

A = Area in Square metres (M2)

The actual unit of pressure is thus Newton per metre square (N/M2).
This unit of pressure measurement was renamed for ease of expression
after the scientist, Pascal, who developed the theory and is normally
abbreviated as Pa.

There are three terms commonly used in power stations to express

different kinds of pressure which is gauge pressure, absolute pressure
and vacuum.

4.1.3.1 Gauge Pressure (KPa/g)

An instrument which records pressure above atmospheric is
called a pressure gauge.

The pressure which is measured is referred to as gauge

pressure because the “0” on the gauge scale plate represents
atmospheric pressure.

4.1.3.2 Absolute Pressure [KPa (W) or KPa (abs)]

Absolute pressure is atmospheric pressure plus gauge pressure
for example, atmospheric pressure at sea level is 101,3 kPa
added to a gauge pressure of 50 kPa = 151,3 kPa.
(Atmospheric pressure on the highveld is 86,6 kPa).

4.1.3.3 Vacuum (mm H2)

Vacuum is the term used to denote a pressure lower than
atmospheric pressure.

Two different types of measuring instruments are used in

modern power stations to determine the pressure of vessels
working under vacuum. These are Keno meters and absolute
pressure gauges.

Atmospheric pressure at sea level will support a column of

mercury 760 mm high. This means that, should the pressure be
below atmospheric pressure, the height of the column of
mercury will be lower. If the pressure is decreased sufficiently
to indicate an effective column of mercury at a height of 50 mm,
a pressure of approximately 7 kPa absolute will be represented.

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The konometers used in power stations are a mercury in glass

tube operating on the principle as described in the previous
paragraph.

An absolute pressure gauge will indicate a pressure of 101,3

kPa at sea level (86,6 kPa on the highveld) if the actual
pressure inside the vessel is at zero pressure.

4.1.4 Influence of Pressure on the Boiling Point of Pure Water (Figure 11)
Water in a kettle is said to be boiling when the pressure of the steam
being given off is equal to atmospheric pressure. This occurs with the
temperature of the water at 100°C under an atmospheric pressure of
101,3 kPa (at sea level). On the highveld (1600 metres above sea level)
where the atmospheric pressure is 86,6 kPa the boiling of pure water will
occur at approximately 96°C.

Calculated from the above we can say that the pressure decreases by
0,01 kPa (10Pa) per meter increase in altitude. This means that at the
peak of Mount Everest, which is ± 8847 metres above sea level, the
atmospheric pressure is approximately 12,8 kPa. (Explaining why
mountaineers require oxygen masks). Pure water at this altitude will
thus boil at 76°C. This being the most common proof of the influence
that pressure has on the boiling point of water. (See Figure 11).

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FIGURE 11 : BOILING POINT OF WATER AGAINST PRESSURE

Now, it will be clear that, if we add one litre (Kg) of water in a container
and raise the temperature to boiling point, we need 4,2 KJ of heat
energy. (At sea level). While the water is boiling and we apply a
pressure of 50 kPa to the container we will need another 2,1 KJ of heat
energy to raise the temperature of the water to the new boiling point
which will now be in the region of 128°C.

From another angle, if we have the same container with 1 litre (Kg) of
water at a temperature of 50°C and we reduce the pressure to 50 kPa,
the water will boil.

4.1.5 Relationship Between Pressure, Volume and Temperature

It is now clear how the temperature of the boiling point of water is
affected with changes in the pressure exerted upon it, also indicating a
definite natural relationship between pressure and temperature. We will
now have a look at how these phenomenon affect the volume of the
substance.

If heat is added to a substance it will expand to a greater or lesser extent

depending on the composition of the substance, thus increasing its
volume.

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If a liquid is placed in a tightly closed container and heat is added, the

increase in volume will be restrained with the liquid exerting an
increased force against the inside of the container. The pressure of the
liquid is thus increasing.

We can now again refer back to 2.2.1 of this section stating the findings
of Charles and Boyle’s Law.

• If, for a fixed volume of gas, the temperature is increased, the

pressure will also increase.

• At a fixed temperature, if the pressure is increased, the volume will

decrease.

• At a fixed pressure, if the temperature is increased the volume will

increase.

All this implies that an alteration in any one of these three variables, will
affect the remaining two.

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4.2 Enthalpy
Enthalpy is defined as the energy which a substance possesses which enables it
to do useful work.

We now know that heat energy, pressure and volume are properties which a
substance can possess. It will also be seen during future discussions that these
properties can appear in particular combinations.

A combination of heat energy, pressure and volume present in a substance is

referred to as enthalpy, which will also be regarded as a property.

Production of steam in a boiler relies on heat input which is obtained from heat
released by the burning of fuel. This results in the increase of the temperature of
the water up to the boiling stage when subsequently, steam is formed. More heat
is then added to the steam to produce superheated steam containing sufficient
heat energy to be able to do the work intended.

The water/steam thus passes through various stages of heat application to

become superheated steam and these are as follows:

• Sensible Heat (See Figure 12)

If an open container filled with water is heated, it is possible to measure the
rise in the actual temperature of the water. As we know that the specific
heat capacity of water is 4,2 KJ/Kg, we can thus determine the temperature
rise of the water for a given input of heat. This heat input is known as
sensible heat.

• LATENT HEAT
When the temperature of the water reaches a certain value, the continued
addition of heat does not result in a further increase in temperature. At this
point the water molecules are so saturated with heat energy that they start
moving around violently. In common terms it is said that the water is
boiling. During this saturation (boiling) stage the water molecules are
separating from each other and hence, steam is produced.

At atmospheric pressure at sea level this phenomenon can be observed at

100°C. During this stage it should also be noted that the temperature of the
water and that of the steam is equal.

Continued heating of the water will result in more steam being produced
until all the water in the container has turned into steam.

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FIGURE 12 : TEMPERATURE HEAT DIAGRAM INCLUDING

SUPERHEAT AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (101,3kPa)

The temperature of the water and steam will also remain steady at the
same temperature (100°C). All the heat energy used to convert the water
into steam is thus “hidden” in the steam. This “hidden” heat energy is
known as latent heat.

• SUPERHEAT
If, after all the water is converted into steam, more heat energy is added,
the temperature of the steam will again start to increase. This heat energy
is known as superheat.

The effect of adding heat to water at atmospheric pressure can be seen in

Figure 13. To raise the temperature of 1 Kg of water from 0°C to 100°C requires
418 kJ. To convert all the water into steam requires a further 2258 kJ.

To increase the steam temperature to 300°C an additional 398 kJ is needed,

which means that the heat content of 1 Kg of steam at atmospheric pressure
(101,3 kPa) and 300°C is 3074 kJ.

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FIGURE 13 : TEMPERATURE ENTHALPY DIAGRAM FOR WATER/STEAM

We can thus say that the enthalpy of our 1 Kg container of steam is also 3074 kJ
(h = 3074 kJ/Kg). This is also on occasion referred to as total heat (Total heat =
Sensible heat + Latent heat + superheat).

4.3 Steam Tables

For convenient summarising of the properties of water and steam in its saturated
and superheated states, steam tables have been developed.

Notations used in the steam tables are as follows:

VARIABLE SYMBOL UNIT

Energy quantity of heat J Joule
Heat capacity, entropy J/K Joule per Kelvin
Pressure P kPa
Temperature t °C
Absolute Temperature T K (Kelvin)
Specific Entropy s J(KgK
Specific Volume V m3/kg
Specific Energy J/Kg

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The following suffixes are used for saturation values:

S = Saturation e.g. ts - Saturation Temperature

g = Gas saturated vapour e.g. c hg - Enthalpy of Steam
f = Fluid saturated liquid e.g. c hf - Enthalpy required
to evaporate water i.e.
Latent heat in steam
or
hfg = Enthalpy of fluid and gas

4.3.1 We have seen from the enthalpy (Th) diagrams that we have used thus
far, that they are quite convenient to use for determining enthalpy
conditions.

However, the diagram more commonly used is called an Entropy (T,s)

diagram (Figure 14).

The following data can be obtained by reading a T,s diagram:

• Temperature
• Pressure
• Enthalpy
• Entropy
• Percentage total heat

NOTE: Entropy is defined as heat energy which a substance

contains that is NOT available to perform any work.

• Temperature Scale (t)

The temperature scale of the T,s diagram is read on the
horizontal axis within a range of 0-800°C.

• Pressure Curve (P)

The pressure curves originate at the left hand lower corner at
the “0” point of the temperature scale. It rises, following the
trend of the saturation curve. Horizontal lines at selected

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Figure 14 : Molier diagram

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pressure values join the two extremities of the saturation curve.

The length of the line joining the extremities represents the
amount of latent heat (total heat) required to convert 1 kg or
water into saturated steam. From the right hand extreme of the
saturation curve, the pressure curve then rises steeply.

• Volume Curve (V)

The volume curves originate in the left hand lower region of the
graph and rise steadily representing the decrease in volume in
relation to the increase in pressure. From the right hand
extreme of the saturation curve, the volume curve also rises
steeply.

• Enthalpy Curve (h)

The enthalpy curves originate at the bottom horizontal and right
hand vertical axes of the graph.

NOTE: If the enthalpy curves originating from the bottom

horizontal axis are extended sufficiently it can be seen that they
will also originate from the right hand vertical axis BUT at
temperatures below 0°C.

• Entropy Values (s)

The entropy values are indicated along the bottom horizontal
axis of the graph. Entropy can thus be determined by
extending a line vertically downward from the point of intersect
of the pressure and volume curves, giving a value of entropy in
kJ/Kg K.

NOTE: Any Enthalpy reading falling within the saturation

curve indicates “wet” steam conditions. Those outside the
saturation curve indicates saturated “dry” superheated steam
conditions.

• Percentage Total Heat (x)

A horizontal line plotted between the extremes of the saturation
curve represents the amount of total heat required to convert kg
of water into steam. The “x” curves represent divisions of 10%
of the value of total heat at any given pressure.

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4.3.2 Determining Steam Property Values Using the T,s Diagram

Using the examples below and plotting the values on the diagram will
assist you to understand and use it to your advantage.

Example 1
Live steam temperature = 400°C
Live steam pressure = 50 bar
Is the steam “wet” or “dry”?

Plot the temperature (400°C) horizontal from the left hand vertical axis to
where it intersects with the 50 bar pressure curve. This intersection falls
well outside the saturation curve. The steam is thus dry.

Example 2
Live steam pressure = 50 bar
Volume = 0,005M3/kg
What is the steam temperature?

Find the intersect of the 50 bar curve and the 0,0051M3/kg volume
curve. Plot a line horizontal to the left hand vertical axis. The
temperature is 338°C.

Example 3
Live steam pressure = 20 bar
Total heat percentage = 70%
1) What is the enthalpy? and
2) What is the entropy?

Find the intersect of the 20 bar curve and the 70% (x=0,7) total heat
percentage curve.
1) Plot a curved line downward parallel to the enthalpy curve which
will end up approximately 50 MJ/Kg to the right hand side of the
2200 MJ/kg curve. The enthalpy (h) is thus 2250 MJ/Kg.
2) From the same point of intersect mentioned above, plot a vertical
line down to the horizontal axis. The entropy is 5,185 kJ/Kg K.

4.4 Heat Transfer

Now that we know what the properties of water and steam is all about, we can
move on and have a brief look at the conditions under which heat energy is
transferred between different substances.

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Heat transfer between substances can take place in three different ways:
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation

All three ways of heat transfer depend on a temperature difference between the
substances concerned.

NB: Heat transfer only occurs from a hot to a cold substance/object.

4.4.1 Conduction
If heat is added to one end of a metal bar, the heat will travel along the
metal until the other end of the bar also becomes hot. This travel of heat
along the metal is called conduction.

Some substances are good conductors of heat, while other are bad
conductors. Most materials are good conductors, but materials such as
wood, asbestos and non-metallic substances are bad conductors.
Gases and liquids including pure water are not good conductors of heat.

In the boiler, heat transfer takes place by conduction through the plates
and tubes.

In the turbine, heat transfer takes place in the condenser feed heaters
and in the turbine cylinders.

The quantity of heat conducted through the body at any given time is
directly increased by an increase in the difference of temperature
between the hot and cold surfaces. The heat exchange is proportionally
increased by an increase in surface area, for an even temperature
difference along the surface.

Finally, the heat exchange is proportionally reduced by an increase in

the thickness of the solid, but also depends on the nature of the material
involved.

Such that the quantity of heat transferred across the solid, Q, is given
by:

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A x T x Constant
Q =
X

where Q = Quantity of heat (Watts = J/s)

A = Surface area m2
T = Temperature difference °C (K)
X = Thickness of material M
Constant = K = Thermal conductivity (W/M°C)

The thermal conductivity depends upon the nature of the material and its
ability to conduct heat. This varies for different materials as can be seen
from the Table below.

Generally speaking metals are good conductors of heat. Pure water, air
and some materials such as cork and glass wool are very bad
conductors, and are termed “insulators”. Some of these materials are
used to lag steam boilers, pipes, turbine casings etc. to reduce loss of
heat energy from the steam to the cooler outside surroundings.
Conduction is often a major means of heat loss. It conveys heat away
from those areas that we are trying to keep hot. Boilers lose heat
through the skin casing, insulating panels, open pipes, etc.

Liquids and gases can conduct heat but, as the Table shows, they are
not good conductors because the molecules that are heated move about
more rapidly and so do not pass the heat directly to the nearest
adjoining molecule. The increase in energy causes the fluid to expand
so that the space between the molecules become even greater and a
continuous transfer of vibrations/heat is not possible.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY’S

MATERIAL W/m°C
Metals @ 18°C
Copper 384,2
Aluminium 209,2
Brass 104,6
Steel 48,1
Cast Iron 45,6
Lead 34,7

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MATERIAL W/m°C
Fluids @ 0°C
Mercury 8,37
Oil 0,18
Hydrogen 0,16
Water 0,054
Methane 0,029
Air 0,022
Steam 0,015
CO2 0,014
Insulating materials
Firebrick 0,61
Granulated cork 0,15
Vermiculite 0,067
Fibre board 0,059
Slag wool 0,042
Aluminium foil 0,042
Glass wool 0,040
Mineral wool 0,040

4.4.2 Convection
This is the transfer of heat in a substance caused by the flow of the
substance and only occurs in liquids and gases. This flow is set up by
very small portions of the liquid or gas being heated and gaining heat
from a hot surface by conduction. Having gained some heat, the
molecules of the substance tend to expand and become lighter than the
surrounding liquid or gas and moves upwards, being less dense than the
surrounding cold liquid or gas.

If this natural flow is assisted by a pump in the case of liquids or a fan in

the case of a gas, the low currents now produced is called “Forced
Convection Currents”.

In the boiler the heat transfer by convection can be split into two
components. These are the heat transfer by the gas stream to the tube
surfaces, which is particularly applicable in the superheater and re-
heater zones, and heat transfer from the fire onto the inner tube walls to
the water/steam contained inside the tubes.

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In a fluid, if the moving particles differ in temperature or come into

contact with a hot solid surface, they transmit heat to each other by
contact. When the particles are heated they become less dense or
buoyant and rise upwards through the fluid. This motion when
maintained is known as “free” or “natural” convection. If the fluid is
circulated by mechanical means, i.e. by pumping, it is termed forced
convection. Forced convection gives a considerably increased rate of
heat transfer, due to an increase in fluid velocity.

Figure 15 shows a vessel with an inclined tube connected at the bottom,

and containing water. When heat is applied to the tube, the heated
molecules of water become less dense and rise.

FIGURE 15 : ILLUSTRATION OF HEAT TRANSFER BY MEANS OF

CONVECTION

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Denser cooler molecules move in to take their place, therefore setting in

motion convection currents, resulting in all the water in the vessel and
the tube becomes heated almost uniformly, due to the continuous
circulation of the water. This is the basic principle of the water-tube
boiler.

The circulation will continue whilst there is temperature difference

between different parts of the fluid. The rate of circulation will depend on
the difference in temperature between the hot and the cold fluid in
natural convection, and the pump capacity in the forced convection.

The transfer of heat from a fluid to a solid boundary occurs through a

film of the fluid clinging to the boundary. This may be compared to a
boiler tube in which there is water or steam on the inside and gas on the
outside.

The films are very thin and are stationary, while the fluids flow at
considerable velocity. Usually the fluid heat transfer depends more on
the fluid films clinging to the wall surface than to the wall itself.

Fluid forced through tubes may flow in a streamline (laminar) or turbulent

manner.

Flow of either type may take place with heat transfer. Streamline flow
has no cross velocities and heat transfers by conduction in the fluid.

In turbulent flow, the eddies with their cross velocities greatly aid heat
transfer in addition to the conduction. Turbulent flow has higher heat
transfer coefficients.

In turbulent flow, boundary layers of fluid separate the main steam and
the wall. These are the film layers of the fluid and have high heat flow
resistance.

Many factors affect the heat transfer characteristics of these boundary

films. They are affected by the type and rate of fluid motion, properties
of the fluid, size of the fluid flow path and nature of state change, if any
produced by heat transfer. Scaling has a great influence on the heat
transfer as this acts as a second wall in a tube. Intense scaling is
responsible for poor heat transfer and low flow.

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4.4.2.1 Gas-side Convection Heat Transfer

This mainly occurs in the higher regions of the boiler in the parts
unable to “see” the flame. Heat absorption is dominantly
convective, but there is some non-luminous radiation from
carbon dioxide and water vapour contained in the gas. These
are the only constituents of the gas which are present in
significant quantities capable of this form of radiant heat
transfer.

Forced convection heat transfer depends on the velocity and

turbulence of the gas, as measured by an arrangement factor of
the tubes, also on the physical properties of the gas, which are
in themselves temperature dependent, and upon the
temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids.

When considering the calculation in this type of heat transfer it

is customary to use the logarithmic mean temperature
difference LMTD. Counter-flow heat exchangers are usually
preferred as it uses less material and require a smaller surface
area than a parallel flow heat exchanger.

In special cases the hot end of the exchanger may become

unduly expensive (e.g. final superheater) so that it is more
economic to use parallel flow, especially where there is the
coincidence of very little reduction in the LMTD.

In the parallel arrangement the tube metal temperatures are

lower, as the tubes carrying the higher steam temperatures are
now located in the cooler gas temperature zone. Because of
the lower temperature difference the localised heat transmission
to these tubes is reduced. This result in a smaller temperature
drop across the internal stream film and tube wall and has the
benefit of keeping the tube wall metal temperature to the lowest
practicable level.

As the gases are cooled they are used to heat steam at lower
temperatures. The surface used for this duty may be primary
re-heater or superheater surface. A cross-flow arrangement is
usually provided which makes use of horizontal tubes so that
the gases may flow at right angles to the tubes thus obtaining
the greatest turbulence.

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With the cooler gas, the entrained gas is solidified and there is
less risk of it sticking to the tubes, making it safe to reduce the
traverse pitch of the tube.

4.4.3 Radiation
The transfer of heat between substances which are not in contact with
each other is called radiation. This method of heat transfer occurs
completely independent of convection and conduction.

The heat energy travels in waves in straight lines similar to light waves
and at the same speed as light. The effect of these kind of waves is
practically instantaneous and passes through space without giving up its
heat energy to that space. Upon striking some object their heat is either
absorbed by the object or reflected from it. Dark surfaces will absorb
heat easily whilst highly polished surfaces and light colours reflect heat.

The warmth felt when sitting at the fire place is an example of heat
transfer by radiation. The sun is the worlds greatest radiator of heat and
all life on earth is dependent on the radiant heat which passes through
atmosphere.

In the boiler furnace or combustion chamber the radiant heat waves are
transmitted from the burning fuel and hot gases to the boiler heating
surfaces which then absorb the heat energy and pass it through the tube
wall to the water inside the tube. The heat is then transferred to the
water by convection.

The higher the temperature of the burning fuel, the higher the frequency
or shorter the length of the heat waves and thus the quantity of heat
transfer is greater. Temperature is of utmost importance in the transfer
of heat by radiation.

All boiler surfaces which “see the fire” are receivers of radiant heat and
under good conditions some 70% to 80% of the total heat generated by
the burning fuel may be transmitted in this way.

Since all hot surfaces radiate heat, it is necessary to lag or insulate

steam pipes used to convey the steam to the turbine to reduce the
amount of heat lost due to radiation.

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Radiation is the transmission of heat by means of electromagnetic

waves. The waves which carry rays of heat are the same as these
which transmit cosmic rays, x-rays, light, radio and television signals.

They all travel at the same speed (300 000 km/s). The only difference
between them being the wavelength. The sun as well as the flame in a
boiler furnace are good examples of a source of radiant heat.

All bodies which are at temperatures above absolute zero (O-K or

273"C) give off radiant heat. At the same time all bodies receive radiant
heat from those which are at higher temperatures than themselves.

The radiation from a body at a particular temperature is within a band of

wavelengths. As the temperature increases the band moves to shorter
wavelengths until part of the band has moved into the visible section of
the spectrum. The body emits light as well as heat. Most heat is
transmitted within the infrared waveband, (shortest wave length) but
there can be an overlap at each end of the band. At the shorter
wavelengths some materials can become red hot, by contact with the
flame, e.g. blow torching.

Radiant heat travels in straight lines, as does all electromagnetic

radiation, unless acted upon. The radiant heat may be reflected,
refracted or polarised. The intensity of the radiation follows the inverse-
square law of intensity. This means simply that as heat travels further
from its source it is spread over a larger area. The actual area increases
on the square of the distance. Therefore the heat flow, per unit area, is
proportional to the square of the distance from the source. That is
12
intensity I
d

A body may absorb, transmit or reflect radiant heat. The net heat
radiated between two bodies that see each other completely equals the
difference of the emissions between each of them. This applies to all
solids, liquids and gases as they are all capable of radiating energy.

The rate at which heat is absorbed or emitted by a body, depends on its

absolute temperature and also on its capacity for emitting or receiving
radiation. This is called its “emissivity”. Some of the radiant heat falling
or a body is reflected in the same manner as light is reflected. The

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remainder is absorbed except for a negligible amount which is

transmitted through the body.

Dark and rough surfaces are good absorbers of radiant heat, whereas
bright and polished surfaces reflect most of the heat and therefore the
absorption is small. A perfect absorber and radiator of heat energy is
termed a perfect “black-body”, though this does not necessarily refer to
body colour.

Actual materials are not perfect radiators or absorbers, so to compare

them with black bodies, the emissivity ratio is used.

This is defined as:

total emission power of actual body

Emissivity (E) =
total emission power of black body

with both bodies at the same temperature.

Joseph Stefan, an Austrian scientist, discovered that the rate (Q) at

which a “black body” emitted heat, was proportional to the fourth power
of its absolute temperature. From this was derived the Stefan-
Boltzmann Law. If it is required to calculate the actual amount of heat
flow from a surface to its surroundings, the following formula is used:

Q = Q EA (T14 - T24)

where Q = Stefan - Boltzmann constant (5,67 x 10-8 W/m2k4>

Q = Heat flow - W

A = Area of radiating surface - m2

E = Emissivity of surface

T1 = Temperature of surface - K

T2 = Temperature of surroundings - K

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In the power station the radiant heat transfer mechanism occurs in the
furnace and in the lower superheater regions which can see the flame.
The furnace gas and particles of carbon and ash radiate luminously at a
rate proportional to the fourth power of their absolute temperature.
Similarly the furnace tube surface will also radiate heat at a similar rate.

The heat transferred also depends on the emissivity of the flame and
absorbtivity of the tubes. The tubes in the boiler will absorb the same
amount of radiation energy irrespective of position. On the other hand,
the emissivity of the flames varies according to the type of fuel used for
combustion. Oil flames are particularly luminous and have a higher
emissivity than a coal flame. Coal flames, however, do not vary much in
emissivity over the range from bituminous to anthracite coals.

In the practical design of the furnace the designer resorts to the use and
interpretation of empirical data collected from boilers of similar design
Operating under similar conditions, since there are many unpredictable
variables.

For example, the area of the flame will vary substantially with furnace
design and fuel fire. The type of firing affects the rate at which the gas
sweeps over heating surfaces, and the area of the flame varies with the
rate of firing, other things being constant. Flame emissivity depends On
many factors including, flame luminosity due to the burning particles, the
concentration of water vapour and carbon dioxide in the flame and the
volume of flame and its temperature.

The temperature of the flame envelope will neither be constant nor

uniform in a water-cooled furnace. Combustion characteristics of
different firing equipment vary widely. Some produce a short, but intense
and highly turbulent flame, while combustion with others is relatively
slow, thereby producing a comparatively long flame of greater volume.

Although the area of the “cold” surface in a furnace is fixed, slag

accumulation may influence its effectiveness. The emissivity of the
water-cooled installation depends on the material used and its condition.

The mechanism of radiative heat transfer, as can be seen, is a very

complex subject, requiring the designers to look at the problem
practically rather than theoretically.

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4.4.4 Efficiency (Heat transfer)

The efficiency of heat transfer is dependent on:
• Temperature
• Temperature differential
• Material; good or bad conductors of heat
• Conditions of heat transfer

4.4.4.1 Temperature
The higher the temperature of the heat donor, the more heat is
available and the more heat can be transferred. However, the
temperature of the heat recipient will also have an influence on
the amount of heat that can be transferred to it.

4.4.4.2 Temperature Differential

Regarding the temperature of the heat recipient, or the cooler
body, the greater the temperature difference between it and the
heat donor, the more heat can be transferred. Regardless of
temperature differential, the materials of the heat donor and
heat recipient bodies will also affect the efficiency of heat
transfer.

4.4.4.3 Material
If the material of the heat recipient is a bad conductor of heat,
heat will not be transferred efficiently and will be lost, or may
cause damage. However, if a fluid which is a poor conductor of
heat is allowed to flow through a pipe, heat will be transferred
efficiently due to the increased cooling effect on the inner wall
of the pipe (convection) e.g. water flowing in a pipe. If the fluid
movement is retarded the efficiency of heat transfer will be
reduced due to the reduced cooling effects on the inner wall of
the pipe.

On the other hand, if the fluid movement is accelerated as in an

assisted or forced circulation boiler, or as in a once-through
Benson boiler, the efficiency of heat transfer will be greatly
increased.

4.4.4.4 Conditions of Heat Transfer

If the conditions between the heat donor and heat recipient are
poor, heat transfer will not be efficient. Furnace wall,
superheater, re-heater, condenser and oil cooler tubes which

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are dirty will reduce the efficiency of heat transfer. When a

water superheater or re-heater tube is the heat recipient and is
covered with deposits, some of the heat will pass over the tube
and be lost to the chimney. If these aforesaid tubes are the
heat donors and the heat recipient (water, steam) is separated
from the tube surface by a layer of deposits, some heat will
pass over, but some heat will damage the tube with a
consequent failure.

4.4.5 Losses (Heat transfer)

Heat which is generated in the boiler combustion chamber or furnace
must be transferred to the water inside the furnace water tubes, to the
steam inside the superheater and tubes as well as the water inside the
boiler economiser tubes and to the air combustion in the air heater.

Any deposit (ash, slag or dust) on the tubes will act as a resistor, thereby
decreasing the rate of heat transfer. Some of the heat will then not
transfer, but merely move on and away to the boiler chimney. It is very
important that the heat transfer surfaces be kept clean and free of
deposits by correct operation (firing and sootblowing).

Heat is also lost from boiler casings after it has been transferred to the
boiler water in the water-wall tubes, if the heat insulation (lagging) is
poorly maintained. It is very important that all boiler lagging be
maintained in optimum condition.

Heat transfer by convection in the furnace water tubes must never be

retarded by disturbing the convection through a water tube by
evaporator tube blowdown. This loss of heat transfer will result in
overheating of water tubes and possible tube failure.

Heat which is generated in a bearing and removed by the lubrication oil,

must be transferred to the coolant or cooling medium. If the oil cooler
tubes are dirty, heat transfer loss results. The oil may degraduate and
lead to bearing damage.

4.5 Differential Temperature and Thermal Stress

To be able to understand the relationship between differential temperature and
thermal stress, the following must be considered first.

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4.5.1 Differential Temperature

The words differential temperature state the actual meaning.

Temperature differentials are measured between different parts of a

specific item of plant, or on the same part at different places. The last
mentioned case is usually where very thick metal construction is
concerned, for instance on the turbine cylinders.

Differential temperatures are also measured between different

substances for instance, where the delta temperature must be calculated
between the working media and working substance, i.e. turbine metals
and the steam temperature.

When turbine load is changed for any reason, there will always be a
change in the steam flow through the machine. The reason for this is
that the turbine load is dependent on the amount of steam passing
through the turbine, and this steam is controlled by the governing valves.

Say for instance that a decrease occurs in the work performed by the
turbine i.e. reduction of output the governor valves will throttle to allow
less steam to pass to the cylinder. Upon throttling of these valves there
will also be a change in the steam pressure after the valves, but the
effect concerning the volume will be different from that stated in 2.5
because of the fixed volume inside the cylinder.

The temperature will be maintained by the attemperators on the boiler

which mean, that only the pressure inside the cylinders change and the
temperature and volume remain the same. From this it can be seen
that the enthalpy has definitely changed which must have some effect on
the differential temperatures on the turbine.

If we now refer to 4.1.4 concerning the influence of pressure on the

boiling point of water, it can be figured that a change in pressure will also
have an effect on the superheat qualities of the steam.

If the temperature and volume of the steam is kept constant and the
pressure is decreased, the superheat qualities in the steam will increase,
which means that it will have a positive influence on the turbine metal
temperatures.

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The adverse effect will be the result when the turbine load is increased,
which means that the effect on the turbine metal temperatures will have
a negative trend.

If the load changes occur when the machine is heat soaked, (at normal
working temperature) the above-mentioned effects will be very small, but
on the other hand, during run-up stages the steam conditions vary
continuously to a very large extent, which means that the metal
temperatures will also be severely affected.

As mentioned earlier, metal delta temperatures can be measured

between different substances and different parts of the same machine.
For the sake of this course the delta temperatures on the same specific
parts of a machine will be considered first.

Because modern turbines are designed to handle steam at very high

pressure and temperature, the machine casings are manufactured of
very thick metal. Experience has proved that thick metal takes a longer
time to heat up than a thin piece.

As explained in 4.4.1, the same effect will be evident when hot steam is
submitted into a cold turbine. The areas of the casing which is in direct
contact with the steam will heat up much faster than those parts which is
not in direct contact with the steam. Such areas purely depend on the
principle of heat conduction to heat up. In other words the heat must be
transferred by conduction from the areas which are in direct contact with
the steam, to the areas which are cold.

If the difference in temperature between these two areas is allowed to

become too excessive, the molecules of the material will be weakened
and subsequent metal failure will occur. This weakening of the
molecules is called “metal fatigue”. To reduce the effect of high
differential temperatures associated with thick metal turbine casings,
modern day practice is to manufacture the turbine with an inner and
outer cylinder.

4.5.2 Metal creep / Normal stress

Metal creep is a natural phenomenon which occurs in metal when it is
heated and cooled several times.

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When heated, the metal will expand to a certain extent, and when cooled
it will contract. However, when cooled, it does not return to its original
dimensions due to heat disturbance of the molecules. If this heating and
cooling of material is repeated for an unlimited number of times, the
molecules will become so badly disturbed that consequent metal failure
is likely to occur.

If metal is heated to a temperature in excess of its designed maximum

temperature, metal creep will be so excessive that it will reduce the
expected lifespan of the material up to ten times of the designed value.

When heat is added to a substance such as turbine metals, it will

expand as the metal temperature rises. As discussed earlier, due to the
thickness of the materials used, the parts which are in direct contact with
the steam will absorb the heat energy faster than the parts which are
not. The hotter parts of metal will thus expand more than the cooler
parts and due to this difference in thermal gradient, thermal stress will
result.

5. OPERATING PHILOSOPHY OF A STEAM GENERATOR

In addition to the water and steam flow systems discussed in Section 3.2 of this
module, several other systems are also critical to the operation of a steam generator
namely; fuel firing systems; combustion air and flue gas systems; and ash and dust
collection and disposal systems.

5.1 Fuel Firing Systems

5.1.1 Pulverised fuel (PF) fired boilers (See Figure 16)

• Total air for combustion is supplied by the forced draught (FD) fan
(number 2 on Figure 16), by taking suction from high up in the
boiler house and supplying it to the fan via the FD fan suction
ducting (1).

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From the FD fan (2) the combustion air is supplied via the FD fan
discharge ducting (3) to the air heater (4). In the air heater, hot
gases leaving the boiler are used to heat the air heater elements.
The heat from these elements is then transferred to the
combustion air, increasing its temperature from typically 30°C to
approximately 250°C.

From the air heater, the combustion air passes to the hot air
ducting (5). From this ducting hot air is supplied to the wind-
boxes (6) and primary air (PA) hot air ducting (8). Cold PA
attemperating air is supplied via cold air ducting (7) into the PA hot
air ducting (8).

By mixing the hot and cold primary air before the suction side of
the PA fan (9), inlet temperatures are controlled to maintain a mill
outlet temperature of typically 70°C to 100°C.

From the PA fan (9), the primary air is blown upwards through the
mill (11). In the mill, coal from the coal bunker (12), supplied to the
mill by a coal feeder (13), is ground to powder (known as
Pulverised Fuel (PF)) in the mill. Sealing air from the seal air fan
(10) is supplied to the mill shaft seal to protect the seal from PF
ingress.

The primary air blowing up into the mill picks up the PF and carries
it via the PF pipes and distribution chutes (14) to the burners (D, C,
B, E, A, F).

At the burners, the PF, primary air and secondary air from the
windbox (6) is mixed and combustion takes place in the
combustion chamber (15) of the boiler. During light-up and low
load conditions, oil fired burners are used to initially heat the
furnace and support PF combustion until the combustion is such
that it is self supporting. Coarse ash that is formed during
combustion drops down into the boiler hopper (21).

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The combustion chamber is maintained under a negative pressure

(suction) by the ID fan (18). The hot gases of combustion and fine
ash are drawn through the boiler gas pass (16), to the air heater
(4) where it is used to heat the cold air for combustion.

The gases then pass through the fabric filter plant (17) where the
majority of fine ash is removed and collected in the dry dust
hoppers (20).

The clean flue gases then pass through the ID fan, and are
discharged to atmosphere via the smoke stack (19).

The coarse ash in the boiler hoppers (21), and the fine ash in the
dry dust plant hoppers (20) are removed from the boiler and
pumped away to the ash dams.

5.1.2 Chain-grate boiler (see Figure 17)

An older design, these boilers were utilised within Eskom in the 1940’s
and 1950’s and are now only utilised as auxiliary boilers at Eskom
Power Stations to provide auxiliary steam to the main boilers. However,
they are still utilised at some municipal power stations such as Kelvin
and Pretoria West for the generation of power.

A typical fuel firing layout for a chain-grate boiler is shown in Figure 17.
Coal “nuts” (typically ± 25mm in diameter), are supplied from a coal
bunker, via a traversing chute and screw feeder, onto a rotating chain
link grate.

Ignition is initially obtained manually by utilising wood and fire lighters,

with coal being added gradually, until a “bed” of fire is established on the
grate. The firing rate of the boiler is then controlled by varying the
speed of the coal feeder (thickness of the fire on the grate), and by the
speed of the grate travelling across the combustion area (complete
combustion of the coal).

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FIGURE 17 : TYPICAL CHAIN GRATE BOILER

Combustion air is supplied via F.D. fans which blow upwards through the
grate. I.D. fans maintain suction above the grate and in the gas pass of
the boiler and carry the hot gases and fly ash through the economiser,
superheaters and air heaters as per the P.F. boiler design.

The flue gas leaving the boiler is “cleaned” in dust removal systems such
as cyclone separators, and in the case of Kelvin retrofitted bag filters,
before being discharged via the smoke stack to atmosphere.

The coarse ash falling from the chain-grate is quenched with water and
removed via chain conveyors. The dust from the flue gas cleaning
system is mixed with the coarse ash and removed (normally via a chain-
bucket system) to ash dumps.

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5.1.3 Fire tube boiler

A very widely utilised industrial boiler utilised mainly for heating duties at
chemical plants, hospitals, schools and cooking of food at hostels. They
are utilised at some power plants as auxiliary boilers for supplying
auxiliary steam to the main boilers.

As their name implies, the water wall tubes of the boiler actually form the
space around the furnace / combustion area of the boiler.

The fuel firing system for these boilers is mainly by hand stoking of coal,
but in some cases chain-grate and screw type coal feeders are utilised.

Ash removal is carried out manually without any dust removal required.

5.1.4 Gas fire boilers

These boilers are normally utilised for power generation in countries that
have rich gas fields and also, to a smaller extent, in large petro-chemical
plants where combustible waste gases are used to generate steam.

In gas fired boilers the typical water and steam layout is very similar to a
PF fired boiler. However, the fuel firing system varies substantially in
that the coal storage, milling plant and ash / dust removal systems are
redundant.

Gas is supplied via the gas field / chemical plant into storage tanks.
The storage tanks consist typically of an outer shell with a water seal in
which an inner tank is free to move. As the gas is introduced into the
inner tank, it is lifted by the gas and provides a storage area for the gas
(similar to the H2 gas holder principle in an H2 gas production plant).

The gas is then drawn from the storage tanks, via gas driers, to the
burner system at the boiler combustion area. Ignition is obtained at the
burners by means of high voltage sparking units, or pilot flames.
Combustion air is provided via F.D. fans and I.D. fans are utilised to
remove the waste produces of combustion. Gas fired boilers are very
clean burning with very little effect on the environment. Some gas fired
boilers are equipped with gas scrubber plants which remove the gases
of combustion from the flue gas prior to it being introduced into the
atmosphere via the stack.

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5.1.5 Oil fired boilers

These boilers are widely utilised in shipping and in industry but to a
limited extent in power generation. They are mainly employed in
countries which have rich and cheap oil reserves. Within South Africa,
during the years of cheap oil supplies being available to the world, some
Municipalities built and commissioned oil fired power stations, (e.g.
Athlone Power Station in Cape Town). As oil prices increased
dramatically in the 1980’s, the cost of power generation became
inhibitive for oil fired power stations and in most cases these power
station have been retrofitted to coal firing.

Fuel oil is provided to the power station via road tankers, rail or in some
cases where the station is situated close to the oil field, pumped directly
to the station.

Stations utilising light fuel oil would typically have storage tanks, into
which the fuel oil would be delivered from which high pressure pumps
would provide fuel oil directly to the banks of burners required for steam
generation. In stations utilising heavier denser fuel oil, off-loading oil
heating systems, storage tank heating and intermediate heating systems
would be required. This is to ensure that the fuel oil’s viscosity is such
that it can be pumped via high pressure pumps to the burner banks.

Again, as per gas-fired boilers, oil fired boilers are generally clean
burning, with very little effect on the environment, when compared to
P.F. boilers. Some oil fired boilers may be equipped with flue gas
cleaning equipment (typically Fabric Filter Plants) to remove any solid
particles from the flue gas).

5.2 Combustion Air and Flue Gas Systems

In this section we will discuss the operating philosophy of the combustion air and
flue gas systems employed on pulverised fuel boilers (as these are the boilers
most widely utilised within Eskom and South Africa).

5.2.1 Combustion air

To understand the operating philosophy of the supply and control of
combustion air through a boiler and the removal of the resultant of flue
gases, we need to understand the term “boiler draught” and the fans
utilised to provide this “draught”.

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5.2.1.1 Boiler draught

The term draught refers to the pressure in any part of a
boiler or furnace in which the combustion air or combustion
gases flow. The pressures are expressed in Pascals (Pa) or
kilopascals (kPa) above or below the atmospheric pressure.
In modern boilers, measurements are made using pressure
transducers (instruments) connected to remote indicators;
these are supplemented with local (draft) gauges. Older
boilers may only have local draft gauges. Draught pressure
measurements are normally made at the furnace wind-box,
economiser inlet, air-heater inlet and stack inlet.

Draught (pressure) may be created as the result of natural or

external mechanical forces. Natural draught is created by
the stack that contains a column of hot gas. The density of
this gas is less than that of the equivalent column of cool air
so that a pressure differential is created. The stack height is
selected to create a sufficient differential pressure (chimney-
effect) to induce the flow of air and flue gas through the
furnace.

NOTE: The term boiler and furnace are used

interchangeably in this module.

FIGURE 20 : BASIC DRAUGHT SYSTEMS

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Mechanical draught is created by the use of mechanical fans

that push or pull gases through the furnace (Figure 18).
Fans used to push (force) the air and combustion gases
through the furnace; are termed Forced Draught (FD) fans.
In other configurations fans are used to draw (pull) air and
gases through the furnace, these are called Induced Draught
(ID) fans. In many boilers, the furnace is maintained at or
just below atmospheric pressure by a combination of forced
and induced draught fans. The draught created is referred
to as a balanced draught system.

The combustion gases are often called flue gases because

these gases are discharged via the flues; flues are the
passes or ducts that connect the boiler to the stack. The
quantity of combustion air that can be drawn into a boiler
furnace is governed by the sectional area of the flues or
stack, and by the draught (pressure). Because the sectional
areas are essentially fixed once the plant is built, only the
draught (pressure) can be varied to vary the gas flow. This
is important because the greater the gas flow (FD or ID)
through the boiler, the boiler load and gas velocities will
increase in direct proportion to the volumetric flow. The
draught pressures however vary by the square root of the
volumetric flow. This means that doubling of the airflow
volume doubles the gas velocities, and normally, doubles the
load. The draught however only increases by the square
root of 2 or 1,414. From this it is clear that a small change
in draught will have a significant affect on gas flow.

5.2.1.2 Natural draught

As described previously, natural draught is the pressure
caused solely by the stack or chimney. The actual draught
pressure created is dependent on:

• Temperature of the ambient (outside) air; colder air

increases the draught.
• Temperature of the gases in the stack; hotter stack
gases increases the draught.
• Stack height; a higher stack produces more draught.

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Because the ambient temperature cannot be controlled,

natural draught can only be controlled by raising the gas
temperature in the stack or increasing the stack height.
Both of these options are uneconomic because a higher
stack gas temperature means a greater loss of heat and
consequently lower unit efficiency. A higher stack means
increased capital cost. In situations where natural draught
is used, careful studies are made to select the optimum
method.

NOTE: The natural draught (chimney) effect is also used to

create draught through cooling towers.

5.2.1.3 Mechanical draught

Mechanical draught is provided by one or more fans that are
driven either by an electric motor or a steam turbine (see
Figure 18).

Forced Draught – Forced draught systems use one or more

fans to deliver air, via an air duct, to an enclosed furnace
front. This air provides the oxygen for the burning fuel as
well as carrying the resulting hot combustion gases to the
stack via the boiler’s heat exchanger tubes. Fuel efficiency
and energy recovery is obtained by pre-heating the forced
air, before it enters the furnace, by passing it through an air
heater (heat exchanger). The air heater is installed in the
flue between the furnace outlet and the stack. The heat
transferred from flue gases to the inlet air is a direct saving
of the large amounts of useful heat energy that would
otherwise be wasted up the stack. Typically, efficiency of a
boiler unit will increase approximately 4,5% for every 100°C
decrease in boiler exit (flue) gas temperature.

With forced draught systems the entire furnace casing is

pressurised to above atmospheric pressure (positive
pressure). It is necessary to prevent gases escaping the
system by sealing the furnace and all furnace openings.
Similarly, the casing must be strong enough to withstand the
internal pressure. Casing strengthening is often done by
using tie bars, or channels and buckstays that surround the
boiler horizontally.

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NOTE 1: Buckstays are steel beams that are attached to

the corners of the boiler such that thermal
expansion and contraction can take place.

NOTE 2: Forced draught arrangements are often used on

small ‘package’ boilers used for industrial water
heating and steam raising.

Induced Draught – Mechanical draught may also be

created using an induced draught arrangement. With this
arrangement a fan is installed in the flue gas duct between
the boiler and stack. This fan sucks the gases through the
boiler and forces them up the stack. Unlike forced draught
system the pressure inside the furnace is slightly lower than
atmospheric pressure (negative pressure). Again, it is
important that the boiler casing and openings are sealed to
prevent air leaking into the boiler. Air leaks (tramp air) will
lower the capacity and efficiency of the boiler. With ID
boilers the furnace casings must be strong enough to
withstand the external pressure of the atmosphere. If this
were not done, the furnace casing would implode if the inlet
air dampers were closed. Bars and buckstays are used to
give the required strength and support to the casings as with
the forced draught systems.

Induced draught fans are larger than forced draught fans for
the same furnace size and boiler capacity. This is because:

• The ID fan must move the combined mass of the

combustion air and the fuel.

• The ID fan must handle tramp air leakage into the

boiler casing and ducts.

• The ID fan must handle the hot flue gases that are less
dense and have a greater volume than the air moved
by an equivalent FD fan.

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Balanced Draught – Most modern power generation boilers

use both forced and induced draught fans to provide a
‘balanced’ draught through the system (see Figure 18).
With this arrangement, the furnace pressure is maintained
at, or slightly below, atmospheric pressure. The lower
pressure differential means sealing and strengthening of the
furnace casing, although important, is not as critical as in the
forced or induced draught systems. As illustrated in Figure
19, air heaters are installed on the flue duct, upstream of the
ID fan, to recover heat into the incoming air. This also
reduces the temperature, and hence volume, of the flue
gases that the ID fan must handle.

FIGURE 19 : BALANCED DRAUGHT ARRANGEMENT

5.2.1.4 Fans
Fans move comparatively large volumes of air or gas at a
low pressure. This is in contrast to blowers or compressors

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that are used to move small volumes of air at medium to high

pressure. Fans operate by creating a pressure differential
between the inlet (suction) and outlet (discharge) and
thereby causing the air or gas to flow.

There are two principle types of fans, axial and centrifugal:

Axial Fans – Axial fans are in effect propellers that function

by drawing air or gas, through the fan blades; in line with the
shaft (Figure 20). Such fans are used to move large
volumes of air at very low pressure differentials (3-30 Pa).
Axial fans are typically used for ventilation or forced cooling
(radiators) applications where flow or pressure does not
have to be carefully regulated. Axial fans have the
advantage that the blade angle (pitch) can be adjusted to
increase or decrease the volumetric throughput or pressure.
Axial fans usually only perform ancillary functions on power
stations and their design and operation are not discussed
further in this module.

Centrifugal Fans – A centrifugal fan functions in much the

same manner as a centrifugal pump. The fan draws air in at
the centre of the fan impeller where it turns at right angles
inside the revolving blades. The air is then accelerated and
forced to move outwards toward the impeller periphery by
centrifugal force. Centrifugal fans normally operate at low
discharge pressure but are capable of moving large volumes
of air or gas. This type of fan is suited to handle the hot
dust-laden gases normally found in boiler flues.

Centrifugal or radial fans have one of four basic types of

blade configurations; paddle, radial, forward-curved and
backward-curved as illustrated in Figure 20. Each of these
configurations offers particular advantages and
disadvantages that suit them for particular tasks and
applications.

• Paddle blades – This simple impeller arrangement

has a relatively high peripheral (tip) speed at the given
delivery pressure. They are relatively inefficient
because the number of blades is limited so that the

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FIGURE 20 : FAN BLADE TYPES

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throughput (volumetric capacity) is also limited.

Because the blades are self-cleaning they are often
used in handling small quantities of dirty/dusty gases
such as an exhauster on suction type mills. Where
abrasive wear is anticipated, the fan impeller and
casing have replaceable blades and wear liners.

• Straight / Radial blades – The fan impeller has

numerous thin straight blades that operate at lower
peripheral (tip) speeds than paddle blades. The radial
tipped blade offers a large volumetric capacity at a
moderate efficiency. This is partly because of a larger
inlet diameter. The blades also resist the formation of
deposits and so suit the fan for high volume dirty gas
applications such as boiler ID fans or undergrate boiler
recirculation fans. This type of fan may be found on
old stations but has been replaced by more efficient
fan arrangements on newer stations.

• Forward curved blades – Forward curved bladed

impellers have a large number of shallow blades
attached to a small diameter backplane. These
operate at low speeds but produce higher pressures
than other types of impeller at the same speed. Their
size, efficiency and relatively low cost make them
suitable for industrial FD and blower fan applications.
Their use in Eskom power stations has largely been
superseded by the airfoil (backward) blade fans.

• Backward blades – Backward bladed impellers have

plain or airfoil profiled blades that draw air in through
the centre (eye) of the fan impeller and discharge it
radially (Figure 20). The wide blades and large rotor
assembly make them costly to fabricate; airfoil section
blades add to the cost substantially. The increased
cost is offset by the high efficiencies (<86%) even with
large installations. This type of fan is now widely used
throughout power stations within Eskom for draft group
fans (FD, ID, Primary / Secondary air).

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• Fan shafts and bearings – The fan impeller shaft and

its support bearings are required to carry the rotating
mass of the impeller at speeds of up to 2900 r/min. (for
small fans). Various arrangements are used
depending on the size and mass of the impeller (Figure
21). Small axial fans and blower impellers are often
attached directly to the drive motor shaft and are
supported by the motor bearings.

Large impellers, such as those used on seal air fans,

have the fan shaft supported by bearings that are
mounted on a pedestal. Normally, the two ball or
roller type bearings are held by mounting blocks that
are fixed to a pedestal. The drive motor is either
coupled to the free end of the shaft (direct in-line) or
via a V-belt pulley arrangement. The latter allows the
impeller speed to be set by selecting the drive / driven
pulley ratios.

FIGURE 21 : IMPELLER/DRIVE SUPPORT ARRANGEMENTS

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Large ID and FD fans have the impeller fitted centrally

on the shaft and supported at each end by plain journal
bearings. The motor is mounted directly in-line with
the fan shaft and is either rigidly coupled or connected
via fluid coupling. Forced oil lubrication systems, with
coolers, are used to lubricate the fan bearings. If
required, oil jacking (lift) systems are provided to lift /
lubricate the bearings during fan run-up and run-down.

5.2.1.5 Fan controls

In most power station draft systems the flow of air or gas
through the fan must be regulated to suit operating
conditions. Typically, a change in unit load will require the
volume of gas drawn by the ID or FD fans to be changed in-
line with a change in fuel feed. Fan volumetric capacity or
pressure (i.e. fixed volume) is controlled by adjusting the gas
flow into or discharging from the fans or by regulating the fan
speed (variable speed).

Measuring Draft – The draft at various points in the furnace,

ducting and stack is measured by measuring the pressure at
that point. Pressures are typically low (0.1 – 30 kPa) when
measured relative to local atmospheric pressure. Pressure
is commonly measured either by liquid manometers (local
gauges) or electronic devices (remote indication). The latter
may be linked to control systems that regulate the flow
control device.

The large diameter ducts, often containing hot dusty gas, do

not lend themselves to gas flow measurements. If required,
measurements of flow are made by manually measuring the
gas velocity at various points across the duct using a Pitot
tube device.

Fan Discharge Dampers – Discharge dampers are an

inefficient method of regulating a fan’s discharge flow.
Dampers are only acceptable when the energy wastage is
not important or only a small range of flow control is
required. Dampers are normally used (open or closed) to
isolate the fan from the duct.

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Vane Control – Fan inlet control vanes (Figure 22) are used
extensively to control the throughput of large fans such as
those used for boiler draft systems. The vane assembly is
fitted at the fan inlet and regulates the fan output by varying
the intensity of the swirl of the air entering the fan impeller.
This is done by altering the angle of radial guide vanes that
are arranged at the impeller air inlet. Guide vanes are an
efficient method of regulating the fan throughput down to
approximately 15% of full capacity.

The guide vanes are arranged so that when closed they

completely close the area between the inner and outer cones
at the impeller’s inlet. The vanes are pivoted and connected
to a common operating linkage. They are set to close in
such a way that the air entering the fan spins in the direction

FIGURE 22 : FAN ARRANGEMENT SHOWING THE GUIDE VANES

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FIGURE 23 : GUIDE VANE CONTROL LINKAGE ARRANGEMENT

of impeller rotation; if this is not done the drive motor

becomes overloaded. The vanes are positioned as
required, either manually using levers or automatically by
actuators (electric, hydraulic).

Variable Speed – Changing fan capacity by altering impeller

speed is currently the most energy efficient method of fan
regulation. Where efficiency is required continuously at
substantially lower loads a two-speed motor may be installed
(with or without guide vanes). Where regulation is required
over the fan’s complete operating speed range either
hydraulic or electronic variable speed drive arrangements
are used.

• Hydraulic speed control – Variable filling (Scoop

control) fluid couplings (Figure 24) are used to regulate
the fan load by changing the ‘slip’ between the drive
motor and fan. An increased slip reduces the motor
load (amps) and fan output. Scoop control may be
done manually or via an actuator linked to the draught
control system. The coupling also provides a ‘soft’
start for the fan and reduces the peak motor starting
currents required. Hydraulic speed control normally
requires a dedicated oil-cooling system. This may be
linked to the fan bearing cooling water system or be an
independent forced air or water-cooled system.

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FIGURE 24 : HYDRAULIC COUPLING

• Electronic speed control – Electronic speed controls

(variable speed drives) are increasingly being used for
small and medium size motor applications. The
controller ‘creates’ an alternating current (AC) with
which to supply the machine’s synchronous motor
stator. This AC is however produced at a variable
frequency such that the frequency can be adjusted as
required to set the actual speed of the motor. Various
options are available that ensure a ‘soft’ start and
regulated acceleration to the required speed and to
limit starting currents.

VSDs have the advantage that they can interface

directly with modern microprocessor-based plant
control systems. However, the equipment cost and
ancillaries (cooling etc.) increases substantially as the
motor load (kW) increases.

In summary the combustion air is supplied via the FD fans, while the flue gases
are removed by the ID fans in a “balanced draught” system. Primary air fans are
utilised (out of the FD combustion air supply), to warm and carry the pulverised
fuel from the mills to the burners. At the burners, secondary air from the wind-

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box (also supplied from the FD fans), is provided for complete and efficient
combustion. Tertiary air (provided by the FD fans from before the air heaters (or
in some cases by “core air” fans at the burners), is provided down the centre of
the burners to provide cooling air to the burner mouths.

In the next few sections of this module we will discuss air-heaters, mills and
burners associated with the combustion air system.

5.3 Air Heaters

The air heater is an essential boiler auxiliary. Hot air is necessary for rapid and
efficient combustion in the furnace, and also for drying coal in the milling plant.
Another important function is to improve the efficiency of the boiler by recovering
waste heat from the flue gas which otherwise would be lost via the stack.

In many modern large boilers, two sets of air heaters are provided. One is used
for the normal task of preheating air for combustion. The other is used for
providing higher temperature air to the mills, to dry the coal.

There are two main types of air heaters in use: the static recuperative plate or
tube type, and the rotary regenerative type, with its two variants (the Ljunström
and the Rothermuhle types).

In the recuperative type, the flue gas is on one side of the tube or plate and the
air is on the other side. In the regenerative type, the gas flows through a closely
packed matrix, giving up heat to the air heater elements and so raising the
temperature of the matrix. Air is then passed through the matrix and recovers
this heat. Either the matrix itself or the airheater hoods may be rotated to
achieve a continuous transfer of heat.

5.3.1 Recuperative type air heaters

5.3.1.1 Tubular air heaters

Tubular air heaters have many advantages. They are simple
and robust, and are capable of withstanding a certain amount of
fouling and corrosion. Usually, they have plain steel tubes
which may be placed either vertically (with gas flowing through

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the tubes) or horizontally (with air through the tubes). The

tubes are welded, or expanded, into tube plates. Provision
must be made to allow for tube expansion, either on the tube
plates or on the boiler caning. It is possible to replace
individual rows of tubes, and cleaning them is relatively simple.

Tubular heaters are extremely heavy, however, and they

require a large amount of space. These factors make them
less popular for normal use than plate or regenerative types.

Their disadvantages become even more significant in large

modern plant, which requires low gas exit temperatures and in
which, consequently, the temperature difference between the
air and gas is lower. Generally they are not installed on
modern plant.

5.3.1.2 Plate type heaters (Figure 25)

These comprise parallel plates which provide alternate
passages for gas and air. Spaces between the plates are
narrow, about 12mm, which makes cleaning difficult, although
the application of shot-cleaning equipment has proved
successful.

FIGURE 25 : PLATE TYPE AIR HEATER

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This type of air heater is simple in construction and it is

relatively compact, with permanent all-welded prefabricated
plate packings. As replacing these place packings is a major
task, it is essential that corrosion is minimised.

The most vulnerable section is the cold end. Here, the

incoming air impinges on the plate envelope edges, which
tends to depress the metal temperature below the gas dew
point.

Good distribution of air and gas, especially at these cool spots,

is necessary to prevent corrosion. The temperature of plate
metals can, therefore, be raised by recirculating a percentage of
hot air from the outlet to the inlet. With pulverised fuel firing, an
inlet air temperature of 54-60°C is usually sufficient to prevent
serious problems. The amount of recirculation necessary to
ensure that this temperature is reached may be about 10-15%.
This does not have any major effect on the size of the air
heater.

However, it necessitates an increase in the capacity of the

installed forced-draught fan, and a consequent increase in the
capacity consumption of unit auxiliary power.

The gas flow through the air heater is vertical (either up or

down). In spite of this, low temperatures and low velocities
tend to occur near the casings. The air flow is in a zigzag path,
with a 90 degree change in direction at inlet and outlet. Splitter
bars are used to assist the distribution of the air and to maintain
plate spacing.

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5.3.2 Regenerative air heaters

5.3.2.1 Howden (Ljunström) rotary type

The basis of this design is a matrix, which is rotated at 1-
1,5 r/min and travels alternately through the gas and air
passes (see Figure 26 ).

The axis of rotation may be either horizontal or vertical,

but on recent installations the vertical type has
predominated. There are good reasons for this. It
provides for a direct lift when removing the element packs
which are fitted into the rotor. With the horizontal type,
the rotation of the air heater tends to

FIGURE 26 : ROTARY AIR HEATER (HOWDEN TYPE)

cause the elements to pack towards the outer surface. This

leaves gaps around the hub, through which air or gas can

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bypass the matrix. A vertical type arrangement is also easy to

water-wash.

The plates which form the element packs may vary in spacing
and thickness. The cold-end elements are either enamelled or
made of an alloy to give the maximum resistance to corrosion.
The notched and undulated configuration of the elements is
shown in Figure 27.

V75 STAGGERED ELEMENTS

FIGURE 27 : TYPICAL REGENERATIVE AIR HEATER ELEMENTS

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This configuration is designed to give the maximum turbulence

and heat transfer, as well as giving the individual plates a “self-
spacing” characteristic. The plate thickness is 0,5mm at the
hot end and 0,8mm at the cold end for pulverised fuel fired
units. The plate spacing is 2,5mm.

In this type of air heater, the small running clearances which are
necessary cause air to leak to the gas side. Special seals have
to be provided to reduce this leakage to a minimum; these are
shown in Figure 26. The seals have to be accurately adjusted
to give the maximum sealing effect at full operating
temperatures. Thermal distortion of the rotor also has to be
taken into account, since under operating conditions the gas
inlet metal temperature can be up to 220°C above the outlet
temperature.

Some designs include adjustable sealing surfaces which are set

automatically to give optimum running clearances.

It is normal for this type of heater to be provided with an integral

air bypass which is used to maintain high heater metal
temperatures during lighting up and low-load periods. Oil-fired
boilers are usually provided with an additional external gas
bypass. This prevents acidic deposits being formed, by
passing the relatively cold gases, which are present during start
up, through the air heater matrix.

5.3.2.2 Davidson (Rothműhle) type

The basic principle of operation for this type of air heater is the
same as for the Ljungström type, except that the elements are
stationary and the air hoods rotate within the gas pass at
approximately 1 r/min. The axis of rotation may be vertical or
horizontal, but again, and for similar reasons, the vertical type is
preferred.

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The drive is normally through an electric motor, operating a

pinion which meshes with a rack on the outer rim of the hood
assembly.

The element configuration is on the same principle as the

Ljungström type, but the plate clearances are somewhat greater
(about 3mm). Again, alloy elements are used in the cold-end
packs to give maximum resistance to corrosion.

The arrangement of the air heater is shown in Figure 28. The

sealing shoes (Figure 29) and air collar seals are spring loaded.
The sealing shoes are provided with stainless steel bellows

FIGURE 28 : ROTHEMUHLE GAS AIR HEATER

pieces. These automatically accommodate both differential

expansion and thermal distortion under working conditions.

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An external air bypass is fitted to control metal temperatures

during start up on pulverised fuel units. Air and gas bypasses
are installed on oil-fired units.

5.3.2.3 Advantages of regenerative air heaters

The most significant feature of both types of regenerative air
heaters is their relatively small size, compared with the
recuperative types of air heaters. This is because they have a
closely packed matrix as a heating surface, although they
require good on-load cleaning facilities to maintain efficiency.

FIGURE 29 : ROTHEMUHLE AIR HEATER UPPER AIR HOOD AND SEALS

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Other advantages of the regenerative type of air heaters are:

• Relatively easy and economical replacement of the

elements, with separate hot- and cold-end packs.

• Relatively small mass of metal, which enables the

expensive alloy steel elements to be used economically in
the low-temperature sections.

• Minimum metal temperatures at the cold end of a

regenerative heater are slightly higher than on a
recuperative design in similar operating conditions.

• Holing of element plates by corrosion will not affect the

heater performance significantly, until the plates actually
disintegrate.

The Rotheműhle type of regenerative heater has the following

additional advantages:

• Comprehensive temperature indication for all parts of the

matrix, thus assisting in the early detection of dew point or
fire hazard conditions.

• Relatively low weight of rotating parts, in comparison with

the Ljunström design.

5.3.2.4 Disadvantages of regenerative air heaters

Disadvantages of regenerative heaters include:

• Moving parts increase the possibility of outages. Even

so, the amount of maintenance from this will almost
certainly be less than that required on an equivalent
recuperative design.

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• Leakage of air into gas, and gas and dust into air, due to
the impossibility of perfect sealing.

• A relatively thin dirt deposit on the plates can reduce the

flow area quite appreciably, thus increasing the pressure
drop across the elements.

To keep the elements clean, both sootblowing and water-

washing facilities must be provided, because sootblowers
alone are not able to keep the air heater elements
absolutely clean.

5.3.3 Air heater operation

Air heater operation is basically a question of temperature control.
These frequently depend on some other aspects of the operation of the
boiler, such as controlling the temperature of superheated or reheat
steam. The temperature of the combustion air has a direct bearing on
boiler efficiency. Testing has shown that an increase of 22°C in
combustion air temperature will improve the overall efficiency of the
boiler by up to 1 percent, depending on the nature of the installation.

The temperature of the air supplied to the mills on a pulverised fuel

boiler is very important to an operator, because of variations in the
quality and quantity of fuel, and in the amount of moisture in the fuel.
As a result of this, a greater degree of control over the air outlet
temperature is necessary on air heaters which supply hot air to the
associated milling plant.

Controlling the temperature of the air to the mills is made easier by

providing tempering air ducts which supply cold air to lower the
temperature. These ducts bring in cold air, which may be interspersed
with the hot air between the air heater and the mill inlet if the air heater
outlet temperatures are too high. To raise the air heater air outlet

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temperatures, the flue gases before the economiser can be mixed with
the incoming flue gases to raise the air heater temperatures.

An alternative method of increasing the air outlet temperature is to

include air recirculation ducting and dampers. Warm air from the air
heater outlet is returned to the forced-draught or primary air fan suction
duct, which boosts the air heater inlet temperatures. Newer plants have
a separate flow path through the air heater for raising the temperature of
the primary air.

5.3.3.1 Corrosion and fouling

Dew point is said to be the temperature at which water vapour
in a gas or air will condense onto the surfaces over which it
passes.

Water vapour is present in the flue gases; if the temperature is

below the dew point, the water vapour condenses on the
surrounding surfaces. The same happens if there are acid
vapours present in the flue gases. If the average flue gas
temperature is above dew point, there will still be some
condensation on the surfaces, as these could be below the dew
point temperature. It is important, therefore, to know the metal
temperature or an average gas temperature so that most of the
metal surface is above dew point.

At low loads and during light up, the air heater gas outlet
temperature will be low enough to approach the dew point.

During combustion, sulphur in the coal is burnt to form sulphur

dioxide.
S + O2 → SO2

If there is excess oxygen present in the boiler, the sulphur

dioxide oxidises to form sulphur trioxide in the flue gas.

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2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3

If the flue gas reaches dew point, the water vapour will
condense with the sulphur trioxide to form an acid solution of
sulphuric acid.

SO3 + H20 → H2SO4

This will cause acid corrosion of the air heater elements,

forming scaling and fouling which reduce the effective heat
transfer of the elements which, in turn, can block the flow
channels. For this reason the cold-end elements are made of
acid-resistant metal to help minimise acid corrosion. An
increase in the sulphur trioxide present in the flue gases causes
the dew point temperature (sometimes called the acid dew
point) to rise.

Therefore, for a given gas outlet temperature, the higher the

concentration of sulphur trioxide, the higher the dew point and
the greater the area of the boiler surfaces (in particular the air
heater) exposed to acid corrosion. The percentage of sulphur
in the fuel being burnt affects the dew point.

A typical relationship between the dew point temperature and

the excess oxygen (combustion air) is shown in Figure 30.

It can be seen that for larger amounts of excess air, the dew
point temperature is raised. Therefore, during periods of low
load and light-up, excess air should be kept to a minimum
consistent with good combustion in the boiler, to lower the dew
point temperature and to reduce acid corrosion.

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FIGURE 30 - ACID DEW POINT

To reduce air heater corrosion, the specified minimum air

heater gas outlet temperature is approximately 110°C. To
maintain the temperature above the minimum value during light-
up, the air side is normally bypassed, thus reducing the amount
of air that passes through the air heater. This allows the hot
boiler flue gases to heat up the air heater elements as rapidly
as possible.

A hot-end re-circulating system can also be used, whereby the

air can be recirculated downstream of the air heater to the FD
fan outlet (secondary air system only). This will enable the air
inlet temperature to the air heater to be raised, avoiding the
dew point temperature range.

5.3.3.2 Fire risks

The risk of fire is present in all types of air heaters, particularly if
run at low load for considerable periods when firing on oil. A
fine deposit, similar to lampblack in appearance, accumulates

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on the air heater surfaces when temperatures are low. A

subsequent increase in temperature may result in the ignition of
this deposit.

Some types of oily deposit will ignite at temperatures as low as

150°C. The resulting fire can prove disastrous if not detected
and controlled at a very early stage.

On-load sootblowing or shot cleaning must be used to prevent

the build-up of such deposits, and alarms are normally fitted to
give an early warning of fires. In rotary air heaters, fixed
sprays can be installed permanently inside the air heater
casings and coupled to the fire mains so that instant action may
be taken if there is a fire.

To prevent flues, ducts and hoppers from collapsing under the

excessive accumulated weight of water, quick-release drain
valves are fitted at suitable points for use during fire fighting
operations.

5.3.3.3 Cleaning of air heaters

Air heater fouling, if not removed, will act as an absorbent for
acid, which then becomes concentrated through evaporation.
On plate and tube-type air heaters, the insulating effect of a
dust deposit on the gas side reduces metal temperatures; this
attracts further deposits and leads to acid condensation.

Cleaning air heaters regularly, both on load and off load is,
therefore, extremely important. On-load cleaning is normally
carried out by sootblowing, although on plate and tubular
heaters, shot cleaning can also be used. Off-load cleaning
must be carried out thoroughly because of the limitations of the
on-load methods. Many regenerative heaters are provided with
fixed pipe work for water washing. This is quite effective, but

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the water must be used in large quantities. Where dilution is

inadequate, the formation of acid pockets is possible. Where
rotary air heater elements are badly fouled, it may be necessary
to remove the element packs and remove the deposits by
soaking them in an alkaline solution, such as a sodium
carbonate solution.

5.4 Mill coal feeders

The purpose of the coal feeder is to deliver the right amount of coal to the mill for
a given volume of primary air, so that the correct fuel/air ratio in the mill is always
maintained. The correct fuel/air ratio is very important, because too much coal
and too little air can result in the pulverised fuel falling out of suspension into the
pulverised fuel pipe-work, and, in doing so, cause a fire or blockage in the pipe-
work.

It can also lead to damage around the burner mouth due to the low velocity of the
air and the ignition point moving back towards the burner. If there is too little
coal for the volume of primary air, the fuel/air ratio can approach an explosive
range in the mill and pulverised fuel pipe-work. In this range there are the right
quantities of fuel and air for spontaneous combustion and, therefore, for an
explosion which can lead to damage to the pulverised fuel plant.

5.4.1 Table type coal feeder

In the majority of older stations, the feeders utilised are of the table type
of which the output is typically controlled by: a two-speed or variable-
speed motor, a constant-speed motor with a variable-speed drive, or by
control of the position of the scraper knife or plough (Figure 31).

With the two-speed motor arrangement the table can be stationary under
light load conditions. The variable-speed drive ensures that no actual
stopping of the table takes place during operation however low the
output. Some form of grip must be provided on the surface of the table
and this may take the form of a raised segmental pattern, or a raised
pattern as shown in the Figure 31.

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This type of feeder has one major disadvantage: It is prone to feed-flow

failure when fine, wet coal is handled because the coal fails to “spread”
across the feeder table when leaving the chute.

FIGURE 31 : TABLE TYPE COAL FEEDER

5.4.2 Volumetric coal feeder

To meet the requirements of the modern high-capacity mills, the
volumetric belt or drag-link feeder were developed (Figure 32).

The coal flows down from the coal bunker shut off gate, through a steel
chute, to the feeder. The chute deposits the coal at the non-drive end
of the feeder belt conveyor, which is a continuous moving rubber belt
with a 50mm high ripple skirt along either edge. The purpose of the
skirt is to stop coal falling from the sides of the feeder belt and into the
bottom of the feeder casing.

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FIGURE 32 : VOLUMETRIC TYPE COAL FEEDER

On the underside of the belt there is a rubber guide that runs in a centre
groove of the support rollers, tension roller, drive pulley, inlet support
pan and take-up pulley, to keep the belt running centrally through the
feeder.

The feeder belt conveyor is driven by a drive pulley, gearbox, and either
a variable-speed direct current motor or a thyristor-controlled AC motor.

At the point where the coal leaves the inlet chute and is deposited onto
the feeder belt, there are two side skirts and an end skirt. The end skirt
stops the coal falling backwards off the feeder belt and into the bottom of
the feeder casing. The two side skirts also stop the coal from falling off
the feeder belt, and regulate the width of the coal bed on the belt. The
coal now passes under a levelling bar which limits the thickness of the
coal bed and shapes it into a flat-topped triangle. In this way, the same
rate of coal is delivered to the mill at a given speed.

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Under the feeder belt, where the coal enters the feeder casing, there is
the belt support pan. This supports the weight of coal in the inlet chute
and stops local distortion of the rubber belt.

The feeder belt now travels over support rollers or idlers which stop the
belt from sagging. Before the coal is discharged from the end of the
feeder belt is passes under a coal inlet paddle which brings up a number
of alarms if the feeder is running without coal. The coal now falls off the
drive end of the feeder and down the outlet chute to the mill. The coal
outlet chute is also fitted with an alarm paddle; this alarm is initiated if
there is a blockage in the chute and coal starts building up leading to
choking of the chute and feeder.

The feeder belt passes around the drive pulley and back to the non-drive
end of the feeder. As it passes under the drive pulley it comes into
contact with a belt scraper which removes any build-up of coal on the
belt.

At the bottom of the feeder there is a drag-link chain cleanout conveyor

which removes coal and coal dust which could accumulate in the bottom
of the feeder and cause an obstruction to the feeder belt. The clean-out
conveyor is driven at slow speed by a constant speed AC motor through
a gearbox.

The feeder belt and clean-out conveyor are housed in a semicircular

steel tube which has a number of attachments on the outside. At either
end of the feeder there are feeder-end doors which are used to gain
access to the inside of the feeder for inspecting, digging out, or
maintaining the feeder.

On the inlet end of the feeder there is a seal air pipe, which pressurises
the feeder to keep pulverised fuel blowing up from the mill.

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5.4.3 Screw type coal feeder (see Figure 33)

Coal from the coal bunkers is fed through the coal feed system into the
pulverising mills on the basement level of the power station. The coal
flows from the bunkers via the bunker coal gate into a coal feed chute.

FIGURE 33 : SCREW TYPE COAL FEEDER

At the lower end of the chute, which transfers the coal by gravity from
the bunker to the mill coal feeder inlet, is a second gate known as the
feeder coal gate.

Coal enters the screw feeder into the screw conveying section. The
screw which is driven by a motor/gearbox, feeds the coal through a
weigh table and into a section which rests on load cells, from here the
coal drops over the outlet chute and then into the centre of the mill.

The rate of delivery of coal to the mill is controlled by a variable speed

motor which drives the spiral through a reduction gearbox.

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The motor is fitted with a variable speed drive control system. Speed is
adjusted by increasing or decreasing the frequency of the motor.

Percentage of feeder speed, feeder motor frequency, coal flow in

kg/second and calculated kg/second are indicated at the Unit Control
Desk.

5.5 Pulverised fuel mills

The general method of coal firing on large boilers is by pulverised fuel (PF) firing.
With this method the coal is fed into a mill where it is ground to a fine powder.
This powder is then blown into the boiler furnace where combustion takes place.
The PF burns almost as if it were a gas.

There are several types of coal mills used for grinding and they operate in various
ways, e.g. by impact, by abrasion, by attrition, or by crushing.

The powdered coal is blown out of the mill by hot air which also serves to dry the
fuel during pulverisation. This air is known as Primary Air. The coal/air mixture
enters the boiler furnace through burners, where it is ignited.

In the burner, the coal/primary air is mixed with Secondary Air which is necessary
to ensure complete burning of the coal. It is usual to have several mills on each
boiler unit. A typical large boiler consumes about 200 tons of coal per hour and
may have six mills of one of the types mentioned.

Pulverised fuel mills are used to grind the coal into particles as fine as face
powder, to enable the coal to be mixed intimately with air and blown into the
boiler. This allows a greater throughput of coal and a greater release of heat in
the boiler than is obtained by other methods.

Grinding the coal into small particles increases the surface area of the coal
exposed to oxygen, so that the speed of combustion and, hence, release of heat,
is much faster. The fineness of the coal depends on the firing system and the

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volatile content of the coal. The degree of fineness of coal leaving the mill can
be adjusted by altering the setting of the classifier.

The classifier on the mill separates the heavier coal particles from the coal/air
stream, returning the particles to the mill for further grinding. The correct size of
coal remains in the air stream to be carried through to the boiler.

There are three basic types of mills available for use in modern pulverised fuel
systems, each having its own advantages and disadvantages. These are the:

• low-speed tube-ball mill;

• medium-speed vertical spindle mill; and the
• high-speed or impact mill.

It is also possible to have the mill either pressurised or under suction. The
primary air fan blows air into the mill and pressurises it, such that the fuel/air
mixture is carried into the furnace. An exhauster fan draws the PF/air mixture
out of the mill, which is then under suction, before discharging it to the furnace.

The advantage of the pressurised system is that the primary air fan can use an
aerodynamically designed impeller requiring little maintenance, whereas the
exhauster fan is normally a paddle-blade type which requires frequent
maintenance due to the erosion of the blading by the abrasive PF/air mixture.

However, the pressurised system does require the use of an additional seal air
fan to prevent the PF leaking into the mill bearings.

Overall, the pressurised system uses less power and is lower in running
maintenance costs.

5.5.1 Low-speed mills

There are more commonly known as tube-ball mills and operate at
approximately 17 to 20 r/min and, in most cases, under suction although,

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more recently, mills operating under pressure have been developed and
are in operation.

A low speed is essential for this type of mill in order to ensure that
cascading of the ball charge within the drum takes place.

A typical low-speed pressure mill is shown in Figure 34. The mill is

driven through double-reduction helical gears. Raw coal is fed from the
feeder table to the mill feed bore where a scroll, driven integrally with the
mill, feeds it into the barrel where it is ground on its passage through the
mill, by the cascading ball charge. When ground to the correct size, it is
lifted by the sweeping air and passed out through the discharge box.
Any oversized particles being thrown out as the coal-laden air reaches
the right angled direction change in the mill outlet. This is fed back to
the mill for regrinding by another integrally driven screw feeder in the
outlet box.

FIGURE 34 : TUBE BALL MILL

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The air/fuel mixture then passes through a riffle box to give even
distribution of fuel to the fuel pipes on to a classifier. The classified
product is then fed to burners by the fuel pipes.

The mill has lubricating oil pumps and each bearing typically has its own
jacking pump to float the mill in its bearings prior to starting up. The
barrel is covered with a thick, hard, felt, soundproof jacket covered by
sheet steel cladding to make it comparatively silent in operation.

• Advantages of low-speed mills

- They can be designed to give a large output, cutting down
the number of mills and the space required per boiler, and
allowing each mill to serve two or more exhauster fans.
Tube mills having a capacity of up to 75 ton/h have been
installed on 600 MW plant.

- They are capable of running form one overhaul to the next

with the minimum of maintenance, apart from new ball
changes which can be carried out on load.

• Disadvantages of low-speed mills

- Higher power consumption than medium-speed mills.
- Possibility of bearing and gearbox failures.

5.5.2 Medium speed mills

The vertical-spindle, medium-speed mill is in use by Eskom in greater
numbers than any other single type. Examples are the Babcock &
Wilcox “E”-type ball mill operating under pressure and the International
Combustion Lopulco or LM-type roller mill. The latter normally operates
under suction, but a pressure version of the LM type has now been
developed.

In the pressure-type mill no exhauster fan is needed, the pressure

supplied by the primary air fan sufficing to carry the milled coal through

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to the burners. This results in less fan maintenance since there is no

erosion of the fan by pulverised fuel, and there is also a saving in fan
power as the primary air fan uses less power than the exhauster fan of
the suction-type mill. It is, however, necessary for the mill casing to be
completely tight to prevent the mill discharging PF into the boiler house.

Figure 35 shows a typical ball-type mill. The raw coal is fed into the mill
by the rotating-type feeder. It then travels to the centre grinding
element which consists of a number of large forged-steel balls carried
between two grinding rings. The top ring is stationary and the bottom
ring revolves. Grinding pressure is set by the tensioning springs which
act on the top ring.

FIGURE 45 : BABCOCK TYPE 10E VERTICLE SPINDLE MILL

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Rotation of the bottom ring rotates the balls, and the coal is pulverised
on its way radially outwards through the grinding section. It then passes
over the edge of the bottom ring, is caught up in the current of high-
speed hot air between the throat ring and bottom grinding ring (Figure
36) and is carried on through the classifier and then to the PF burners.

FIGURE 36 : AIR FLOW THROUGH MILL THROAT GAP

Figure 37 shows the flow of coal through the mill. Owing to the
pressure inside the mill, it is necessary to provide high-pressure sealing
air from a sealing air fan to prevent pulverised fuel from escaping into
the bearings and to atmosphere.

Any hard substance, such as pyrites, is rejected by ploughs which

discharge it into reject chambers via openings in the top bearing plate.
The reject chambers can be cleaned out as required on load by the use
of two shut off doors, one on the inside and one on the outside, to

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FIGURE 37 : FLOW OF COAL THROUGH MILL

prevent the discharge of air from the mill during the cleaning out
process.

The LM suction-type mill generally operates on the same principle as the

E-type, but the grinding elements are made up of rollers rotated on a flat
grinding ring or table. As in the E-type mill, the coal passes through the
grinding section and the milled product passes upwards through the
classifier. The mill operates under suction and no sealing air is
required. The suction mill described is shown in Figure 38.

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FIGURE 38 : LAPULCO VERTICAL SPINDLE MILL

Mills of the LM type, are common in power stations but, as in the case of
the Babcock & Wilcox E-type, in order to keep pace with the
development of the larger boiler/turbine unit, the LM-type mill has been
further developed to operate with three rollers instead of the more
conventional two.

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This greater area of contact per revolution thus provides increased

output for the same casing size (Figure 39). This, coupled with its

FIGURE 38 : LAPULCO VERTICAL SPINDLE MILL WITH THREE

ROLLERS

development as a pressure mill puts it on a par with the “E”-type for rate
of wear, power requirements, and throughput. It also has a hydraulic
loading system.

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• Advantages of medium-speed mills

- Lower power consumption
- Comparatively quiet in operation
- No exhauster fan with its consequent erosion and
maintenance costs (pressure types only).

• Disadvantages of medium-speed mills

- Seal air fan required (pressure types only)
- Periodic adjustments and renewal of worn parts are
necessary and limit availability
- Tightness of casing and inspection parts is necessary
(pressure types only)

5.5.3 High-speed Mills

In the earlier days of pulverised fuel firing, a number of high-speed mills
were developed in the United Kingdom (e.g. the beater type, the Impax
mill and the attritor mill) but the heavy maintenance required to keep
pace with the rapid wear of hammer tips etc., brought them into
disfavour when availability became an important factor.

The introduction of the American Riley Mill by Messrs John Brown some
years ago was a return to the principle of high-speed attrition. In the
design of this mill, full use was made of advances in metallurgy in that all
wearing parts were made of steels highly resistant to abrasion.

The mill offered a compact design in that mill, classifier and exhauster
were all on the same driving shaft. Unfortunately, the early promise of
this mill Was not been borne out, mainly because of the extreme
abrasiveness of most power station coals. In spite of the high quality
steels used in parts subject to abrasion, the rate of wear has been
excessive and the use of this type of mill is no longer considered viable.

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5.5.4 Suction mill / pressure mill selection

The low and medium-speed mills, (except the “E” type), described exist
in both suction and pressure form. However, the trend has been away
from suction mills and in favour of pressure-type mills. The reason for
this is:

In a suction-mill installation, the exhauster fan is an essential feature but,

because it has to handle coal-laden air, it is subject to blade erosion.
With larger PF installations, the pressure loss through the milling and
burner systems becomes greater owing to the increase in physical size
and the larger quantity of fuel in transit at a given time. To minimise
maintenance problems, exhauster fans have to be of paddle-blade
design. This means that a higher pressure loss has to be catered for,
either by an increase in fan speed or by an increase in runner diameter.
Either of these leads to an increased blade-tip velocity and, therefore, to
higher wear rates caused by erosion by PF.

In a pressure mill installation, the inefficient paddle-bladed exhauster fan

is replaced by a primary-air fan which is not subjected to the erosive
effects of PF since it handles only clean air. The far more efficient
backward-bladed aerofoil section-type fan is, therefore, used for primary
air fan duty. No problems are experienced in providing the increased
fan output which is necessary for the PF installations on large boilers.
Therefore, the primary air fan is superior to the exhauster fan in two
important respects: firstly, it is far more efficient (and, on large boilers,
power consumption is an extremely important factor); and secondly,
maintenance requirements are negligible by comparison.

Table 1 gives a comparison of typical power consumptions between

different mill types. The units are in kW/ton of coal milled, and the table
relates the mills having capacities of approximately 15 ton/h. With
larger capacity mills, the figures would tend to be slightly less. From the
table, you can see that the vertical-spindle, medium-speed, pressure-
type mill has an advantage. A further advantage appears when

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maintenance costs are considered. Maintenance costs of an exhauster

fan can be as much as twice those of a primary air fan. The
combination of these considerations, and the higher availability of the
primary air fan, make pressure mill systems preferable.

It should be considered, however, that pressure mills do have some

disadvantages. It is necessary to provide a seal air supply to prevent
the escape of PF along drive shafts, etc. This seal air supply may be
taken from the primary air fan discharge if the fan is located before the
mill air heaters. It may be necessary to provide a supply of clean air
from individual seal air fans if mill air heaters are not fitted and the
primary air fans take their suction from the outlet of the main air heaters.
This is because some dust entrainment is inevitable in rotary
regenerative air heaters. The mill casing and inspection doors must be
completely airtight if PF is to be prevented from discharging into the
boiler house. The coal feeder is an integral part of the mill system and
must also be airtight. An important operational point is that bunkers
should not be permitted to run empty, otherwise large quantities of PF
may be discharged into the bunker house. If this happens the resulting
loss in pressure within the mill could lead to a reduction in velocity of
PF/air mixture in the PF pipes, and this increases the risks of fire and
explosion.

TABLE 1 : Typical power consumption of PF mills of approximately

15 ton/h capacity in kW/ton coal milled

EXHAUSTER TOTAL
MILL TYPE MILL FEEDER PA FAN FAN kw/ton

Low-speed ball (suction) 12,05 0,22 - 10.60 22.87

Low-speed ball (pressure) 13.10 0,20 5,50 - 18,80

Medium speed (suction) 7,63 0,18 - 11,85 19.66

Medium speed (pressure) 8,35 0,18 8,00 - 16.53

High speed (suction) 19.50 - - - 19.50

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5.5.5 Mill classifiers

All mills are fitted with some type of classifier. The purpose of
classification is to control the range of particle sizes in the pulverised fuel
which leaves the mill. All particles above a predetermined maximum
size are recycled through the mill for further grinding, while smaller
particles pass to the PF burners.

Classifiers may be divided into two basic groups, rotary and static, both
of which make use of a similar principle – the resistance of a particle to a
change of direction or speed. The greater the mass of a particle, the
greater its resistance to such change.

In the rotary classifiers, ‘whizzer’ separators are situated so that the

coal/air mixture from the mill is directed through them. Centrifugal force
directs the coarser particles to the outside of the separator covering,
where the air/gas velocity is at its minimum, and the particles then return
to the mill table under the influence of gravity. In some types of rotary
separators the blades are profiled to produce a labyrinth-type path
through them, so that the heavier PF particles come into contact with the
blades and are rejected to the body of the mill.

Static-type separators all use centrifugal force for classification.

Typically in a Foster Wheeler ball mill, the classifier housing contains a
plate shaped to form a scroll. This takes the coal/air mixture through a
spiral path so that the resulting centrifugal force returns the larger
particles of coal to a ribbon conveyor which passes them back to the
mill. The Babcock & Wilcox large E-type mills employ adjustable vanes
in the head of the mill to produce a ‘cyclonic’ effect which results in the
necessary centrifugal force. Variation of the vane angle varies the
intensity of the ‘swirl’ or ‘vortex’ within the classifier cone; the more
intense the swirl the finer the PF produced.

NOTE: Intensification of the swirl beyond an economic limit will reduce

the throughput of the mill by creating a restriction at the mill outlet.

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In the Babcock & Wilcox design, a ‘returns skirt’ at the base of the
classifier cone consists of a series of ‘flap valves’ which allows coal to
pass back into the mill without permitting the coal/air flow to bypass the
classifier.

Classifiers are subjected to considerable forces and erosion. For this

reason, constant checks on PF fineness are required to ensure that
classifier efficiency is being maintained. The scroll type of classifier is
particularly susceptible to a high rate of wear or erosion. Should the
scroll become perforated, the classifier efficiency falls off because the
coal/air mixture is then provided with a bypass route. Classifier
efficiency will also fall off if the correct coal/air ratio through the mill is not
maintained. An air velocity which is too high will not permit the coarser
particles to fall out of the air stream and return to the mill.

5.6 Pulverised fuel burners and lighting-up equipment

The combustion equipment associated with the boiler is designed to accept and
treat the crude fuel and present it to the furnace at the correct conditions required
for combustion, that is, with the correct velocity, temperature, air/fuel ratio and
turbulence.

This then satisfies the three conditions for combustion, which are time,
temperature and turbulence.

The mill feeder accepts raw coal and regulates the flow to the pulverised fuel mill
where it is ground to an acceptable particle size. The hot air entering the mill
then carries the coal to the burner.

The burner imparts the required turbulence to the pulverised fuel (PF) mixture in
suspension. It also provides the oil flame for coal ignition and flame stabilisation
which is itself ignited by a propane flame. A spark generator provides the source
of initial energy for the propane flame ignition.

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As the object is to burn the fuel in a controlled process, to release the energy in
the fuel as heat, the equipment must be designed, operated and maintained
correctly to achieve this. It must be remembered that the fire in a furnace is
controlled combustion and the difference between controlled combustion and an
explosion is the time in which these events occur.

Protective devices act to detect malfunctions of the plant, and operate to prevent
damage to the plant. They cannot, however, detect all possible occurrences and
the final control remains in the hands of the operator.

The basic methods of firing pulverised fuel in a furnace are:

• tangentially from the corners; and

• horizontally.

5.6.1 Tangential firing

The corner-fired furnace has been developed by International
Combustion Ltd. It depends for its operation on the maintenance of a
turbulent zone in the centre of the furnace, by directing a non-turbulent
flame horizontally from each corner of the furnace towards an imaginary
circle of which the flame is a tangent (Figure 40).

The burner itself is of simple construction, and mixing of coal and air is
obtained by the admission, through the burner, of alternative layers of
coal and air.

Provision is made for the tilting of this type of burner to control steam
temperature. Tilting the burners upwards will increase superheat steam
temperatures. Tilting downwards will lower the steam temperature and
the final gas outlet temperature. The burner is limited to ± 30°
movement vertically to obtain the maximum temperature variations.

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A – CORNER FIRING BURNER ARRANGEMENT

B – CORNER FIRING FLAME PATTERN

FIGURE 40 : CORNER FIRING ARRANGEMENT

5.6.2 Horizontal firing

As this is the most commonly used method of firing in Eskom, we will
discuss this in greater detail. The type of burner generally used is
classified as a short-flame turbulent burner.

Several manufacturers produce this type of burner. Typical examples

are shown in Figures 41 and 42.

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FIGURE 41 : OIL BURNER WITH AXIAL FLOW REGISTER AND BLADED

SWIRLER

FIGURE 42 : FOSTER WHEELER INTERVANE PF BURNER

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The pulverised fuel / primary air mixture enters from the bottom of the
burner into a circular tube that is arranged concentrically around a
central core air pipe.

The secondary air is supplied to each burner separately, through an air

duct into the secondary air ring which is also arranged concentrically
around the PA/PF pipe.

The secondary air is adjusted relative to the coal throughput by an air

control damper at each burner. The secondary air is supplied to each
burner either from a common windbox or from a separate secondary air
duct.

The burners supplied by Steinmuller are usually equipped with a

secondary air ring supporting the swirler vanes inside the burner. The
burner consists of an adjustable swirl body mounted on rollers which run
on the top surface of the PF/PA pipe. There are twelve vanes in all,
whose angle can be adjusted to the optimum position. The swirler body
is connected via linkages to an external ring on the rear face of the
burner body. The adjustment of the swirler ring (swirl number) over the
range 1 to 5 alters the position of the swirler body inside a restricting
cone. When the swirler is in the fully ‘in’ position, all the secondary air
has to flow through the swirler vanes before entering the combustion
chamber. This ensures maximum swirl of the secondary air and
produces a short, broad, flame front.

If the swirler is moved by adjustment of the external linkages to its

minimum position, it is moved away from the burner mouth and some of
the secondary air can now bypass the swirler. This reduces the swirling
effect and mixing of the flame, so that the flame extends into the
furnace.

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The swirler is normally set up during commissioning to the optimum

position for the fuel available, and the position then remains constant
unless a major change in the fuel quality occurs.

The Babcock & Wilcox type burner is usually fitted with an impeller at the
end of the PF/PA pipe to impart a swirl to the coal/air mixture to aid
mixing and combustion.

The main core air and PF pipes are made from normal steel that has a
temperature limitation of 700°C, except for the 0,5 metre nearest to the
burner mouth. At this point a high temperature alloy is used which is
capable of withstanding 2 000°C.

The flame temperature at the ignition point reaches up to 1 500°C, so

steps are taken to ensure that the burner mouth is cooled from the
radiant heat of the flame and, at the same time, the ignition point is
stabilised.

Typically the burner mouth is cooled by arranging a series of water-

cooled circular tubes around the burner at a point level with the end of
the PF pipe. These form part of the wall tubing, but are specially
shaped to provide this facility.

These pipes absorb the radiant heat from the flame, this being the main
source of heat transfer at this point, and effectively cool the burner
mouth so that the expected maximum metal temperature will not be
greatly in excess of 1 000°C.

Having cooled the immediate area at the burner mouth, a means has to
be provided whereby the ignition point is stabilised at a point about 0,2
metres into the furnace. This is achieved by making the burner mouth
or quarl from a special, refractory, concrete material.

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This material is fitted by shaping the wall tubes around the burner so that
the tubes cool the rear surface of the refractory. The material has a
high thermal capacity and when the front areas are heated by the radiant
heat from the flame, they reflect a large proportion of their heat back to
the point of ignition. The heat that is reflected back helps to stabilise
the point of ignition at the correct place.

5.6.3 PF burner design

The pulverised fuel burner has to be designed in such a way that the fuel
is completely and safely ignited and burnt over the range of fuel
characteristics found in coal, especially those types with high ash
contents.

A stable burning flame means that the ignition occurs at a certain place
in the area of the burner quarl and does not move away from the burner
quarl to become extinguished. This condition must be satisfied
throughout normal operation, during start up and shut down, as well as
throughout the entire operating range. The speed of the coal/air mixture
at the burner, will change as a function of the burner capability and thus
affect the condition of ignition and mixing.

5.6.4 Effect of the type of coal on the design of burners

Most of the coal burnt in power stations is of the bituminous type, having
a volatile matter content of 35-40%.

The nature of coal has little effect on the design of the PF mill, although
it may have considerable effect on the output. For example, the lower
volatile coals, excluding the anthracites, are, in general, softer; this
means that a mill output will be greater with low volatile coal than with
high volatile bituminous coal – assuming that other factors, such as ash
content, moisture content, etc. are equal.

If efficient, stable combustion is to be ensured, and if the performance

and availability of the boiler is to be maintained, the design of a

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pulverised fuel burner must be very closely matched to the type of fuel to
be burnt.

Bituminous coal is normally burnt with a short-flame turbulent burner

with burners located in the front wall of the furnace.

Where furnace design and firing pattern can ensure adequate mixing of
coal and air, a longer flame burner, such as the international combustion
corner-firing burner, may also be used.

When low volatile matter coals are to be burnt, it is essential that a long
flame path is provided. Complete combustion of the coal is a longer
and more gradual process because of the low volatile content of the
coal. A residence time must be allowed within the furnace, sufficient
for each particle of coal to burn off completely.

The nature of coal supplied varies from power station to power station,
depending on the location; it also varies from colliery to colliery within
the same coalfield. Burner design must include some means of varying
the shape of the flame so that a correct setting can be obtained when
there are variations in the type of coal being supplied to the boiler.

5.6.5 Burner requirements

The burner is required to achieve complete burnout of the combustible
material for reasons of efficiency and economy. This requires a uniform
distribution of fuel and air for all boiler loads around the burner. During
load changes it must also maintain the correct flame position and
characteristics for stable and safe combustion by maintaining the
formation of an ignitable mixture, adequate ignition velocity and the
ignition temperature of the fuel.

The burner should be capable of minimising boiler fouling by reducing

the impingement of the flame on the boiler walls. Fouling is dictated by

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the properties of the ash in the fuel, such as the softening temperatures
and chemical contents of the ash.

Good burner design will help minimise fouling, but it may prove
necessary to lower the flame temperature to reduce the likelihood of
fouling by preventing the ash from adhering to the walls.

The design of the burner should be such that the emission of pollutants
is avoided or reduced to a very low level. This includes unburned gas,
in the form of carbon monoxide, which by its presence will indicate
incomplete combustion. Furthermore, the prevention of the production
of nitric oxides, which are regarded as hazardous pollutants, should be
taken into account. This aspect of the design will play an increasingly
important role in future designs, as emission limits from power stations
become ever more stringent.

5.6.6 Circular burners with internal recirculation

The circular burner design causes a recirculation of hot gases within the
cone of the flame envelope. The hot gases at the inner edges of the
cone are at high temperatures as they are a result of well advanced
combustion. The recirculating gases move towards the flame root,
providing additional heating of the incoming fuel, and thereby assisting
fuel ignition.

The primary air/fuel mixture enters the flame envelope along the
boundary between the recirculated gases and the forward moving
secondary air, to increase turbulence. The secondary air is injected
along the outside of the flame and supplies the extra oxygen required for
efficient combustion.

The production of a diverging cone of air and coal inside the furnace
produces a low pressure zone in the area inside the cone in relation to
the furnace pressure. This low pressure zone causes the hot furnace
gases to be drawn into it and thereby creates a recirculating effect.

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The generation of this internal recirculation effect can be done by

various means.

• An internal “obstruction”, such as an impeller, causes a hollow jet

to be developed and thus the hot furnace gases are transported
back into the burner mouth (Figure 43).

FIGURE 43 : INTERNAL RECIRCULATION BY AN INTERNAL

“OBSTRUCTION”

• Swirling the incoming combustion (secondary air) generates a

hollow jet with the same effect (Figure 44).

FIGURE 44 : INTERNAL RECIRCULATION BY SWIRLING INCOMING

AIR

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• Using a divergent cone-shape burner quarl also produce a hollow

jet (Figure 45).

FIGURE 45 : INTERNAL RECIRCULATION BY OPENING BURNER

MOUTH

The recirculation of the hot gases improves the mixing of the fuel/air and
assists in raising the temperatures of the fuel quickly to its ignition point.
The ignition and the flame are influenced by the:

• degree of premixing (primary air) that occurs;

• ratio of primary to secondary air velocities;
• length and angle of quarl.

5.6.7 Ignition of pulverised coal

The decisive fuel parameters in the rate at which PF burns are the
volatile content, which initiates the ignition process and the non-
combustible matter content which tries to retard the ignition.

The raw coal is fed to the mill at a controlled rate, pulverised and thus
increased in surface areas as well as dried. Together the primary air
and pulverised fuel is uniformly distributed over the burner outlet cross-
sections. Recirculation of hot furnace gases at about 1 100°C will heat
the PF mixture which enters at about 100°C at the burner tip. After

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about 100 milliseconds a 75 micron coal particle will have been heated
to about 850°C.

At this rate of heating, approximately half the volatile matter contained in

the particle has been released and is ignited. At normal PF velocities of
approximately 20 m/s the ignition will set in after about 0,2 metre. This
means that in the immediate locality of the burner tip some 5 to 10% of
the heat in the fuel is liberated, triggering off ignition of the subsequent
mixture.

To ensure that the process continues, there must be a sufficiently large

mass flow of hot recirculating furnace gases at the burner tip.

5.6.8 Pre-mixing of PF steam and secondary air (ratio of primary to

secondary air)
A certain amount of premixing of the PF stream and secondary air takes
place local to the burner tip to ensure that the resultant mixture is
capable of ignition. The particles of coal should be surrounded by a
sufficient quantity of air (oxygen). This mixture when ignited by the hot
gases, has a stabilising influence on the flame.

The higher the degree of premixing that occurs, the greater the quantity
of PF that has to be heated by the hot recirculating furnace gases. This
delays the ignition of the fuel.

5.6.9 Air velocity

The velocities of the primary air and secondary air are also important for
the mixing process. As the load on the boiler changes, the air mass
flow will change and hence these velocities.

Low air velocities assist ignition as long as the furnace gas recirculation
inside the flame is satisfactory. However, the prime requirement at low
velocity is to prevent the PF forming deposits in the burner tube and pipe

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work. For this reason, the PF velocity is not normally allowed to fall
much below 20 m/s.

The secondary air velocities are between 35 m/s to 55 m/s at full load,
which achieves the desired mixing with the primary air/PF mixture in
maintaining an adequate rate of supply of oxygen necessary for
combustion.

However, if the difference in velocity between the primary air and

secondary air becomes too great, that is in excess of 40 m/s difference,
the mixing process is advanced to a point where a flame of high intensity
is reached. This is undesirable as a high intensity flame can cause
fouling, especially round the burner mouth, by causing the ash to
become fluid and adhere to the walls. Furthermore, the formation of
nitrous oxides at this high temperature is a serious pollutant.

5.6.10 Lighting up equipment

When lighting up PF burners, ignition is usually obtained from an ignition
torch.

The ignition of a PF burner flame should not be achieved by using an

existing PF burner flame. All PF burners should be equipped with
lighting-up burners or ignition torches.

On large boilers, ignition is generally by means of oil burners which are

themselves ignited by a propane torch equipped with an electrical
igniter.

The burners or torches used are frequently pressure-atomised oil

burners using light- or medium grade fuel oil. (If heavier oils are used,
heating plant is incorporated to reduce the oil viscosity enough to obtain
efficient atomisation and combustion).

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In the case of a short flame turbulent PF burner, the ignition torch is

normally located centrally within the PF burner. With other burners,
arrangements are made to locate the lighting up torch either at the
centre of the burner or as near to the burner as possible; the torch is
directed so that its flame will intercept the PF/air stream.

There are two types of oil burners, the pressure-jet type and the tip-
recirculation type. Oil burner control is electrical, with pneumatic
operation of the oil burner carriage. Control of the oil burner may be
either ‘local’ on the burner platform or ‘remote’ from the boiler control
panel.

A typical arrangement of an oil-fired ignition torch and its associated

gas/electric igniter is shown in Figure 46. This is a pressure-jet-type
burner.

FIGURE 46 : TYPICAL IGNITER ASSEMBLY

When not in use, the burner is retracted from the furnace to protect it
from the intense radiant heat, and a supply of cooling air is passed along
the burner tube from the tertiary- or core air damper.

Selecting the burner for service results in the burner being driven
forward to its service position. When this position has been reached the
tertiary air damper closes, the oil burner combustion air fan starts up and
its associated damper opens, and the fuel oil supply valve to the burner
is opened. At the same time the gas/electric igniter is put into service.

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Propane gas is admitted and a high-energy electric spark is discharged

from the electrode probe to the earth pin on the igniter. An ultra violet
sensitive tube (or cell) monitors the ignition of the oil spray. If ignition is
not established within a preset period (usually 10 seconds) the oil burner
oil valve is shut off.

The burner is then purged with compressed air to clear any residual oil
from the burner barrel and tip, and the burner is retracted; the air
supply and gas igniter flame being maintained during this purging period.
A similar sequence occurs if the oil burner flame fails at any time while it
is in service. In this case the gas flame, which is normally extinguished
once the oil flame has been stabilised, is re-established for the purging
process.

The other type of oil burner utilised is the tip-recirculation type. With
this type, the oil flows around the burner tube at all times and a series of
valves control the flow of oil to admit the oil to the furnace when
required. This type of burner can remain in situ when on standby, since
the circulating oil has a cooling effect on the burner lance. However,
the burner must be withdrawn if the oil is shut off.

The burner tip valves that admit oil to the furnace must not pass oil when
in the closed position. Checks must be carried out to ensure their
tightness, or the oil will vaporise on hot surfaces and can cause an
explosion.

On tip-recirculating burners, where NRV’s are not fitted in the burner oil
return line, the inlet valve must not be closed without the closure of the
outlet valve, because the differential oil pressure assisting the spring to
hold the ‘oil to furnace’ valve shut will be reversed and the valve may be
forced partially open. This allows oil into the furnace.

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5.7 Steam and Feedwater Systems

In Section 3.2 of this module (page 10), we discussed the feed water flow and
steam flow in some detail. However, systems such as vents and drains;
attemperator systems; and sootblower were only covered briefly. We will now
look at these systems in more detail.

5.7.1 Boiler vent and drains (see Figure 47)

5.7.1.1 Water drains

The waterside drains, i.e. those that will drain water-filled
sections of the boiler, enable the boiler to be drained completely
prior to prolonged outages or in the event of tube leak repairs.
These drains are normally fitted with double isolating valves
discharging into a drains tank or blowdown vessel.

5.7.1.2 Steam drains

The steam drains are used to drain any condensate present
from the steam heating tubes and headers. This will prevent
any uneven temperatures in the pipes and headers, and will
prevent flow disturbances in the boiler during start up and shut
down.

The drains have double isolating valves discharging into a

blowdown or drains tank.

The drains are normally shut at ± 300 kPa on light up and

opened at ± 300 kPa on shut down.

5.7.1.3 Air vents

The air releases or vents are fitted to the highest points of the
various parts of the boiler (e.g. headers, drum, etc.). They
release the air into a tundish where any water can be allowed to
drain to a drains tank.

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FIGURE 47 – TYPICAL BOILER FEED AND CIRCULATION SYSTEM

SHOWING POSITION OF VENTS AND DRAINS

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The air releases will allow all air to be removed from the boiler
during filling and light up, preventing:

• corrosion;
• flow restrictions;
• overheating the metal. This is due to poor heat transfer
through the air that remains in the boiler tubing.

As the boiler is shut down the vents are opened to prevent

vacuum forming inside the boiler, which can cause damage to
the boiler tubes, valves and valve joints.

The air vents are normally closed at ± 500 kPa on light up and
opened at ± 500 kPa on shutdown.

5.7.2 Attemperator / De-superheater Systems

Boilers must be capable of supplying steam at a controlled temperature.
There are typically three methods of attaining this control namely:

• the use of tilting burners, particularly in corner-fired furnaces;

• the use of control dampers which can vary the flow of gas over the
superheat and reheat sections of the boiler;

• the use of attemperators/de-superheaters.

In practice, the first two methods are used to control reheat

temperatures, and, because this also alters the heat exchange rates in
the superheaters, de-superheaters are normally provided for superheat
temperature control. An additional attemperator or de-superheater is
often fitted to the reheat system for emergency use.

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5.7.2.1 Position of attemperators

The two basic requirements of an attemperator are:

• achievement of a stable steam temperature; and

• protection of superheater metals from overheating.

The first requirement can be met by positioning the

attemperator at different points in the system. The second
requirement is solely dependent on the position of the
attemperator in the flow scheme.

Typically in a system with a low outlet temperature (350°C), it is

customary to position the attemperator at the superheater
outlet. This gives the advantage of direct and rapid control of
the steam temperature at the superheater outlet.

However, it cannot affect the temperature within the

superheater itself and, consequently, the superheater is not
protected against overheating.

Furthermore, positioning of the attemperator after the final stage

superheater has a major disadvantage in that the carryover of
water to the turbine through a faulty attemperator cannot be
prevented.

Positioning of the attemperator directly after the evaporator, and

before the superheater, results in a very poor control response.

This is because large single-stage superheaters have high

thermal capacities and the response time is very long. The
normal system is to split the superheater into several stages.
The last attemperator is installed before the final stage
superheater to protect the turbine from carry over. By creating
enough superheater stages, the response of the attemperator

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will still be rapid enough to achieve the required degree of

control. The steam from various circuits of the first- or second
stage superheater is mixed thoroughly so that it enters the next
stage at a uniform temperature.

5.7.2.2 Types of attemperators

• Spray attemperators
These are in effect direct contact heat exchangers in
which feedwater (having bypassed the economiser) are
sprayed into the steam flow. This cools the steam, as the
feedwater absorbs its quota of latent heat. The water
spray is completely evaporated to dry steam which joins
the main steam flow. A typical spray de-superheater is
shown in Figure 48. A small quantity of saturated steam
is sometimes injected with the spray water to assist the
atomisation.

The de-superheater is provided with a liner to prevent

water droplets, which are not entrained in the steam from
impinging on the main steam pressure pipe. This pipe
could be damaged by thermal shock, or it could suffer
from corrosion fatigue cracking if hit by water.

Another factor which should be considered is the purity of

the feedwater. It is important that a high purity is
maintained, because any impurities could lead to steam
contamination and the formation of deposits in
subsequent superheater sections.

The design of the attemperator depends on:

• the atomising effect of the injection nozzle;

• the evaporation rate of water drops;

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FIGURE 48 – ARRANGEMENT OF SPRAY ATTEMPERATOR

• mixing time of cooled steam to give an even

temperature profile across the pipe.

Small holes in the protection sleeve allow pressure

equalising between it and the attemperator shell. The

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steam existing between the sleeve and shell has a cooling

effect.

The spray nozzle imposes a swirl to the water jet so that

the centrifugal action causes a finely atomised spray.

The internal fittings are designed to permit thermal

expansion.

To achieve proper atomisation the water pressure is

required to be at least 1 MPa greater than the steam
pressure.

The water can also remain as droplets, unless the steam

flow is greater than 20% of the designed steam flow,
because the droplets are not surrounded and vaporised
by the steam.

• Non-contact attemperators
These are of the shell type and tubular type. The water,
which usually comes from the economiser (but in some
cases from the boiler drum), passes through finned U-
tubes (Figure 49), while some of the steam passes over
the outside of the tubes. The remainder of the steam
bypasses the heat exchanger, the proportions being
controlled by a valve on the steam side. Non-contact
type de-superheaters are normally used for reheat
temperature control because of the adverse effects that
reheat sprays would have on overall cycle efficiency.

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FIGURE 49 – NON-CONTACT ATTEMPERATOR

5.7.2.3 Use of superheat and reheat attemperator sprays

• Superheat
The use of superheat sprays does not affect the cycle
efficiency, because all the energy in the steam is utilised
as work in the turbine. The attemperator simply becomes
another source of steam generation in the primary section
of the boiler.

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On some boilers, the superheater attemperators generate

some 20% of the total steam.

• Re-heat
The use of re-heater sprays does, however, affect the
cycle efficiency as heat is now removed from each
kilogram of steam in the re-heater. This heat which has
been removed therefore does no work at the next stage of
the turbine.

The re-heater sprays should therefore not be used until all

other methods of controlling the heat input have been
investigated (balanced firing, superheater sprays, etc.).

• Attemperator problems
The attemperators atomise the water into droplets, which
then mix with the steam prior to vaporisation. This takes
a limited time and requires the steam flow to be sufficient
to carry the water particles with it.

If the attemperator nozzles are damaged, or the steam

velocity is too low (less than 20% MCR load), then the
water droplets remain as water and can cause damage to
metals by cooling, as well as risking the water logging of
pendant tubes.

5.7.3 Sootblowers
Deposits from the combustion of coal (and to a lesser extent fuel oil) on
the external surfaces of boiler and superheater tubes can seriously
reduce the efficiency of the boiler output. The boiler would not be
available for use often enough if it had to be taken off load and cleaned
on a regular basis.

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Sootblowers enable us to clean the boiler heating surfaces while the

boiler is on load. This has two advantages. Firstly, the boiler needs
not to be taken off load simply to be cleaned, thereby making it available
for use. Secondly, sootblowers keep the heat transfer surfaces clean
on the steam and water tubes of the boiler. This helps to keep the
boiler at optimum efficiency by enabling the boiler to absorb the quantity
of heat for which it was designed, and also by ensuring that the final flue
gas temperature losses are kept to a minimum.

Modern boilers are equipped with remotely operated sootblowers,

controlled sequentially. This prevents timing errors, saves manual
labour and ensures that the blowers are operated in correct sequence so
that the dust is carried away with the gas flow.

The steam used for sootblowing is usually taken directly from the boiler,
from either the primary superheater outlet or the cold re-heater inlet.
However, steam from auxiliary boilers may be used instead.

The pressure to individual blowers is reduced by orifice plates when

necessary. Compressed air can also been used as the blowing
medium, however air systems require the additional capital cost of large
capacity compressed air plant to provide the required air.

Light deposits of biscuit-like ash are usually easy to remove by

sootblowing or water washing while the boiler is on load. However,
these methods cannot easily remove accumulated bonded deposits.

Bonded deposits are high-temperature deposits consisting of three main

types:

• Refused ash, consisting of particles of the more easily fused parts

of fine pulverised fuel ash. This is caused by high temperatures in
the furnace.

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• Alkali-bonded deposits, which are a whitish mass in which fine

pulverised fly ash becomes imbedded. The bonding agent
typically contains high percentages of sodium and potassium
sulphates or bisulphates, which are released from the alkali
chlorides in coal.

• Phosphatic deposits, which consist of a hard outer skin containing

a softer core of fine pulverised fuel ash. These deposits are
however not common as they are caused by the presence of a
mineral called fluorapatite in the coal.

Low temperature deposits are found in the cooler parts of a boiler such
as its economiser or air heater. Economiser deposits contain high
percentages of sulphates, which are fairly easily softened and washed
away by water. The deposits also contain phosphates of aluminium and
iron which are not very soluble. The air heater deposits are sticky and
usually consist mainly of sulphates with some sulphuric acid.

The formation of sulphuric acid can lead to corrosion on mild steel

surfaces. To minimise this problem, acid resistant alloys are used in
areas which are particularly susceptible to corrosion. The order in
which the air heater is blown (bottom first, then top) is important,
because if moist dust is allowed to dry it forms a hard, cement-like
deposit. The air heater must be cleaned thoroughly otherwise these
deposits will, after a time, block the air heater. The boiler will then have
to be taken off load to clean the elements of the air heater.

Superheaters, especially, suffer from a build up of high temperature

deposits, and sometimes whole sections are blocked off. Therefore,
steps must be taken to ensure that the heating surfaces are kept clean
by steam sootblowing while the boiler is steaming.

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5.7.3.1 Sootblowing systems

Modern sootblower installations are remotely operated, and
sequentially controlled from a separate panel in the control
room. The duration of operating time each sootblower needs
to clean a particular surface is preset. The sequence control
can be set to omit any sootblower or group of sootblowers if
necessary.

In re-heat boilers, the steam supply for the sootblowers is

typically taken from the re-heater inlet. This is at a lower
pressure than the superheater, and steam conditions are
therefore closer to those required for sootblowing. This makes
the system more economical. However, there is the
disadvantage that at low loads the pressure required may to too
low for effective sootblower operation.

Therefore, an additional steam supply is required. This is

usually taken from the intermediate stage of the superheater
and supplied through a pressure-reducing valve to supply
steam during low load operation. In oil-fired boilers, an
additional hazard (particularly during lighting up periods) is the
possibility or air heater fires. These are caused by heavy
carbon deposits which form on the tubes, usually as a result of
incomplete combustion. To reduce these deposits to a
minimum, the air heaters in particular should be thoroughly
sootblown before a unit is shut down, and during boiler light-up
as soon as sootblowing steam is available.

5.7.3.2 Types of sootblowers

The type, situation, size and pressure of sootblowers and the
frequency of their use, vary greatly depending on the boiler
design and character of the deposits experienced. It is not
possible to describe all their applications, but, in general, the

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main types of sootblowers used are those shown in Figure 50.

They are as follows:

• Retractable gun blowers with opposed jets to sweep

furnace walls.

• Retractable gun blowers having a single nozzle for

directing at the tube banks of the boiler and the
superheater.

FIGURE 50 – TYPES OF SOOTBLOWERS

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FIGURE 51 – TYPICAL SOOTBLOWER LOCATIONS

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• Long retractable lance blowers which traverse between

banks of tubes with a rotating nozzle and opposed jets to
balance thrust. This is the only completely effective
blower for superheaters in modern boilers, since it
reaches right across wide passes with an equal effect.

• Multi-jet tube blowers for use in lower temperature zones

such as economisers and air heaters. This blower is
non-retracting but may rotate and/or traverse.

• A similar multi-jet blower may be used in a fixed position

to sweep the lanes between tubes. Again these blowers
are only suitable for low temperature zones and relatively
light deposits owing to the reduced power from a large
number of small jets.

• Traversing sootblowers are fitted to rotary air heaters to

enable the upper and lower heating surface to be cleared
while the air heater is in service.

5.7.3.3 Operating principle of the various types of sootblowers

The following description is of a typical installation on a large
boiler which would have a typical evaporation rate of 435 kg/s
at a pressure of 16,5 MPa and steam temperature of 540°C.
Figure 51 illustrates the position, layout and different types of
sootblowers used in various zones of the boiler.

• Gun sootblowers
This type of sootblower consists of a retractable outer
element and a fixed inner element (Figure 52). The outer
element has a nozzle at the furnace end and a gland
housing at the steam inlet end. The steam flows through
a steam valve, via the inner element, to the outer element
nozzle.

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FIGURE 52 – GUN-TYPE SOOTBLOWER

A squirrel-cage induction motor drives a driving pinion via

an integral gearbox and clutch. The internally threaded
central gearwheel is rotated either by the driving pinion
via an idler or, where the clutch is disengaged, by a hand
wheel and control box pinion – via the idler. The hand
wheel and control box pinion also provide the drive to
three cams situated in the control box (see Figure 53).
Each cam operates a micro switch. One micro switch
starts the motor to drive the sootblower forward; the
second reverses the drive to withdraw the sootblower;
the third provides the starting impulse for the next
sootblower which is selected in sequence on the
sootblower control panel.

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When the sootblower motor starts, the gear drive rotates

to drive the sootblower forward. An internal thread on the
central gearwheel matches a thread on the outer element.
Rotation of the central gearwheel gives a corresponding
rotation to the outer element. This continues until a
traversing pin mounted on the outer element comes into
contact with a spring-loaded key attached inside the top of
the sootblower outer casing. This action prevents further
rotation of the outer element. While the pin is held,
continued rotation of the central gearwheel causes the
outer element to advance into the furnace until the pin
reaches a chamfered slot in the key. The slot is
chamfered to enable the pin to lift the key against the
pressure of the springs. This allows the pin, and thus the
outer element, to rotate again.

At the same time, the valve control cam on the outer

element comes into contact with the forked lever which
opens the steam valve via the valve operating lever.

FIGURE 53 – SEQUENCE CONTROL UNIT

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The valve control cam is designed to give a steam blow

over a predetermined arc or each revolution of the outer
element. (In the case of some sootblowers the arc is 270
degrees. On all other it is 360 degrees).

After a predetermined number (usually three) of

revolutions, sometimes referred to as ‘blows’, the motor
rotates in the reverse direction, and the traversing key
then comes into contact with the opposite side of the
spring-loaded key. This causes the rotational movement
to stop and the outer element to be withdrawn from the
furnace. During withdrawal, the traversing pin reaches
another chamfered slot in the spring-loaded key, and the
outer element again rotates until the sootblower is fully
withdrawn and the motor stops.

At a predetermined point during the withdrawal of the

sootblower, the next sootblower in sequence receives its
impulse to start.

• Lance sootblowers
These sootblowers (Figure 54) are used for blowing the
superheaters and re-heaters. The lance type blower is
designed to clean the re-heater and superheater tubes
when the gas temperatures are too high for the fixed
multi-nozzle type to be used. The lance, on entering
through the boiler casing, is entirely self-supporting during
its full travel across the superheater or re-heater.

The whole unit is mounted on a steel supporting beam;

the outer end is held by a stanchion to the boiler house
steelwork, and the furnace end is held to the boiler wall by
a pivot to allow for expansion in the boiler.

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FIGURE 54 – LANCE-TYPE SOOTBLOWER

The sootblower is driven by a geared motor through a

chain drive and a square drive shaft, running along the
complete length of the lance to the main carriage. In the
main carriage the drive shaft passes through a sleeve in
the driving spur gear. This rotates with the drive shaft but
is free to move along its length. Rotation of the driving
spur gear causes the outer element to rotate via the outer
element gear.

A further gearwheel, driven from the outer element gear,

drives a rack and pinion mechanism through a worm
drive. Operation of the rack and pinion advances or
retracts the main carriage, depending on the direction of
rotation of the drive. Operation of the drive motor,
therefore, will cause the nozzle on the end of the outer
element to have both a rotary and lateral motion.

The outer element is supported adjacent to the boiler

casing by a static front element support roller assembly;
when retracted it is supported at its midpoint by an outer

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element support carriage. The static inner element is

attached to the steam valve at the rear end of the element
and is supported by an inner element support carriage.
When the lance is retracted the inner element support
carriage is interlocked by a operating catch with the main
carriage. When the sootblower lance starts, the inner
element support carriage is pulled along by the main
carriage, until a release ramp midway along the beam
releases the operating catch and leaves the inner element
support carriage in its midway position. At the same
time, the outer element support carriage is interlocked
with the main carriage by means of another operating
catch, and both carriages move forward to the end of
travel.

FIGURE 55 – OPERATING SEQUENCE OF LANCE SOOTBLOWER

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When the lance retracts, the outer element support

carriage is pulled along by the main carriage until the
release ramp midway along the beam releases the
operating catch and leaves the outer element support
carriage in the midway position. At this point, the inner
element support carriage is again interlocked with the
main carriage and pushed back to the retracted position.

When the sootblower is operated the main carriage

moves forward. When this reaches a set point coinciding
with the steam nozzle clearing the boiler wall, then the
main carriage operates a striker arm and link mechanism
which opens the steam valve. This, in turn, allows the
steam to pass through the static internal element to the
outer element and nozzle. When the lance reaches the
end of its forward travel, the cam on the main carriage
opens a limit switch which reverses the electrical supply
to the motor. Once the main carriage has returned to its
fully retracted position, the motor is stopped by the
operation of another limit switch. As the carriage nears
the end of its travel (before the nozzle retracts into the
boiler casing wall box), the striker arm and linkage
operate to shut the steam valve.

If the motor fails at any time during the operation, the

lance may be withdrawn from the boiler by attaching a
compressed air-operated tool to the protruding square
shaft on the motor gearbox.

Approximately thirty seconds before the sootblower has

fully withdrawn, a cam operates a sequence switch to
impulse and start the next sootblower selected in
sequence.

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• Rotating multi-nozzle sootblowers

These blowers are for blowing an economiser. The
sootblower (Figure 56) consists of a non-retractable
rotating outer element and a fixed inner element. The
outer element has several nozzles distributed in line at the
gas pass section of the blower and a gland housing at the
steam inlet end. The steam flows through the steam
valve via the inner element to the outer element nozzles.

A motor drives a driving pinion via an idler. When the

clutch is disengaged, a hand-wheel can be used through
a dog clutch to drive the control box pinion and idler. The
hand-wheel and control box pinion also provide the drive
via the worm gear to the control unit drive shaft. This
makes one third of a complete revolution for every
complete revolution of the sootblower element. The drive
shaft is fitted with two cams, each operating a micro-
switch. One micro-switch controls the supply to the
sootblower motor, and the other switch provides the
impulse to start the next sootblower selected in sequence
on the sootblower control panel.

When the sootblower starts, the main gear wheel and

multi nozzle element begin to rotate. The cam on the
outer element at the steam inlet end operates the steam
valve via a valve operating lever. The cam is designed to
give a steam blow over a predetermined arc (covering the
tube surface area to be cleaned) for each revolution of the
outer element.

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FIGURE 56 – ROTATING MULTI-NOZZLE SOOTBLOWER

At a predetermined point during the operation of the

sootblower, the next sootblower in sequence receives the
impulse to start. After a predetermined number of blows
(usually three), the motor stops.

• Air heater traversing sootblowers

A typical rotary air heater has two traversing sootblowers
(Figure 57) installed for cleaning the heating surfaces.
One sootblower is installed at the top of the heater with
the steam nozzles facing downwards, and blows with the
gas flow. The other is installed on the underside of the
heater with the steam nozzles facing upwards, and blows
against the gas flow.

Orifice plates are provided to adjust the steam pressure to

suit the conditions. Typical steam pressure is 1 MPa for
the top sootblowers, and 9,8 MPa for the bottom
sootblowers.

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Steam passes through three venture-type nozzles that are

mounted equidistant along the outer element. The latter
is mounted horizontally above or beneath the heating
surfaces. The sootblower outer element is supported by
rollers which travel on two runner tubes. The speed at
which the outer element travels ensures that all the
heating surface is adequately cleaned, taking the speed
of the air heater into consideration.

The sootblower is driven by a motor driving through a

worm gear on to a worm wheel, which is free running on
the plain end of the screwed operating shaft.

FIGURE 57 – AIR HEATER TRAVERSING SOOTBLOWER

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Drive is transmitted from a worm wheel to the operating

shaft by means of a shearing pin and dog clutch.
Alternatively, the clutch may be set to transmit the drive
from the hand wheel onto the operating shaft.

Three cams in the control box are driven from the

operating shaft via a worm drive. Each cam operates a
micro switch which performs exactly the same function as
for a gun sootblower.

The sootblower outer element is connected to a traverse

tube; on the end of this is a square, internally threaded to
match the thread on the screwed operating shaft.

When the sootblower motor starts, the operating shaft

rotates the traverse tube and the outer element moves
forward across the air heater by the action of the threads
mentioned above. As the traverse tube advances, two
pins mounted on the square engage with an engagement
arm, which opens the steam valve via a cam, a valve
operating lever and a valve operating rod. Steam then
passes through the inner elements into the outer element
and so out of the three nozzles to clean the air heater
elements.

At the end of the forward travel, the motor rotates in the

reverse direction, so withdrawing the sootblower to its
starting position and causing the steam valve to close.
At a predetermined point during the withdrawal of the
sootblower, the next sootblower in sequence receives the
impulse to start.

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5.7.3.4 Operation of sootblowers

The frequency of sootblowing can only be determined from
one’s experience of each boiler. It should not be done more
frequently than necessary due to the efficiency loss and the
cost of the steam used in the process. Generally, the need for
sootblowing is shown by either the falling off of superheat
temperature, rising back-end temperatures or indications that
the draught drop across the particular section is increasing.

The following precautions must be taken during sootblowing:

• The boiler suction should be increased to protect the

operator from hot gases blowing out of inspection doors.

• Adequate drainage of the sootblower steam supply pipes

is necessary, and automatic drain valves are sometimes
fitted.

• Blowers must not be left stationary in the working position

with steam on; otherwise local tube erosion can occur.

• If blowers are left in the furnace without a supply of steam

they will suffer considerable damage. If the electricity
supply fails or the blowers jam they must be withdrawn by
hand.

• Pulverised fuel-fired boilers should be kept on a fairly high

load when sootblowing to give combustion stability.

• The air heater metal temperature should be kept as high

as possible when sootblowing, by air bypassing or hot air
recirculation.

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• If a rotary air heater is fitted with sootblowers above and

below the heating surface, blowing is done at the bottom
first to loosen the deposits and then at the top to ensure
complete removal of the deposits. Sootblowing in the
reverse direction can block the air heater plates.

• Sootblowing must not be carried out with a fire in the air

heater. The steam increases the rate of combustion, and
will not extinguish the fire.

5.8 Ash and Dust Collection Systems

A typical large PF fired boiler consumes in the region of 6000 tons of coal over a
24 hour period. Taking the ash content in the average coal consumed as 30%,
this equates to a total of 1800 tons of ash/dust that needs to be removed from the
boiler each day!

Of the ash/dust formed, approximately 30% is in the form of coarse ash/clinkers

which drop down into the boiler ash hoppers. By far the most concerning is the
burden of dust/fly ash (1260 tons/day in our typical example), which is carried via
the boiler gas flow. Without any means of removal, this dust / fly ash would be
discharged via the stacks into the atmosphere causing serious pollution
problems.

From the above it is obvious that flue gas cleaning systems need to be employed
at power stations. In this section we will discuss the two major flue gas cleaning
systems employed by Eskom and we will also discuss the actual ash/dust
removal and disposal systems employed on the boilers within Eskom.

5.8.1 Flue gas cleaning systems

Historically the older boilers utilised in South Africa (mainly chain-grate
and some of the older PF boilers), were equipped with mechanical grit
arrestors.

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The principal of operation was to subject the gas flow to an intense swirl
in typically a cyclone separator. This caused the dust to be thrown
outwards by centrifugal force. The dust would then drop downwards
into dust hoppers for removal to the dust fields.

This system, although acceptable in the late 1950’s to early 1960’s, was
relatively inefficient and led to further development and retro-fitting of
electrostatic precipitators and more recently fabric filter plants. It is
these two latter systems that we will discuss in more detail.

5.8.2 Electrostatic Precipitators

5.8.2.1 Basic design and operating principle (See Figure 58)

The dust precipitators consists of a reinforced concrete vessel,
the outside surfaces of which are lagged in order to prevent
both the concrete cracking and any condensation of the flue
gases within the precipitator. The vessel is divided into
separate parallel sections, each of which can be isolated from
the high voltage supply and from the gas stream for
maintenance. Entry to the precipitator should not, however, be
carried out on load. Each section has two or three fields or
zones (i.e. banks of electrodes) in series, with respect to the
gas flow, each supplied by its own high voltage set. This
arrangement enables the voltage applied to be adjusted to its
optimum value for each particular stage. Thus, since the dust
burden decreases as the gas passes through, it is possible to
apply a higher voltage to the last stage than to the first, thus
ensuring maximum efficiency. The precipitator consists
essentially of two sets of electrodes, one set charged to a high
potential, known as the discharge electrodes, and the other set
earthed. The discharge electrode system is usually made up of
a number of wires, and the earthed electrodes are made up with
either a number of vertical tubes or flat plates.

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FIGURE 58 – PLATE-TYPE ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR

Wires are suspended midway between the plates. The

discharge electrode is charged to such a high potential that the
dust-laden gases passing through are ionised and dust particles
are driven to the earthed receiving electrodes where they
accumulate. These electrodes are rapped periodically with
hammers or vibrated and the accumulated dust drops into the
receiving hoppers below.

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Discharge electrodes, suspended from suitable insulators which

carry the high-tension voltage to form the magnetic field, are
situated between the collecting electrodes (see Figure 59).

Although the majority of the dust settles on the collecting

electrodes, some does collect on the discharge electrodes, and,
therefore, rapping gear is provided for both sets of electrodes.

The collecting electrode plates are not continuous from one end
of the chamber to the other, but are split into three or four
‘zones’ , each with its own rapping gear and separate high
voltage equipment. This is because conditions may arise
(because of an alteration in gas flow) which necessitate varying
the frequency of rapping or the adjustment of the high voltage
setting to give the optimum efficiency.

FIGURE 59 – PROCESS OF ELECTROSTATIC PROPULSION OF A DUST PARTICLE IN

A GAS STREAM

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5.8.2.2 Discharge electrodes

These vary with the manufacturer, but are mainly of two types:

• Wire of either round or square section hung from the top

to the bottom of the plant;

• The electrode is split into separate frames over the height

of the plant using square wire, barbed wire or steel strips
with barbs.

In all cases the function is exactly the same – to give a corona

discharge towards the collecting surface, as was illustrated in
Figure 59.

5.8.2.3 Collecting electrodes

The present opinion is that the best type of collecting electrode
is a flat plate, such as we have described previously.

5.8.2.4 Rapping
This is of primary importance because the efficiency of a
precipitator depends on the amount of dust left on the discharge
or collecting electrodes. It is obviously desirable that as much
dust as possible is removed; most manufacturers now achieve
this by using mechanical means, such as hammer blows, on the
electrodes at predetermined intervals (Figure 60). Rapping of
the collecting electrodes is more frequent (say, every 2-5
minutes) in the first zone of the precipitator, because the
majority of dust is collected here; the rapping gradually reduces
to a minimum (say, every 60 minutes) in the fourth zone.

The discharge rapping is usually carried out at a fixed time

interval of, say, every four minutes. The reason for this is that
it is important to avoid a dust-laden atmosphere. To achieve
this, the frequency of rapping on the collecting electrodes is

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kept to a minimum, to avoid unsettling the dust on the

electrodes. On the discharge electrodes, where the quantities
of dust are smaller, it is more important to keep these
electrodes completely clean to maintain a high rate of electrical
discharge.

FIGURE 60 : PLATE AND WIRE ELECTRODE RAPPING ARRANGEMENTS

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5.8.2.5 Dust hoppers

Hoppers constructed from steel or concrete are situated below
the precipitators. As explained previously, the first zone of the
precipitator collects the greatest amount of dust, and these
hoppers are, therefore, larger than those used under the
subsequent zones. The hoppers are usually of sufficient
capacity to give a 24 hour storage capacity, so that ‘dusting’
(as the operation is called) is usually carried out once every
day. The hoppers are designed to facilitate the free discharge
of dust, and their inner surfaces must have a smooth finish
(concrete is, therefore, ideal), and be electrically heated to
prevent damping of the dust.

Some of the larger power stations are equipped with

‘continuous removal’ dust handling equipment and the hoppers
usually have a 12 hour capacity. It is of prime importance that
these hoppers should not be overfilled, so automatic indicator
levels are provided to give visual ‘high’- and ‘low’ level
indications in the control room.

5.8.2.6 High voltage equipment

The electrodes are energised from a high tension transformer /
rectifier system which converts the normal alternating current to
a high voltage direct current, usually of 50 kV.

The rectifiers at modern power stations are usually of the silicon

or selenium type. Some of the older power stations have
mechanical rotary rectifiers. Older plants are manually
controlled, usually from the boiler control panels, but the
modern approach is towards automatic control – intended to
obtain optimum performance. Ideally, the maximum efficiency
of a precipitator is obtained if the plant operates at a voltage at,
or just below, the breakdown voltage with the highest discharge
current available. The effect of breakdown voltage is, of

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course, flashover, which can seriously reduce the field strength

of the precipitator and so reduce its efficiency. The selenium
rectifier is particularly well suited to give automatic control and
reduces the effects of flashover which may occur.

5.8.3 Fabric Filter Plants

5.8.3.1 Basic design and operating principle (see Figure 61)

Dirty gas from the boiler is drawn by the ID fans and passes
through the air heater into the dirty gas chamber of the FFP cell.
This gas passes through the rows of filter bags hanging from
the tube plate into the clean gas chamber above the tube plate.

• Filtration
Fly ash in the dirty gas is trapped on the filter bag fabric to
form a “cake” while the resulting clean gas passes
through the fabric into the clean gas chamber. The
cleaned gas is then drawn through the ID fans and
discharged into the atmosphere through the chimney.

• Cleaning
Ash caking on the filter bags is periodically removed by
distorting the surface of the bag. This is done by a brief
“pulse” of high volume low pressure cleaning air delivered
from the pulse air tanks on the roof of the FFP casing.

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FIGURE 61 – FABRIC FILTER PLANT SCHEMATIC

The air pulse is delivered to a rotating manifold above the

tube plate. This manifold is fitted with nozzles that align
with the open ends of the filter bags. The manifold rotates
so that all filter bags, which are arranged in concentric
circles, are cleaned.

5.8.3.2 Essential FFP components

The key feature of the FFP is the fabric filter bags
suspended from the tube plate inside the cell. All dirty
gas entering the FFP must pass through the filter bags
before it can be discharged via the ID fans to the
chimney.

• Attemperation Station
The filter bag fabric is susceptible to deterioration at
elevated temperatures, which can substantially reduce the
filter bag life. The attemperation station is installed in the
FFP inlet duct to limit the temperature by admitting

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ambient (cold) air through an attemperation manifold to

dilute and cool the flue gas as necessary.

Provision is made for emergency water cooling of the inlet

gas stream, should the gas temperature exceed a safe
level.

Boilers may be equipped with high temperature fabric

filter bags. In such a case, the attemperation and
emergency water cooling systems are not required.

• Crossover ducts
Each boiler is typically served by two FFP cells and two
ID fans. The cells are normally interconnected by ducts at
the inlet and outlet, and allow either cell to be isolated
and/or exhausted by either ID fan or to balance the flow
through both cells and ID fans. This crossover
arrangement permits unit operation, at reduced load, with
an FFP cell or an ID fan out of service for maintenance.
Each crossover duct has an electrically operated louvre
type damper that allows isolation or crossover as
required.

• Inlet / outlet dampers

The FFP cells may be isolated from the inlet and outlet
ducts by electrically actuated louvre dampers.

• Tube Plate
The tube plate is a metal plate that effectively separates
the lower part of the casing (dirty gas chamber) from the
upper part (clean gas chamber). This plate is machined
with concentric rows of holes into which the filter bags are
fitted. The tube plate is sealed to the casing so that,

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when all filter bags are installed (or the holes blanked),
the dirty gas cannot bypass the filter bags.

The tube plate is stiffened to withstand the suction

pressure exerted on it by the ID fans.

• Rotating manifold

The rotating manifold consists of two horizontal “arms”

with nozzles, which extends radially across the open top
ends of the filter bags.

These are attached to a vertical air delivery pipe which is

supported on the tube plate by a central bearing. The
pipe passes through the casing roof and connects to the
pulse air tank.

The air pipe/manifold arms are rotated by a motor,

operating through a slow speed gearbox arrangement
situated below the pulse air tank. This rotates the
manifold arms so that cleaning air pulses may be
delivered to all filter bags.

• Pulse air tank

Low pressure cleaning air is supplied from a common
cleaning air header to the pulse air tanks that serve each
unit. These tanks have a large air storage capacity, the
volume of which may be rapidly discharged via the
rotating manifold. Discharge is effected by a solenoid
operated diaphragm valve fitted between the tank and
manifold air pipe.

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• Implosion dampers
The implosion dampers are provided to relieve cell casing
negative pressure, should this become excessive.
Negative pressure created by the ID fans could implode
the FFP casing if allowed to become excessive. To
minimise this risk, the implosion dampers open at a set
negative pressure.

• Outlet duct
This duct typically incorporates a crossover duct and
isolation dampers. With one cell out of service, this
allows the remaining cell to be exhausted by either ID fan.

• ID fans
Each boiler normally is served by two twin inlet ID fans
(one fan per FFP cell). These fans “draw” the flue gas
from the boiler, through the air heater and FFP, and
discharge it to the stack. The volume of gas drawn
through each inlet is regulated by remotely actuated radial
vanes at the impeller inlet(s).

• Dust hoppers
The dust hoppers are insulated steel hoppers at the
bottom of the FFP casing. Dust dislodged from the filter
bags falls into the hoppers and is periodically discharged
through the boiler dusting system. The hoppers are
normally fitted with electrical trace heating to keep the
collected dust warm, preventing clogging (hang-ups) of
the dust inside the hopper.

• Filter bag pre-coating system

A recent innovation has been the installation of a filter bag
pre-coating system.

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A pipework system is installed, at the attemperating air

ducting arrangement, which allows for a pre-coating
media such as a suitable fly ash or hydrated lime to be
introduced into the FFP inlet ducting. This is carried out
prior to the first boiler light up with new filter bags in
position, and also prior to substantial numbers of bags
having been replaced on a running unit. This allows
for a protective coating of pre-coating media on the new
filter bags and affords protection from flue gas chemicals
and fuel oil as well as dew point deterioration during the
boiler light up. The coating media is typically introduced
via a road tanker utilising the tanker’s blower.

On completion of the pre-coating operation, the piping is

removed and the system blanked-off until it is required
again.

5.8.3.3 Ancillary equipment

Cleaning air for the FFP’s would typically be supplied to a
common header by high volume, low pressure blowers.
These blowers would typically be housed in a blower
house central to the units. The blowers are operated
such that they response to the cleaning air demand of all
unit FFP’s. The cleaning air main pressure is typically
controlled to a set point by venting excess air through a
control valve. Blowers are switched on and off
accordingly.

• FFP control
The unit FFP’s control system is programmed to typically
control the inlet attemperation system, the frequency of
filter bag cleaning and the implosion dampers. The
system would also provide for alarms and recording of
FFP operating data.

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• Attemperation (On boilers not employing high

temperature fabric filter bags)
Attemperation control is achieved by motorised operated
dampers on the attemperation manifolds. These open
and close in response to signals received from
thermocouples (measuring gas temperature) at the FFP
inlet. If a safe maximum inlet gas temperature is
exceeded, the system automatically activates emergency
cooling water sprays in the attemperation manifolds.

• Cleaning
The frequency of bag cleaning pulses delivered by the
rotating manifold is determined by the pressure drop
(differential pressure) across the filter bags. This is
measured by pressure transmitters situated in the inlet
and outlet ducts. The system would be set to maintain a
pre-set differential pressure which is selected according to
boiler load. The system also monitors the rotation of the
rotating manifolds and initiates an alarm if a failure
occurs. The pulse air pressure in the tanks is controlled
by pressure switches which would typically signal a
normal and low pressure to the Unit Control Room.

• Implosion protection
The implosion dampers would typically be opened
pneumatically if the negative pressure in either the FFP
inlet or outlet ducts exceeds a pre-set value. The
dampers would be opened progressively (one after the
other) to minimise disruption of boiler operation.

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5.8.3.4 Operating limitations

FFP’s have the following principal limitations.

• Inlet gas temperature

The maximum gas temperature must be limited to
prevent fabric degradation and premature failure of
the filter bags. On Units employing low temperature
bags, this is achieved by the attemperation system.
On units where high temperature filter bags are
used, the inlet gas temperature must also be
maintained above dew point to prevent
condensation and possible acid attack of the filter
bags.

• Hopper level
Dust hopper level(s) must be maintained well below
the bags. If this is not done, dislodged dust will be
re-entrained into the gas stream. This will cause an
increased cleaning frequency and high cell
differential pressures. Dust hopper high level
indicator systems can be used to monitor the dust
level in the hoppers. “Over-cleaning” of the filter
bags also has the negative effect of significantly
reducing the life of the filter bags.

5.8.3.5 Factors negatively affecting the operation of fabric

filter plants
The following factors should as far as possible be avoided
when operating the Fabric Filter Plants:
• Boiler tube leaks.
• Operation at or below acid dew point.
• Operation with defective, poorly atomising fuel oil
burners.

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5.9 Ash and Dust Disposal Systems

As previously discussed the disposal systems incorporated into the boiler are either
coarse ash removal or dust removal. The systems employed are normally one of
two basic types of ash/dust removal namely a “Wet System” or a “Dry System”.
We will now discuss these systems (Figure 62).

5.9.1 “Wet” ash and dust disposal system

This system is mainly employed at the older power stations and typically
operates as follows:

The ash and dust handling plant is designed to handle the coarse ash from
the boiler ash hoppers and the dust from the dust hoppers and pump it, in
the form of slurry, to a disposal area (ash dam).

FIGURE 62 – TYPICAL ‘WET’ ASHING AND DUSTING SYSTEM

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The dust from the precipitators or fabric filter plants, together with the
coarse ash from the coarse ash hopper, is periodically discharged with
water to the ash plant ash sump for pumping away to the ash dam. A
typical system is shown in Figure 62.

• Furnace hoppers
In understanding the ashing process, one also needs to understand
the two different types of furnace hoppers employed namely:

• Wet-bottom type – in which the furnace hoppers are filled with

water. As the coarse ash and clinkers fall into the hoppers
they are “quenched” as they fall into the water.

• Dry-bottom type – in which water sprays fitted and arranged

high up in the side walls of the hopper “quench” the coarse ash
and clinkers as they fall through the spray into the hoppers.

5.9.1.1 Operation of a “wet” ash and dust disposal system

(see Figure 63)

• Ash system
The sealing door to one of the ash hopper
compartments is opened (using a hydraulic
mechanism) to allow a steady flow of ash to enter the
sluice way. Water jets are provided by the sluice
water pumps to allow the operator to dislodge any ash
build-ups inside the hopper.

Sizing grids are situated at the outlet of each hopper

compartment so that any large pieces of clinker may
be broken up by hand before being discharged into
the sluiceway.

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The sluiceway is a concrete trench in the boiler house

basement, usually lined with half-round liners
constructed from nickel cast iron. Basalt tiles are
used as an alternative lining, since they are more
resistant to wear.

Booster nozzles powered by sluice water are fitted at

various intervals along the sluiceway, either at ash
feeding points (such as the guillotine doors of the ash
hoppers) or where the sluiceway changes direction.
The maximum distance between any two sets of
nozzles is about 15 metres, as above this distance the
effectiveness of the jet declines.

The ash is transported in the sluiceway by the sluice

water to an ash sump. An ash crusher (see Figure
64) is provided at the sump to crush the ash to a size
suitable for pumping. Figure 65 illustrates a typical
ash or dust slurry pump. All metal parts which come
into contact with the ash are made of wear-resistant
cast iron and the impellers are specially treated to
resist the abrasive qualities of the ash.

From the ash sump, the ash pumps pump the ash
slurry to the ash fields / ash dams. Depending on the
distance that the ash must be pumped, ash booster
pumps may be employed to ensure that the ash slurry
reaches the fields. At the ash fields, the ash settles
and the water is returned, via ash water return pumps
for reuse as sluice water at the ash plants.

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FIGURE 63 – BASIC “WET” ASH AND DUST DISPOSAL SYSTEM

FIGURE 64 – ASH CRUSHER

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FIGURE 65 – ASH SLURRY PUMP

• Wet dusting system

In the “wet” dusting system typically two types of dust
removal systems are used namely: hydraulic sluicing
and pneumatic sluicing.

- Hydraulic sluicing is the removal of fly ash / dust

collected in the boiler dust hoppers by the
electrostatic precipitators or fabric filter plants.
From the dust hoppers the dust is removed by
hydrovacs, powered by sluice water from the
sluice pumps, via sluiceways to the ash sump.
From the ash sump the ash pumps pump the
dust slurry to the ash fields as previously
described.

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- The hydrovacs work on the principle of a venturi

nozzle. High pressure water (supplied by the
sluice pumps), issues from a high pressure
converging nozzle. This creates a suction force
on the dust, drawing it into the water. The dust/
water mixture is then sluiced to the ash sump as
previously discussed.

- Pneumatic sluicing is the removal of dust

propelled by air at low pressure, using an air
slide. The air slide is positioned under the dust
hoppers (see Figure 66) for the layout of a
pneumatic dust handling system), and collects
the dust from all the hoppers. The dust is
pumped dry into silos, ready for conditioning
and disposal via road tankers or it can be
sluiced via hydrovacs and slurry pumps to the
ash fields.

5.9.1.2 Operation of a “dry” ash and dust disposal system

This system is typically employed in conjunction with dry-
bottom type furnace hoppers. Ash removal is a continuous
to process in that a drag-link conveyor is utilised
continuously remove the coarse ash from the furnace
hoppers. The drag link conveyor is positioned transversely
under the boiler hopper compartments and empties them all
simultaneously.

From the drag-link conveyor the coarse ash is transferred

onto a conveyor system which transports the ash from the
boiler house. Fly ash/ dust from the flue gas cleaning
system is introduced onto the conveyor system, with the
coarse ash. After application of a fine mist dust
suppression spray, the ash/dust mixture is discharged via

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the conveyor system to the ash fields. At the ash fields an

ash spreader and stacker is utilised to distribute the ash/dust
mixture where it is compacted and wetted down by means of
road water tankers.

FIGURE 66 – PNEUMATIC DUST-HANDLING SYSTEM

6. COMBUSTION

6.1 Introduction
The function of a boiler furnace is to generate the maximum amount of heat from
the fuel. If such a function is to be fulfilled, it is essential that the Operator should
understand fully the principles involved in combustion.

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With this in mind we can assume that:- "The efficient generation of steam is
dependent on the efficiency of combustion”.

A comprehensive knowledge of combustion theory is not only a necessity for the

efficient operation but also for the safe operation of the boilers.

In this course we will look at the practical aspects of combustion, the theoretical
side of combustion and the problems associated with poor combustion.

6.2 Purpose
To consolidate the operators knowledge of boiler operation, the understanding of
the principles of combustion is vital. This course covers both the practical and
theoretical aspects of combustion.

6.3 Combustion Terminology

 Combustible - A substance capable of combining with
oxygen to produce heat.

 Combustion - The rapid chemical combination of oxygen

with the combustible elements of a fuel, resulting in
heat.

 Perfect Combustion - only the theoretical amount of oxygen for the

complete oxidation of the fuel is supplied and
whole of it is used in burning the fuel.

 Complete Combustion - More than the theoretical amount of oxygen

is supplied for the complete oxidation of the
fuel.

 Ignition Temperature - The temperature at which more heat is

generated by combustion than is lost to the

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surroundings, hence combustion becomes

self-sustaining.

 Time - Sufficient time for the reactions to take place.

 Temperature - Sufficient temperature to enable ignition of the

fuel to begin and to be sustained.

 Turbulence - Sufficient turbulence or mixing in the

combustion chamber to ensure the intimate
mixing of the coal and air.

 Excess Air - If fuel is burned with only the theoretical

amount of air necessary, the combustion will
be very poor due to incomplete mixing of the
air with the fuel. Consequently it is necessary
to supply more air than the theoretical
minimum to achieve complete
combustion. This extra air is referred to as
"Excess Air".

 Total Air - Total air for complete combustion is the

theoretical quantity necessary plus the correct
amount of excess air.

 Oxide - A compound of oxygen with another element.

 Dioxide - One atom of an element combined with two

(2) atoms of oxygen.

 Monoxide - One atom of an element combined with one

(1) atom of oxygen.

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 CO2 - CO2 is a gas composed of

molecules having one (1) atom of carbon and
two (2) atoms of oxygen.

It is a vitally important consideration in boiler

operation because the percentage (%)
amount of CO2 in the flue gas is an indication
of the amount of excess air being supplied.

 lncomplete Combustion - Incomplete combustion occurs when a portion

of the fuel remains unburnt because of
insufficient air or improper mixing of the fuel.

 Stoichiomeric Air - The amount of air required in theory to burn

completely a given amount of fuel.

 Flame Speed - Also referred to as Flame Propagation - The

speed of propagation of a flame under certain
prescribed conditions. If the flame speed is
higher than the velocity of the PA/PF at the
burner, the f lame may enter the PF tube. If it
is slower then the flame may be lost.

6.4 Practical Aspects of Combustion

Combustion is defined as the rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the
combustible elements of a fuel resulting in the release of heat energy and light.

6.4.1 Types off combustion

6.4.1.1 Oxidation
Oxidation is the simplest form of combustion where
Oxygen combines with elements such as iron to form the oxide
which we know as rust.

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Oxidation takes place on many parts of the boiler and its

components, such as:

 Tube metal surfaces

 Air and gas ducts
 Air heaters
 ID fans

6.4.1.2 Spontaneous combustion

Spontaneous combustion is a process where under some
conditions combustion may be self-starting.

Fires resulting from spontaneous combustion occur

occasionally in:

• Coal yard piles

• Storage bins and bunkers
• Coal piled outdoors combines slowly with oxygen in the
air and moisture, producing a chemical reaction and
giving off heat. if the heat does not dissipate fast enough,
the temperature rises and the reaction speeds up until it
eventually becomes a burning fire.

Normally, the combustion process begins when heat (ignition

energy) is applied to a fuel in the presence of oxygen.

Flammability of a fuel depends on how easy it is to turn it into a

gas (unless it is in a gas form already).

Nothing truly burns until it is a gas. Vaporising a substance into

a gas depends on:

• Fuel size and type

• Quantity of fuel present

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• Heat available for ignition

• Amount of oxygen present.

6.4.2 Requirements for combustion

There are three factors or conditions necessary to produce combustion.
These conditions are: (See Figure 67).

• We must have a fuel (a combustible material).

• Oxygen in sufficient quantity to support combustion.
• Sufficient heat to bring the fuel to its ignition temperature and keep it
there.

FIGURE 67 – THE COMBUSTION TRIANGLE

These three requirements are all necessary for combustion to occur and to
be maintained. If any one is removed, we will no longer have a fire.

6.4.3 Principal combustible constituents of fuel

All fossil power plant fuels (coal, oil and gas) have the same basic
combustible constituents. These are:
• Carbon
• Hydrogen
• Sulphur

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In combustion, the carbon and hydrogen are the major elements. They burn
and form CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) and water vapour.

Sulphur forms corrosive compounds that are released in the combustion

process. (SO2 Sulphur Dioxide, which forms acids when mixed with water).

Other elements contained in fuels may be considered as impurities, which

can affect ash and slag accumulations throughout the boiler.

Air is the usual source of oxygen for combustion. Air is quite a diluted
source of oxygen and this is of considerable significance in furnace design
and operation. (See Figure 68).

FIGURE 68 – PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION

Oxygen makes up approximately 21% of air (by volume) and is the only
active element in air necessary for combustion. Air also contains a small
amount of water vapour.

A large amount of nitrogen (78%) in air performs no useful duty in the

burning process. Nitrogen forms Nox (Nitrogen Oxide) emissions which is a
serious form of air pollution.

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Heat must be present to cause ignition. Ignition raises the temperature of a

substance to the minimum temperature at which combustion becomes self-
sustaining. The temperature at which this occurs is known as the ignition
temperature. Until this point is reached an external source of ignition
energy is needed.

In a boiler, igniters are used to electrically ignite the oil burner oil spray
which in turn provides the heat to ignite pulverised fuel.

6.4.4 Factors affecting the combustion process

6.4.4.1 Fuel Preparation

Fuel oil must be atomised into small particles which, when
heated and mixed with air (oxygen) will vaporise into a gas and
ignite.

Coal is pulverised in the ball mills to a talcum powder, dried and

transported to the burners through PF tubes by primary air.

The Pulverised coal is thoroughly mixed with combustion air

and burns efficiently while it is in suspension within the furnace
of the boiler.

6.4.4.2 Combustion air supply

Air in sufficient quantities must be present for combustion to
take place in the furnace. Combustion air to the furnace is
supplied by forced draft (FD) fans and is heated in air heaters
before entering the furnace. In balanced draught boilers the
combustion products and excess air are removed from the
furnace by the induced draught (ID) fans.

Since hot air is required for drying the coal as it is being

pulverised, a portion of the heated air to the furnace is directed
to the mill.

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A supply of unheated air must also be available for maintaining

primary air flow through the mill when hot air is not required.
This unheated air comes from the FD fan ducts before the air
heaters.

The air supply to the furnace is measured in kg/sec.

The fuel entering a furnace requires a definite quantity of air for

complete combustion. This is the "theoretical air" required for
combustion under perfect conditions, also referred to as total
air.

However, it is necessary to use more air than the theoretical

amount to ensure complete combustion in the imperfect
conditions of the boiler. "Excess air" is the term used to
describe the additional air.

The amount of excess air is determined by measuring the

quantity of free oxygen (O2) contained in the combustion
products at the boiler outlet. During normal boiler load, an
Oxygen count of between 3 and 4% is considered to be
sufficient.

6.4.4.3 Fuel and air mixing

Combustion is a chemical process and proper mixing of fuel
and air is therefore necessary to ensure that complete
combustion takes place.

When oxygen in the air is mixed with the carbon, hydrogen and
sulphur in the fuel in definite proportions at the required ignition
temperature, they will combine and react chemically to form fire.
(Figure 69).

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HEAT OF
(HIGH)MJ/kg
COMBUSTION REACTION MOLES COMBUSTION
OFFUEL
KILOGRAMS
Carbon (to CO) 2C + O2 = 2CO 2+1=2 10,8kg + 25,4kg = 36,2kg 930

Carbon (to CO2) C + O2 = CO2 1+1=1 5,4kg + 14,5kg = 19,9kg 32.80

Carbon Monoxide 2CO + O2 2CO2 2+1=2 25,4kg + 14,5kg = 39,9kg 10.08

Hydrogen 2H2 + O2 2H2O 2+1=2 1,8kg + 14,5kg = 16,2kg 142.11

Sulphur (to SO2) S + O2 = SO2 1+1=1 14,5kg + 14,5kg = 29,0kg 9.21

Methane CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O 1+2=1+2 7,2kg + 2,9kg = 36,2kg 55.63

FIGURE 69 – COMMON CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF COMBUSTION

6.4.5 Complete combustion

a) C + O2 → CO2

carbon + oxygen yields carbon dioxide.

12 + 44 → atomic weights

12 32 44
  (divide to get kilograms)
12 12 12

1kg + 2.67kg → 3.67kg

We need 2, 67 kg of oxygen to burn 1kg of carbon and get 3.67kg of

carbon dioxide as combustion products.

b) Since oxygen present in air is relatively small, it takes 4.3kg of air to

make 1kg of oxygen.

c) 4.3 x 2.67 = 11, 5 kilograms of air are needed to burn 1

kilogram of carbon.

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d) When coal is burned and one kilogram of carbon is burned to carbon

dioxide, it results in a heat output of approximately 32, 56 MJ/kg.

e) When burning hydrogen, a small but very combustible element found

in coal, it forms water vapour.

2H2 + O2 → 2H20
hydrogen + oxygen yields water vapour
1kg + 8kg → 9kg

6.4.6 Incomplete Combustion

a) Incomplete combustion occurs when a portion of the fuel remains

unburned because of insufficient air, or improper mixing.

b) 2C + O2 → 2CO
Carbon + oxygen yields carbon monoxide

24 + 32 56 (atomic weights)

24 32 56
  Divide to get kilograms
24 24 24

1kg + 1,33kg → 2, 33 kilograms

c) When one kg of carbon is burned to carbon monoxide, the amount

of oxygen is only 4-2 of that required for complete combustion.

d) The heat released for incomplete combustion of 1 kilogram of

carbon is about 9, 44 Mi/kg.

Thus:
Complete combustion = 32, 56 MJ/kg
Incomplete combustion = 9, 30 MJ/kg
Net loss = 23, 26 MJ/kg

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The net loss for each kg of carbon incompletely burned shows the
importance of completely burning the combustible gases before
they exit from the furnace.

e) To get the greatest efficiency from a boiler, the fuel must burn
completely.

f) If the boiler efficiency is rated at 90% then 90% of all the heat
released when burning a fuel is absorbed in the various heat
absorbing surfaces of the boiler.

6.4.7 Importance of fuel and air mixing

6.4.7.1 Too much fuel (rich mixture) and not enough air will cause:
• A smoky fire.
Carry-over of soot and unburned carbon that will plug
convection passes and air heaters.
• An unstable flame.
High (>l%) carbon content in bottom ash.

6.4.7.2 Too much excess air (lean mixture) is not desirable because:
• It reduces boiler efficiency due to more heat being carried
out the stack by a greater quantity of flue gases.
• It cools the fire and lowers the furnace temperature.
• It reduces the furnace heat absorption, resulting in less
steam output.

6.4.7.3 Excess air for coal firing should be between 20-25% for
greatest efficiency at full load.

The amounts Of O2, CO, and CO2 in flue gas indicates the
presence of excess air and the "completeness" of the
combustion process.

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The correct amount of excess air for a specific boiler is

determined by operating experience and the quality of coal
being fired.

6.4.8 The three T’s of combustion

These are necessary for good combustion (Figure 70)

6.4.8.1 Time
• Time to complete combustion.
(The major factor is effective mixing)

6.4.8.2 Temperature
• The temperature of the furnace atmosphere must be kept
above ignition temperature.
• Pre-heating the incoming combustion air or secondary air
increases the temperature of the furnace atmosphere.
• Ignition temperatures & combustion temperatures vary
with fuel type and preparation.

6.4.8.3 Turbulence
• Turbulence provides more effective mixing fuel and air.
• Causes even heat distribution for stable flame or fireball.
• The entire furnace volume is utilised.

FIGURE 70 – THE THREE T's FOR GOOD COMBUSTION

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6.5 Properties of Fuels

To be classified as a fuel, a material must contain elements which will combine
rapidly with oxygen to produce combustion.

Two of the most common elements found in fuels are carbon and hydrogen.

The most common solid fuel for use in steam generation is coal.

The constituents of coal are (Keyword = NOCASH):

• Nitrogen
• Oxygen
• Carbon
• Ash.
• Sulphur
• Hydrogen

Coal is formed through geological changes of vegetable matter. The greater the
geological changes the greater amounts of carbon will be found in the coal.

6.5.1 Classification of coal

Coal is classified in various grades.

6.5.1.1 Peat
In geologic terms, coal is a sedimentary rock containing a
mixture of constituents, mostly of vegetal origin. Vegetal matter
is composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sulphur, and some inorganic mineral elements. When this
material decays under water, in the absence of oxygen, the
carbon content increases. The initial product of this
decomposition process is known as peat. Peat can be formed in
bogs, marshes, or freshwater swamps, and in fact huge
freshwater swamps of the geologic past provided favourable

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conditions for the formation of thick peat deposits that over time
became coal deposits.

6.5.1.2 Lignite
The transformation of peat to lignite is the result of pressure
exerted by sedimentary materials that accumulate over the peat
deposits. Even greater pressures and heat from movements of
the Earth's crust (as occurs during mountain building), and
occasionally from igneous intrusion, cause the transformation of
lignite to bituminous and anthracite coal.

6.5.1.3 Bituminous
Bituminous coals are best suited for use in power plants due to
low cost and being very plentiful.

6.5.1.4 Anthracite
The hardest coal is anthracite and is very slow to ignite, but
burns very bright at a high temperature. It is rarely used in
power plants due to extremely high costs.

All fossil fuel fired boilers are designed to burn a specific type of fuel.
Furnace size increases dramatically as heating values of fuels decrease.
Heating surfaces are sized, positioned, and spaced according to the fuel
and ash characteristics.

6.5.2 Fuel Characteristics

Various tests and methods of analysis express coal qualities in figures
instead of words. The following is a brief description of what these terms
mean.

6.5.2.1 Moisture Content

All coal contains moisture. See Figure 71. Moisture manifests in
two forms in coal.

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FIGURE 71 – MOISTURE IN COAL

• Surface moisture is the moisture that must be evaporated

during pulverisation to maintain high grinding efficiencies.

• Inherent moisture is locked in the coal and part of its

molecular structure, it is released (vaporised) in the
furnace.

• Therefore pulveriser mill outlet temperature must be

maintained at a sufficient temperature to ensure proper
drying of the pulverised coal.

6.5.2.2 Volatile Matter

This is the portion of coal which consists of combustible gases,
such as methane, hydrogen and other hydrocarbons. Since the
quantity of volatile matter indicates the amount of gaseous fuel
present, it affects firing mechanics, furnace volume and
arrangement of heating surfaces.

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The speed with which the fuel and air mixture ignites after
leaving the fuel nozzle is affected by the quantity of volatiles
present. Heat released by burning volatiles accelerates the
heating of fixed carbon to the ignition point.

6.5.2.3 Fixed Carbon

The combustible residue left after the volatile matter distils off.
It is the carbon portion of coal that requires the most time to
burn in the furnace.

6.5.2.4 Sulphur
When coal is burnt sulphur oxides are released into the
combustion gas stream.

In addition to its air polluting properties, sulphur plays a part in

corrosion of air heaters, economisers, ID fans and stacks.
When sulphur oxides combine with water vapour, sulphuric acid
is formed.

It is therefore important to keep the flue gas temperature above

the dew point to prevent water vapour from condensing out and
combining with sulphur to form acids which are corrosive to
metals.

6.5.2.5 Ash
Ash is the incombustible mineral matter left behind when coal
burns completely. It must be removed from the heat absorbing
surfaces and the furnace area.

Usually 80% of ash formed during the combustion process of

coal leaves the boiler furnace as fly ash. Approximately 20%
falls down and is called bottom ash.

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If a furnace burns 140, 000 kgs/hr of coal with an ash content of

10%, 14, 000 kgs/hr (14 metric tons per hour) of ash must be
effectively handled.

Effective sootblowing and ash handling is thus a must for proper

plant operation.

6.5.2.6 Higher Heating Value (HHV)

When coal is burnt, energy is released the energy can be
measured in KJ/kg. Heating value affects firing rate or quantity
of fuel being burned in the furnace.

The higher heating value does not take into consideration the
amount of heat which will be used to evaporate the water
vapour formed when the hydrogen in the fuel burns. Actual heat
available to the furnace will therefore be slightly less.

6.5.2.7 Grindability
This represents the ease of pulverisation of a particular type of
coal.

The Hardgrove Grindability is an index or scale from 20-100

where 20 would be for very difficult coals and 100 would
assigned to a coal that is very easy to pulverise. Mill capacity
increases as grindability increases.

Moisture content and desired fineness affect mill capacity and

performance.

6.5.3 The Combustion of Coal

A fraction of a second after a pulverised particle of coal enters the
furnace and is exposed to heat, its temperature rises and the volatile
matter distils off and ignites.

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A sufficient quantity of air is introduced at the burner and is intimately

mixed with the stream of coal particles, to burn the gases distilled off of
each particle of coal.

Volatiles ignite more easily than the carbon component of the coal, and
heat the latter to incandescence.

Secondary air, introduced around the burner, sweeps around and scrubs
the hot carbon particles and gradually burns them into combustion
products.

The chemical energy of each coal particle is transformed to thermal

energy by the various heat absorbing surfaces of the boiler.

6.6 The Chemistry of Combustion

The chemistry of combustion in a boiler furnace can be a deep and intricate
subject far beyond the scope of this course but a knowledge of the basic
principles involved and the chemical changes resulting from the combination of
oxygen with the principal combustibles in the fuel, which are carbon, hydrogen
and sulphur, must be understood in order to study combustion itself.

All substances are made up of what are known as chemical elements. An

element is something which, however much it is divided into smaller pieces, can
be recognised as the same until the stage of one atom of the substance is
reached. Examples of elements are carbon, iron, oxygen, mercury, sulphur, gold
and copper.

If several of these elements, carbon, sulphur and oxygen, were put together in a
suitable container and shaken vigorously, the result would be a rather cloudy
substance in the container but the yellow specks of sulphur and the black pieces
of carbon could still be seen as separate particles. If left to settle, the oxygen
could be tapped off and the carbon particles separated from the sulphur. All three
original elements would be quite unchanged. The experiment has made what the
chemist calls a NN mixture", something containing two or more elements which

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do not change as a result of being mixed together and which can usually be
separated again, still quite unchanged, by fairly simple methods.

Now suppose that immediately after making the mixture of carbon, sulphur and
oxygen, a match was put to it; a flame would be produced, heat would be given
off and a chemical reaction would take place. On examining the results of this
second experiment, it would be found that the original chemicals had formed into
new substances during the reaction. These would be chemical compounds,
which are substances containing two or more elements chemically united and
usually quite different in appearance from the elements from which they were
made. Examples of compounds are water, table salt and carbon dioxide.

The smallest quantity of an element or a compound which can exist separately is

used as the chemical unit of matter and is called a molecule. Molecules in turn
are composed of atoms. Atoms are grouped together to form molecules; atoms
may be defined as the smallest unit of an element which can enter into or be
removed from a compound.

Molecules of gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen each consist of two
atoms.

The chemical reaction described previously is really a rearrangement of the

atoms of the elements carbon, sulphur and oxygen to form a different
combination of molecules.

It is quite possible to have a mixture of two or more compounds, which can easily
be split up again into the original compounds, or to have a mixture of elements
and compounds.

6.6.1 Summary
When certain substances chemically combine with oxygen they generate
heat and this reaction is known as combustion.

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The combustible constituents of fuels are carbon and hydrogen and, to a

lesser extent, sulphur. The oxygen needed to support combustion is taken
from the atmosphere, of course.

Dry air consists of 20, 9% oxygen and 79, 9% nitrogen by volume, the other
constituents being present in insignificant amounts.

On a weight basis the oxygen content of dry air is 23, 2% and the nitrogen
content 76, 8%. In addition, humid air for combustion could easily contain
up to 1% by weight of water vapour.

6.7 THE 3 T's OF COMBUSTION

When we reviewed the types and needs of combustion we briefly looked at the
time, temperature and turbulence considerations in combustion.

We will now discuss these components in detail along with air requirements.

To assist in obtaining the best possible conditions for combustion the air and fuel
must be brought into close contact in the correct proportions. There are three
conditions necessary for efficient combustion:

• Time
Sufficient time for the chemical reaction to take place.

• Turbulence
Sufficient turbulence or mixing in the combustion chamber to ensure the
intimate mixing of the coal and air.

• Temperature
Sufficient temperature to enable ignition of the fuel to begin and to be
sustained.

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6.7.1 Time
The chemical reactions that occur in the combustion process each
require a certain time for completion which may be due to the nature of
the reaction, or to the difficulties in bringing the elements together. There
must be sufficient time for the fuel to reach ignition temperature and for
the reaction to be completed. This is mainly a matter of boiler design; the
furnace must be large enough to allow the coal to burn completely but
not so large that temperatures are lowered.

6.7.2 Temperature
It is not enough to let the carbon arid oxygen mix together and expect
them to burn. It is also necessary to raise their temperatures above a
certain value known as the ignition temperature.

The ignition temperature is that temperature at which combustion gives

off heat more quickly than the surroundings can absorb it, making the
combustion process self-sustaining. Every combustible substance has
an ignition temperature above which it must be raised before it will burn,
as shown in the example below.

MOLECULES IGNITION
SUBSTANCE
SYMBOL TEMP °C
Sulphur S 243
Fixed carbon: C
Bituminous coal - 408
Semi bituminous - 466
Anthracite - 496
Acetylene C2H2 482
Ethane C2H6 538
Hydrogen H2 610
Methane CH4 650
Carbon monoxide CO 654

In the PF boiler, the coal has to be raised to approximately 400°C before

it will burn. Since it only has a short time in the furnace, the temperature
of the pulverised coal must be raised quickly and oxygen must have

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"access" to all parts of the coal. This explains why the fineness of the
coal plays an important part in combustion. By grinding the coal to small
particles the surface area of the coal is increased to enable it to be
heated to ignition temperature quickly. It also enables the oxygen
present to surround a greater surface area of the coal particles to
complete the combustion reaction.

Coal which has a high percentage of volatile matter will burn more
readily than that with a low percentage, even though the volatile matter
which is essentially hydrocarbons has a higher ignition temperature.

This is because the gaseous constituents of the coal are distilled off (but
not ignited) before the ignition temperature of the carbon is reached.
Thus, the gas is composed of minute particles which are ignited easily
and burnt more easily once their respective ignition temperatures have
been reached. This makes the burning of a high volatile coal easier.

The ignition temperature of the fixed carbon content is regarded as the

ignition temperature of the coal.

Secondary air must be used to ensure that any carbon monoxide is

burnt to carbon dioxide. However, one of the side effects of introducing
secondary air, even when it is preheated, is that the furnace temperature
is lowered. This is particularly so around the point at which the
secondary air enters the boiler. Consequently, secondary air should be
introduced as soon as possible after the primary air and fuel has entered
the boiler.

Furnace surfaces which have been cooled by cold air will chill the flames
and may "slow down" combustion. Admitting cold air to the combustion
chamber through leaks or inspection doors for long periods of time
should therefore be avoided.

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6.7.3 Turbulence
If the stream of coal and air in the furnace flow alongside each other
they will only mix together very slowly, thus making the combustion
process “slow". Combustion efficiency is greatly improved if air is added
to the fuel in a way that ensures the smallest possible volume of oxygen
and combustibles is thoroughly mixed as quickly as possible.

This is done by directing the preheated secondary air at an angle and

from a position that will ensure the maximum amount of turbulence in the
combustion chamber. In the PF burner the secondary air is directed onto
plates to impart a swirling motion to the air to ensure thorough mixing of
the air and fuel.

6.8 Excess Air

In practice, if fuel is burned with only the theoretical amount of air necessary, the
combustion will be very poor due to incomplete mixing of the air with the fuel.
Consequently it is necessary to supply more air than the theoretical minimum:
this is known as excess air.

6.8.1 Minimum air - Effects on Combustion

The effect of supplying only the theoretical amount of air for combustion
is shown in Figure72. Some coal remains unburnt and some air passes
through the fire without entering into chemical combination with the
constituents of the fuel. This free oxygen flows to the chimney along with
some unburnt gases, such as carbon monoxide. This represents a great
loss of potential heat as the partly burnt gases are capable of further
combustion.

In the case being considered 10% of potential heat may be lost as

unburnt carbon-in-ash, and possibly a further 15% may be lost in the
chimney as unburnt gas. Thus only 75% of the potential heat is liberated
in the furnace.

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FIGURE 72 – INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION – MINIMUM AIR

6.8.2 Excess air (15%) - Effects on Combustion

Admitting more air into the furnace will reduce these losses considerably
since the carbon and hydrogen atoms have a much greater chance in
combining with the necessary oxygen atoms. The additional oxygen
enables more of the carbon to be burnt and so reduces the loss from
carbon in ash. Also, there is no appreciable carbon monoxide in the flue
gases and so the loss due to unburnt gas is almost eliminated (Fig. 73).

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FIGURE 73 – INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION – 15% EXCESS AIR

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6.8.3 Excess air (100%) - Effects on combustion

If even more excess air is admitted (as in Figure 74) the combustion
losses can be reduced further. There is now so much oxygen available
that every atom of combustible material can easily find sufficient oxygen
atoms with which to chemically combine. Consequently, fuel combustion
is virtually complete, with no unburnt gas and a negligible loss from
carbon-in-ash.

FIGURE 74 – ALMOST COMPLETE COMBUSTION

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The combustion losses are now so low that approximately 99, 5% of the
heat in the fuel is liberated. On the other hand, the quantity of gas has
increased considerably owing to the large amount of excess air.
Consequently, there may be a slightly reduced percentage of CO2 in the
flue gases and an increased percentage of O2.

6.8.4 Excess Air - Optimising Combustion

Two things must happen in a boiler furnace. Firstly, the fuel must give up
as much of its potential heat as possible, as discussed above. Secondly,
the maximum possible amount of heat released in the furnace should be
transferred efficiently to the heating surfaces. The hot gases exiting the
chimney represents a heat loss from the boiler, therefore this loss must
be kept to a minimum.

The optimum amount of excess air varies, depending on the fuel, the
fuel-burning equipment and the temperature in the furnace. Thoroughly
mixed fuel and air plus a long residence time in the furnace for complete
burn-out are the sort of conditions that permit excess air to be cut to
10% for gas and even less for fuel oil.

Mixing the air more thoroughly with pulverised fuel permits the level of
excess air to be reduced below that required for a stoker-fired boiler.

When excess air is added in the boiler, the percentage CO2 level in the
flue gases is diluted and hence the CO2 level can be used to indicate the
amount of excess air.

However, this result can be affected by the ingress of tramp air and by
the sample being unrepresentative, due to gas-pass stratification. The
same applies to O2 measurements which should vary directly with the
excess air. In both cases the readings will give a trend.

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Since complete combustion is never achieved with acceptable levels of

excess air, there will always be traces of CO (say 200 ppm in a balanced
boiler). CO readings taken after the ID fans (where the gases are mixed)
give an accurate indication of the boiler firing conditions and hence the
boiler can be finely adjusted.

6.8.5 Excess Air - Effects on CO2 and O2 mixture

Use of excess air lowers the CO2 in the flue gases by diluting the
gaseous products of combustion and, therefore, the reading given by a
CO2 instrument is a measure of the quantity of excess air being used.

The percentage of carbon dioxide in the flue gases, given the theoretical
quantity of air, may be calculated from the fuel analysis.

The quantity of excess air being supplied may be estimated using the
following formula:
Maximum theoretica l CO2  Actual CO2
% Excess air   100
Actual CO2

Where the maximum theoretical CO2 is obtained from a fuel and the gas
analysis.

On many boilers the CO2 meter has been replaced by an instrument

measuring the oxygen in the flue gas. This instrument gives a better
guide to the efficiency of combustion. The relationship between CO2 and
O2 can be calculated for any fuel the chemical analysis is of which is
known. Figure75 gives a graph for this relationship when burning a coal
that has a theoretical CO2 level of 18, 1%.

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FIGURE75 – RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CO2 AND O2 FOR COMBUSTION OF COAL

6.9 Flame Development

When a mixture of fuel gas and oxygen is burnt it produces a flame. The flame
itself is a zone, or space, in which chemical reactions are taking place. These
reactions produce heat and, when combustion is complete, carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water vapour. In any flame there are intermediate stages of combustion
during which other chemicals are produced. Provided that the flame can burn
freely, continuously and with an adequate supply of oxygen combustion will
continue until it is complete. As the PF and air mix in the flame (diffusion), they
are heated. This heating causes the original constituents of the fuel to "break
down" (dissociation) and other compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are
formed.

These may be alcohol or aldehydes, and there may be some free carbon and
carbon monoxide present. By the time the flame has taken its full requirement of
oxygen all the intermediate substances will have been oxidised to form the final
products, CO2 and H2O

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Although there are many different shapes and sizes of flames, each suitable for a
particular purpose, flames fall into two main types. These types are:

• Pre-aerated (Figure 76).

• Post-aerated.

The post-aerated flame obtains all its air after it has left the burner and the pre-
aerated obtains some (or all) of its air before it leaves the burner. The pre-
aerated flame is therefore, of greater importance to the power station boiler
designer, engineer and operator.

6.9.1 Pre-aerated Flames

The air which is normally supplied before combustion is called "primary
air". The air needed to complete combustion is obtained from around the
flame itself and is called "secondary air". In practice, slightly more air
than theoretically required for combustion is allowed to pass over the
burner to allow for any variations in the fuel rate which may occur, and to
provide a factor of safety. This additional air is known as "excess air".

A pre-aerated flame gets much smaller and hotter as more primary air is
added, although the total heat output does not change. When all the air
required that is added is primary air a very small, intensively hot flame is
produced.

The characteristic feature of the pre-aerated flame (Figure 76) is its

"inner cone". A simple flame appears to have two parts, and inner and
an outer cone.

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FIGURE 76 – PRE-AERATED FLAME

The mixture is forced out of a central tube (core) by its pressure, and is
lit at the top end of the tube. The boundary between the air/fuel mixture
emerging from the tube and the actual flame itself is called the "flame
front". It is the flame front which takes on the cone shape and is the
boundary of the inner cone. The cone occurs because the mixture
flowing up the control tube (core) is slowed down at the sides where it is
in contact with the walls of the tube.

It is therefore faster towards the centre, where is reaches maximum

speed. This means that it tends to push the flame front away from the
burner at the centre much more so than at the sides. It follows,
therefore, that the inner cone contains unburnt fuel. If the amount of
primary air is small, the mixture burns at a high speed at its centre and a
long inner cone is formed. As more primary air is added, the cone
becomes shorter and brighter until a flat, ragged and noisy flame front is
formed.

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A pre-aerated flame has four zones:

a) Inside the inner cone is an unburnt air and fuel mixture.

b) Between the mixture and the flame is the flame front where the
speed of the gases passing through the surface of the cone is
equal to the flame speed of the mixture.

c) The reaction zone, where the fuel gases are dissociated by the
heat and partially burnt.

d) The outer mantle, where combustion of the fuel gas is completed

by air diffusing into the flame (Refer to Figure 77).

FIGURE 77 – ZONE DIVISION IN A PRE-AERATED FLAME

A to B is the mouth of the burner. Just inside the opening the

temperature of the mixture begins to rise, partly because the burner gets
hot at the tip and partly from radiant heat from the flame.

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B to C is the zone of the flame up to the inner cone which forms the
flame front. Here the temperature of the mixture rises more rapidly.
Because air is drawn into the sides, the average mixture strength fails
although there is still unburnt fuel gas inside the cone.

C to D is the reaction zone where the temperature continues to rise and

the mixture strength continues to fall as more air is drawn in.

D represents the outer mantle of the flame where combustion is

completed. It is the hottest part of the flame. Beyond this the
temperature begins to fall as the heat is given up to the surrounding air.

6.10 Secondary Distribution

Normally all boilers utilise multiple burners with common or split secondary air
supply ducts supplying the individual burners.

To ensure efficient operation, each burner must have a consistent and

controlled combustion air supply. Whilst this is obvious for a single burner, it is
equally true for a number of burners firing into a common combustion chamber
since little intermixing occurs between the flames in the furnace. Therefore, if
the air flow to an individual burner is deficient, then the associated flame will
be sub-stoichiometric.

It is difficult to achieve satisfactory air distribution where multiple burners are

supplied from a common air supply. Windbox control dampers are normally
used to perform this duty.

These dampers balance the air flows to the burners after the dampers whilst
the secondary air dampers control the air flow to the individual burners. But
perfect balancing is extremely difficult to achieve and the more burners the
less the likelihood of balancing.

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6.11 Combustion Air

The above-mentioned formulas refer to the minimum amount of oxygen required
to burn all the constituents of the coal completely.

When the conditions are such that there is just sufficient oxygen to burn all the
combustible material with no parts of either left over we have a condition known
as STOICHIOMETRIC combustion.

We will now continue by exploring the air which is required for combustion and
how efficiency is influenced by either too little or too much combustion air.

To define combustion It is a state of chemical activity in which the reactive

elements of a fuel burn or unite with oxygen, accompanied by the evolution of
heat.

The aim in steam generation is to achieve complete combustion which means, in

effect, oxidation to the highest possible degree. To accomplish this a sufficient
mass of combustion air must be maintained during phases of boiler operation.

Combustion or total air can be divided into two distinct categories namely:

 Theoretical Air and

 Total Air

6.11.1 Theoretical Air

This is the theoretically calculated amount of air required to burn a
given amount of fuel. This calculation can be done roughly by listing
the chemical composition of the fuel.

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Typical example of an ultimate analysis of "Spec Coal":

kg/kg coal

Moisture 0, 085 8, 49
Ash 0, 2274 22, 74
Chlorine 0, 0100 1, 00
Nitrogen 0, 0134 1, 34
Carbon 0, 474 47, 38
Hydrogen 0, 0434 4, 34
Sulphur 0, 0370 3, 7
Oxygen 0, 0510 5, 10

The following table illustrates the molecular weight for each

substance in the coal. This is necessary to be able to do equations for
assisting us to calculate the theoretical air.

Substance Chemical Molecular

Symbol Weight
Carbon C 12
Oxygen O2 32
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44
Sulphur S 32
Sulphur Dioxide SO2 64
Hydrogen H2 2
Water Vapour H2O 36

6.4.1.1 Carbon

C (12 parts) + O2 (32 parts) = CO2 (44 parts)

So, 12 parts C requires 32 parts O2 to produce 44 parts of CO2
32 44
Thus, 1 part C requires parts O2 to produce parts of CO2
12 12
32
Thus, = 2,666 parts O2.
12

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6.11.1.2 Sulphur

S (32 parts) + O2 (32 parts) = SO2 (64 parts)

So, 32 parts S requires 32 parts O2 to produce 64 parts of SO2

Thus, 1 part S requires 1 part O2 to produce 2 parts of SO2

32
Thus, = 1 part O2
32

6.11.1.3 Hydrogen

2H2 (4 parts) + O2 (32 parts) = 2H2O (36 parts)

So, 4 parts H2 require 32 parts O2 to produce 36 parts of H2O

32
Thus, 1 part H2 requires parts O2 to produce 36 parts H2O
4
32
Thus, = 8 parts O2.
4

For the equations above, the amounts of oxygen quoted assumes

perfect chemical mixing and may be regarded as the absolute
minimum quantity of oxygen required.

To calculate the mass theoretical air, proceed as follows:

Wa = [(C x 2, 66) + (8H) + (S) - (O2)]

= [(0,474 x 2, 66) + (8 x 0, 0434) + (0, 0370 – (0, 051)]

= (1, 26 + 0, 3472 + 0, 0370 - 0, 051)

Total O2 required = 1, 59 kg/Kg Coal.

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Thus the mass air required to provide 1, 59 kg O2 /Kg coal is:

1, 59
(Because we know that air contains 21% O2)
0, 210

= 7, 57 kg Air/kg coal

6.11.1.4 Excess Air

In practice, fuel and air do not combine perfectly (As discussed

earlier). An extra mass of combustion air will thus have to be
supplied to promote complete combustion. This "'extra" air is
determined by a combination of experience and tests
conducted by the Performance Department and are commonly
referred to as "Excess air".

7. BOILER PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The term “Plant protection” comprises of various tripping and interlocking systems. As
a measure to protect plant, equipment and human lives, protection systems are
required to be implemented on all boilers. The requirements for protection systems are
governed by National Legislation and must be kept in good working order at all times
during boiler operation.

A critical component with regards to the maintenance of protection equipment is the

regular testing thereof. The frequency and methods whereby testing of protections are
done is usually prescribed in local procedures.

Protection systems are designed to suit the operational philosophy of any specific
boiler. The following protection systems are commonly found on boilers in South
Africa:

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7.1 Structural protections

Structural protections are usually catered for during the design phase of a boiler.
They are such that no operator actions other than reporting of abnormalities are
required.

7.1.1 Creep monitoring

The boiler construction is usually such that the structure is suspended
from the beams spanning the top of the boiler house. This means
that the boiler materials are not only subjected to its own weight but
also that of the water contained inside it.

Heating of the boiler causes it to expand from the top downward.

When it cools down, the contraction “pulls” the boiler structure back to
its original position. However, due to the so-called “creep” effect, the
original position is never reached. Special devices are therefore fitted
to the boiler structure to monitor this phenomenon.

7.1.2 Expansion joints

Due to different parts of the boiler being subject to different
temperatures, some components expand and contract more/faster
than others.

Special constructed joints to cater for this difference in

heating/cooling rate of the various components are installed where
they are joined together.

7.1.3 Implosion dampers

Implosion dampers are fitted to areas on the plant where components
are subjected to extreme negative pressures (pressure below
atmospheric pressure).

These devices have the same function as a safety valve, the only
difference being that it protects the plant from under pressure rather
than over pressure. Implosion dampers are typically fitted to the

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Fabric filter plants which forms part of the boiler flue gas system and
operated under various degrees of suction pressure.

7.1.4 Boiler seal

As mentioned in paragraph 7.1.1, the boiler expands from top to
bottom. The boiler ash hopper is constructed separately from the
main boiler structure and is fixed to the basement floor. The gap
between the ash hopper sides and the boiler bottom varies as the
degree of expansion of the boiler varies.

For combustion stability and boiler efficiency, it is important to avoid

any additional air from entering the area of the boiler where the
combustion is controlled. The area between the boiler and ash
hopper is therefore fitted with a water seal which are constructed in
such a manner than it prevents air from leaking into the boiler during
all operating conditions.

7.2 Steam flow and steam temperature protections

7.2.2 Live steam temperature protection

All materials of which a boiler is constructed are subject to high
temperatures. The steam and feedwater pipe work is no exception
and is therefore required to be protected from damage due to
overheating. Should undue overheating of steam pipework occur, the
design life of the boiler is influenced negatively in the sense that the
pipework will fail before the expected lifetime has expired.

The materials of main steam pipework of a boiler are normally

restricted to a maximum temperature of 548°C. Should the
temperature rise beyond this value, positive steps must be taken by
the operator the return the temperatures to normal operating value.
Live steam temperature trips usually operate at a value of 554°C. On
boilers where live steam temperature trips are not implemented, the

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boiler must be tripped manually by the operator when the temperature

reaches 558°C.

7.2.2 Live steam flow protection

Live steam flow protection usually forms part of the turbine protection
scheme and will not be discussed in this manual.

7.3 Flame failure protection

It is important to remember that the boiler furnace operates at a normal working
temperature of between 1100°C and 1350°C. Should the boiler ignition be lost
momentarily and unburnt fuel continues to enter into the furnace, an
uncontrollable re-ignition of the fuel is unavoidable. This re-ignition is considered
to be an explosion and could result in serious damage to the boiler structure and
possibly fatal injuries to personnel.

Flame failure protections are therefore implemented to stop all fuel supplies to
the boiler furnace immediately when the flame temperatures fall lower than
800°C. This temperature represents a value which, for all practical purposes,
can be accepted that the boiler has lost its fires. The boiler master fuel trip will
then be initiated, which will cut off all fuel supplies to the furnace thereby
preventing re-ignition from taking place.

7.4 Furnace pressure protection

The boiler furnace pressure is always controlled at a pressure slightly lower than
atmospheric pressure (± -150 to -200Pa). This practice ensures that the flames
resulting from the combustion process remains inside the boiler.

Should this pressure suddenly fall to a pressure much lower than the pressure at
which it is controlled, it is a clear indication that ignition has been lost in the
furnace.

On the other hand, if the pressure suddenly increase to a value above

atmospheric pressure, it is possible that an explosion is being occurring inside
the furnace.

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Both scenarios mentioned above suggest that some damage are occurring or are
likely to be caused to the boiler and associated components and suggests that all
fires must be removed from the boiler.

Thus, should the furnace pressure falls to typically -350Pa or rise to +200Pa for
any reason, the boiler master trip will operated to cut off all fuel supplied to the
furnace.

7.5 Drum level protection

The boiler water/steam drum level must be controlled within certain boundaries
for the following reasons:

7.5.1 High drum level

Should the drum level be allowed to rise too high, the possibility of
wet steam (steam at saturation temperature) progressing through the
system, could result in severe thermal shock to superheater
components with consequent damage (tube leaks etc).

The worst case scenario is wet steam being admitted into the turbine
rotating at 3000RPM. The consequence of this is an extended
outage for major repairs or even worse, the machine could be
destroyed completely.

High drum level trip devices are therefore incorporated into the boiler
protection system to trip the boiler, should the controls and/or the
operator loose control of the feedwater supply to the boiler.

7.5.2 Low drum level

In the vent of the boiler drum water level falling too low, the risk of
operating the boiler evaporator without water is very high. The result
being that the high temperature inside the furnace (±1300°C) could
cause the boiler tubes to overheat extensively and sustain structural
damage.

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In severe cases where loss of drum level is experienced, the tubes

can physically melt down. The result is a boiler outage for tube leak
repairs.

Low drum level trip devices are therefore incorporated into the boiler
protection system to trip the boiler, should the controls and/or the
operator loose control of the feedwater supply to the boiler.

7.6 Economiser Feed water inlet flow low protection

This protection is found on Once Through boilers which require a minimum flow
of water to be sustained through the evaporator section at all times. Should this
flow falls below a certain value (generally in the region of 230kg/sec and remains
low for a maximum period of ±20 seconds), the boiler master trip will operate to
remove fires from the boiler to prevent damage from occurring.

7.7 Tube leak detection

Often, steam leaks can be present for an extended period of time without being
noticed by the operator. The danger of this situation is that the leak in one tube
can “cut” adjacent tubes, thus aggravating the condition.

The traditional method to detect tube leaks by observing differences between the
feedwater and steam flows does not provide indication of the location of the tube
leak.

Tube leak detection devices that consist of a number of microphones are

therefore installed at various locations inside the boiler. The “hissing” sound of
steam leaking into the boiler is detected by the microphone nearest to the leak
and indicated on a mimic inside the control room. Further investigations can then
be launched to prove existence of a leak before the boiler is removed from
service for tube leak repairs.

Tube leak detectors does not trip the boiler and merely serves as a detection
device to assist plant personnel to become aware of tube leaks developing much
earlier.

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7.8 Safety valves

Boiler steam circuits are protected from being over-pressurised by means of
safety valves at strategic positions. These are:

7.8.1 Superheater safety valves

Superheater safety valves are always located at the final steam outlet
header of the boiler. This is to ensure that, when they operate, a
positive steam flow through the superheater sections is always
maintained.

The pressure at which superheater safety valves must operate is

prescribed by the manufacturer of the boiler. Legislation requires that
safety valves be floated (tested and adjusted) to open and close at
the correct pressures at regular intervals.

7.8.2 Drum safety valves

The setting of drum safety valves is such that it would open only as a
last resort to prevent over pressurising of the boiler. The reason for
this being that opening of drum safety valves effectively ceases the
flow of steam through the evaporator section and could lead to
overheating and consequent damage.

The pressure at which drum safety valves must operate is prescribed

by the manufacturer of the boiler. Legislation requires that safety
valves be floated (tested and adjusted) to open and close at the
correct pressures at regular intervals.

7.8.3 Reheater safety valves

Boilers that have reheat systems installed are equipped with safety
valves on the reheat outlet pipework to the turbine. Again, this
ensures that a positive steam flow through the reheater section is
maintained at all times.

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8. SAFETY HAZARD IDENTIFICATION

When working on steam generating plant, potential hazards are lurking whenever any
activities are performed during a normal working shift. The most common hazards are
as follows:

8.1 Gaspass inspection

It is requires that gas pass inspection be conducted at regular intervals to detect
slag build up inside the boiler. When this is done, the following rules must always
be adhered to:

 Never open manhole doors to do the inspection; only use the inspection
windows provided.
 Always stand away from the inspection window at least one metre to avoid
injuries in cases of “blow-back” occurring.
 Never stand directly in front of the inspection window; always view at an
angle.
 Approved face shields must be worn when doing gaspass inspection.
 Always wear appropriate eye protection to protect eyes against the extreme
brightness of the flames inside the furnace.

8.2 Steam leaks

It is often required to report steam leaks on the plant. Considering the fact that
superheated steam is invisible and can only be heard, special measures are
required to pinpoint the exact location of the leak.

Never use bare parts of the body to try and locate a steam leak. Rather use a
feather duster as a detection device.

8.3 Primary fuel leaks

Primary fuel leaks are dangerous in the sense that they are a serious fire hazard.
Plant areas that are leaking fuel must be removed from service immediately. It is
also important to refrain from smoking and use of open flames in the vicinity of
fuel leaks.

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8.4 Gas leaks

Where gas leaks are expected to be present, entry must only be permitted to
persons wearing appropriate Breathing apparatus to locate the leak.

Smoking and open flames must be refrained from in such areas.

Areas where leaks are identified must be barricaded off, the leak isolated from
the main source of supply, ventilated and gas tested before it can be declared
safe for normal entry.

8.5 Fuel oil leaks

Components that have fuel oil leaks must be isolated immediately.

Large fuel oil spillages must be contained and the Environmental Coordinator
notified immediately. Clearing of such spills must be coordinated and dealt with
according to station procedures by persons suitably qualified.

8.6 Ashing and sootblowing operations

Ashing and sootblowing operations must never be performed simultaneously.
The arrangement to have ashing and sootblowing done safely must always be
coordinated by the Unit Operator.

When ashing operations are being carried out, the following protective clothing
shall be worn:
 Apron
 Safety shoes
 Long leather gloves
 Face shield
 Putties

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9. SELF ASSESSMENT
After having studied all the material, you can now request the Self Assessment from
your Facilitator. Make sure that you have mastered all the information contained in this
manual and attempt not to look for the correct answers in the text.

If you do not master the Self Assessment at the first attempt, re-study the material,
make notes of the topics that are not absolutely clear to you and approach your
Facilitator to explain these issues again.

When you feel confident that you have mastered this manual, you can then request to
write the Criterion Test.

GOOD LUCK!

© ESKOM 2004