Collisions

You might have seen two billiard balls colliding with each other in the
course of the game. This forceful coming together of two separate
bodies is called collision. What happens after collisions? Can we
determine the velocity or the trajectory of the colliding bodies? Let us
find out!

What is a Collision?

Collision means two objects coming into contact with each other for a
very short period. In other words, collision is a reciprocative
interaction between two masses for a very short interval wherein the
momentum and energy of the colliding masses changes. While playing
carroms, you might have noticed the effect of a striker on coins when
they both collide.
Collision involves two masses ​m​1 ​and ​m2​ ​. The ​v​1i​ ​ is the speed of
particle ​m1​ ,​ where the subscript ​‘i’​ implies initial. The particle with
mass ​m2​ ​ is at rest. In this case, the object with mass ​m​1​ collides with
the stationary object of mass ​m​2.​

As a result of this collision the masses m1 and m2 move in different

directions.

Browse more Topics under Work Energy And Power

 ● Concepts of Potential Energy
● Conservation of Mechanical Energy
● Potential Energy of a Spring
● Power
● The Scalar Product
● Work and Kinetic Energy
● Work-Energy Theorem
● Various Forms of Energy: The Law of Conservation of Energy

Types Of Collision

Generally, the law of conservation of momentum holds true in the

collision of two masses but there may be some collisions in which
Kinetic Energy is not conserved. Depending on the energy
conservation, conservation may be of two types:

● Elastic Collision: In the elastic collision total momentum, the

total energy and the total kinetic energy are conserved.
However, the total mechanical energy is not converted into any
other energy form as the forces involved in the short interaction
are conserved in nature. Consider from the above graph two
 masses, ​m1​ ​ and ​m​2 ​moving with speed u​1​ and u​2​. T
​ he speed
after the collision of these masses is​ v1​ ​ and v​2 ​. ​The law of
conservation of momentum will give:

​ m​1u​ 1​ +
​ m​2u
​ 2​ ​= m1​ ​v​1 ​+ m​2​v2​

The conservation of Kinetic Energy says:

1/2 m​1​u​21 ​+ 1/2 m​2​u​22 ​= 1/2 m1​ ​v2​ 1 ​+1/2 m2​ ​v​22

● Inelastic Collision: In the inelastic collision, the objects stick to

each other or move in the same direction. The total kinetic
energy in this form of collision is not conserved but the total
momentum and energy are conserved. During this kind of
collision, the energy is transformed into other energy forms like
heat and light. Since during the phenomenon the two masses
follow the law of conservation of momentum and move in the
same direction with same the same speed ​v​ we have:

m​1u​ 1​ +
​ m​2u
​ 2​ ​= (m​1​+ m​2​)v
 v= (m​1​u​1 ​+ m​2u​ 2​ ​)/(m1​ +
​ m2​ ​)

○ The kinetic energy of the masses before the collision is : K.E​1 ​=

1/2 m​1​u​21 ​+ 1/2 m​2​u​22
○ While kinetic energy after the collision is: K.E​2 ​= 1/2 (​m1​ +
​ m​2​)

v​2
○ But according to the law of conservation of energy: ​1/2 m1​ u​ 2​ 1
+ 1/2 m2​ u​ 2​ 2​ = 1/2 (​m​1​+ m​2​) v​2 ​+ Q
○ ‘Q’ here is the change in energy that results in the production
of heat or sound.

The Coefficient of Restitution

The coefficient of restitution is the ratio between the relative velocity

of colliding masses before interaction to the relative velocity of the
masses after the collision. Represented by ‘e’, the coefficient of
restitution depends on the material of the colliding masses. For elastic
collisions, e = 1 while for inelastic collisions,e = 0. The value of e > 0
or e < 1 in all other kinds of forceful interactions.

One Dimensional Collision

One dimensional sudden interaction of masses is that collision in
which both the initial and final velocities of the masses lie in one line.
All the variables of motion are contained in a single dimension.

Elastic One Dimensional Collision

As already discussed in the elastic collisions the internal kinetic

energy is conserved so is the momentum. Elastic collisions can be
achieved only with particles like microscopic particles like electrons,
protons or neutrons.

m​1​u​1​ + ​m2​ ​u2​ ​ = ​m​1​v​1​ + ​m2​ ​v​2

Since the kinetic energy is conserved in the elastic collision we have:

1/2 m1​ ​u​21 ​+ 1/2 m2​ u

​ ​22 = 1
​ /2 m​1v
​ ​21 + ​ ​v2​ 2
​ 1/2 m2

This gives us : ​m​1u​ ​21 +​ m​2u ​ 2 = ​ m1​ ​v​21 ​+ m​2v

​ 2 ​ ​22​ ​(Factoring out 1/2)
Rearranging we get: ​m​1u​ ​21–​ m​1v​ 2​ 1 = ​ ​ ​ m2​ ​v2​ 2​ – m2​ u​ ​22

Therefore, ​m1​ ​(u​21​– v​21)​ =​ ​ ​ ​ m2​ (​ v2​ 2​ – u2​ 2​)

Which if elaborated become ​m​1(​ u1​ ​+v1​ ​ ) (u​1–​ v1​ ​ )=​ ​ ​ ​ m2​ ​(v​2​ + u2​ ​)(v2​ ​ – u​2)​

Using the conservation of momentum equation: ​m1​ ​u​1 +

​ m2​ ​u​2 ​= m1​ ​v1​ +
​

m2​ ​v2​

We regroup it with same masses: ​m1​ ​u​1-​ m​1​v1​ ​= m​2v​ ​2 ​-m2​ u​ 2​

Hence, ​m​1(​ u​1-​ v1​ )​ ​ ​= m​2(​ v2​ -​ u​2)​

Now dividing the two equations:

m​1(​ u1​ ​+v1​ ​) (u​1–

​ v1​ ​) =​ ​ m2
​ (​ v​2​ + u2​ ​)(v2​ ​ – u2​ )​ / m​1(​ u​1-​ v​1 )​ ​ ​= m2​ (​ v2​ ​-u​2​ )

We get: ​u1​ ​+v1​ ​ = v2​ ​ + u2​

Now, ​v1​ ​= v2​ ​ + u​2​– u​1

When we use this value of ​ ​v1​ ​ ​in equation of conservation

momentum we get :
 ​ m​2 )
v2​ ​= [2 m1​ ​u1​ ​+ u​2 (​ m2​ ​-m1​ ​)] / (m​1 + ​

Now using the value of ​v2​ ​ ​in equation ​v1​ =​ v2​ ​ + u2​ –​ u​1

v1​ =
​ [2 m1​ u
​ 1​ +
​ u​2 (​ m​2​-m​1)​ ] / (m​1 ​+ m2
​ )​ + u​2​– u​1

v1​ ​ ​= [​2 m1​ u

​ 1​ +
​ u​2 (​ m​2​-m​1)​ + u​2​ (m​1 +
​ m​2 ​)​ ​– u1​ ​(m1​ ​+ m2
​ ​)]​ ​/ (m1​ +
​ m​2 )​

We finally get:

v1​ =
​ [2m​2 u ​ ​+ u​1 (​ m1​ –
​ 2 ​ m​2​)] / (m1​ + ​ ​)
​ m2

When masses of both the bodies are equal then generally after
collision, these masses exchange their velocities.

v​1 ​= u​2 a​ nd v2​ =

​ u1​

This means that incourse of collision between objects of same masses,

if the second mass is at rest and the firstmass collides with it then after
collision the first mass comes to rest and the second mass moves with
the speed equal to first mass. Therefore in such case, v​1 ​= 0 and v​2​ ​=
u​1​. In case if m​1 ​< m​2 ​then, v​1 ​= -u​1​ and v​2 ​= 0
This means that the lighter body will bombard back with its own
velocity, while the heavier mass will remain static. However, if m​1 ​>
m​2 ​then v​1 ​= u​1​ and v​2​ = 2u​1

Inelastic One Dimensional Collision

In inelastic one dimensional collision, the colliding masses stick

together and move in the same direction at same speeds. The
momentum is conserved and Kinetic energy is changed to different
forms of energies. For inelastic collisions the equation for
conservation of momentum is :

m1​ ​u​1 ​+ m​2​u​2 ​= (m1​ +

​ m2​ ​) v

Since both the objects stick, we take final velocity after the collision
as ​v. ​Now ​v s​ hall be:

= m1​ ​u​1 ​+ m​2​u​2/​ m1​ ​+ m​2

The kinetic energy lost during the phenomenon shall be:

E = 1/2 ​m1​ ​u​22 ​– 1/2 (m​1 +

​ m2​ ​) v​2

Collision in Two Dimensions

The above figure signifies collision in two dimensions, where the
masses move in different directions after colliding. Here the moving
mass m​1​ collides with stationary mass m​2​. The linear momentum is
conserved in the two-dimensional interaction of masses. In this case,
we see the masses moving in x,y planes. The x and y component
equations are:

m​1​u​1 ​= m​1​u​2​cosθ​1 ​+ m​2​v​2​cosθ​2

0 = m​1​u​2​sinθ​1 ​-m​2​v​2​sinθ​2

For spherical objects that have smooth surfaces, the collision takes
place only when the objects touch with each other. This is what
happens in the games of marbles, carom, and billiards.

Solved Examples For You

Q: A sphere of mass m, moving with a speed v, strikes a wall
elastically at an angle of incidence θ. If the speed of the sphere before
and after the collision is the same and the angle of incidence and
velocity normally towards the wall the angle of rebound is equal to the
angle of incidence and velocity normally towards the wall is taken as
negative then, the change in the momentum parallel to the wall is:

A) mv cosθ B) 2mv cosθ C) -2mv cosθ D) zero

Solution: D) The mass of the object remains constant. To see the

change in the momentum, we need to see the forces applied due to the
collision. The only force applied to the sphere of mass ‘m’ is the
normal reaction force due to the wall. This force has no parallel
component along the wall. Therefore, the change in momentum in a
direction parallel to the wall is zero.

The Concept of Potential Energy

In earlier classes, we defined the potential energy of an object as the

energy by virtue of its height. However, here we shall see that this
energy can also be a result of an objects configuration or its relative
position inside a field. The concept of potential energy is basic to
many branches of physics, let’s learn more!

Potential Energy

Potential energy is basically that form of energy that’s stored in an

object due to its position in comparison to a certain zero position. For
example, a rock on the top of a hill has a stored energy in it. This
energy is relative to its peak position that takes its form when thrown
from that height. Similarly, huge ball in the demolition machine has
energy stored in it when held at an elevation.

In a nutshell, every object situated at some height, with a possibility to

come back on the ground has energy stored in it. This energy is called
so because it has the potential to be converted into some other form of
energy. This form of energy can be converted into Kinetic energy,
Mechanical energy heat and light energy etc.

Browse more Topics Under Work Energy And Power

● Collisions
● Concepts of Potential Energy
● Conservation of Mechanical Energy
● Potential Energy of a Spring
● Power
● The Scalar Product
● Work and Kinetic Energy
● Work-Energy Theorem
● Various Forms of Energy: The Law of Conservation of Energy

Some of the other examples of this form of energy around us

● Electricity produced from water turbines in dams is the result
of energy stored in the water of reservoirs.
● The stretched bow is also a good example of potential energy.
This energy helps the arrow to move forward with greater
velocity.
Kinds of Potential Energy

The potential energy is a function of some field. Whenever there is a

field of a force of some kind, any object that interacts with the force
gains energy. This energy comes as a result of the interaction of the
object with the force or the field. We call this the potential energy.

For example, around a mass, we have the gravitational field. Any

mass in that field will experience a force and thus will have an energy
associated with it. This is the gravitational potential energy. Similarly,
we see the following kinds of potential energy.

Elastic Potential Energy

As the name signifies, every object that behaves like an elastic or

spring is a source of elastic potential energy. The best examples are
rubber bands, springs etc. These elastic objects follow the Hooke’s
Law. The stretching and compressing of elastic items lead to storage
of energy in the form of Elastic Potential energy.

Compression of a spring requires force, the more the compression the

greater is the force. This implies that amount of force is directly
relative to the amount of compression or stretch(x). The constant of
proportionality here can be termed as spring constant (k). Therefore, F
= k×x.

Thus the force at equilibrium position is zero because at this position

the spring is neither stretched nor compressed. The following equation
is used when the spring is not in an equilibrium position: F=1/2 k×x.
The energy because of the work that this elastic force does is given by
W = 1/2 (kx​2​); where the letters have their usual meaning.

Gravitational Potential Energy

We know that Earth has a gravitational force that pulls objects towards
the surface. This constant attraction between Earth and the object
leads to Gravitation Potential energy. This form of energy depends on
the mass and height of the object. Gravitational potential energy is
directly related to both mass and height.
The greater the mass the greater will be the gravitational potential
energy. Similar is the case with height, an object at a higher elevation
will have greater gravitational energy stored in it.

An Instance of the Gravitational Potential Energy

Suppose an object of mass M is lying at point A on the surface of the

earth. g here is the acceleration due to gravity on Earth’s surface and
the force of attraction towards the center of the Earth is M*g, which
equals the weight of the object. Now, If we have to move the object to
B, from point A then the force that equals M*g has to be applied in the
upward direction.

The amount of work done by the object at height h shall be

M*g*h.This is also the gravitational potential energy stored in the
object at height h. Therefore, V= M×g×h (g here is constant, 9.8N/kg).
It is essential to know that the gravitational potential energy solely
depends on the displacement of the object from an initial height to the
final height.
Now, if the object moves upwards to height (h) then the gravitational
force (F) acting on the object is negative of P.E. So here when an
object moves away from the surface we get, F = -d/dh (V) = -mg

The negative sign here denotes that as the object is moving upwards,
the gravitational force is pulling it downwards. The kinematic relation
here comes into play and is denoted by the change in speed when the
object falls back to the ground. Here the speed of this falling object
increases. Hence, v​2​ = 2 gh or (1/2) mv​2​ = mgh

Energy as a Negative Constraint

This denotes that the potential energy of the object of mass m at a

height h converts into kinetic energy as soon as it falls on the ground.
As the force acting on an object situated at a height is against the
gravitational force from earth, the potential energy in that object
behaves as a negative constraint.

But this energy by virtue of heigh becomes a positive constraint as

soon as the object reverts to the ground. Potential energy (V) further,
for a force F (x) is:
∫ F(x) dx = – ∫VdV = V​i​ – V​f​ [ here F(x)= – dV/dx ]. V​i​ is the initial
value of the potential or the value of the potential at the initial position
and V​f ​is its value at the final position. The distance between the two
points is irrelevant here as gravity depends only on the initial and final
positions of the object.

The potential energy stored in an object has dimensions ML​2​T​-2​ and

the unit here is Joule or J. This is similar to Kinetic energy or work
and the change in Potential energy with respect to the conservative
force acting on it is the negative of the total work done by that force.
Therefore, Δ V = -F(x)Δx

Chemical Potential Energy

The attractive force between two atoms forms a chemical bond. This
bond between atoms and molecules results in storage of energy in the
form of Chemical potential energy.The potential energy during
chemical bonds and reactions converted into heat and light. The
normal batteries and cells are the best examples of Chemical Potential
energy.

Solved Example For You

Q: A body is falling from a height h. After it has fallen a height h/2, it
will possess

a. only potential energy

b. only kinetic energy
c. half potential and half kinetic energy
d. more kinetic and less potential energy

Solution: (c) At height h the K.E of the object is 0 while P.E is mgh.
At height h/2 the P.E becomes mgh/2 while the other half of P.E is
converted into K.E due to the virtue of its motion. So mgh – mgh/2 =
mgh/2. Hence, the body has half its energy in the form of potential
energy and the other half is in the form of kinetic energy

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

Have you ever wondered how an automatic mechanical watch works?

At the center of its complicated motion lies one of the most basic
principles of classical physics: The law of conservation of mechanical
energy. Let’s delve into the principle:

Mechanical Energy
It is the capacity of an object to do work by the virtue of its motion or
configuration (position). Mechanical Energy is the sum of following
two energy terms:

● Kinetic Energy. It is the ability of an object to do work by the

virtue of its motion. For example, the kinetic energy of Wind
has the capacity to rotate the blades of a windmill and hence
produce electricity. Kinetic energy is expressed as,where, K is
the kinetic energy of the object in joules (J), m is the mass of
the object in kilograms and v is the velocity of the object:

● Potential energy. It is the ability of an object to do work by the

virtue of its configuration or position. For example, a
compressed spring can do work when released. For the
purpose of this article, we will focus on the potential energy of
 an object by the virtue of its position with respect to the earth’s
gravity. Potential energy can be expressed as:

Here, V is the potential energy of the object in joules (J), m is the

mass of the object in kilograms, g is the gravitational constant of the
earth (9.8 m/s²), and h is the height of the object from earth’s surface.
Now, we know that the acceleration of an object under the influence
of earth’s gravitational force will vary according to its distance from
the earth’s centre of gravity.

But, the surface heights are so minuscule when compared to the

earth’s radius, that, for all practical purposes, g is taken to be a
constant.

Browse more Topics under Work Energy And Power

● Collisions
● Concepts of Potential Energy
● Potential Energy of a Spring
● Power
 ● The Scalar Product
● Work and Kinetic Energy
● Work-Energy Theorem
● Various Forms of Energy: The Law of Conservation of Energy

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

The sum total of an object’s kinetic and potential energy at any given
point in time is its total mechanical energy. The law of conservation
of energy says “Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed.”

So, it means, that, under a conservative force, the sum total of an

object’s kinetic and potential energies remains constant. Before we
dwell on this subject further, let us concentrate on the nature of a
conservative force.

Conservative Force

A conservative force has following characteristics:

● A conservative force is derived from a scalar quantity. For

example, the force causing displacement or reducing the rate of
 displacement in a single dimension without any friction
involved in the motion.
● The work done by a conservative force depends on the end
points of the motion. For example, if W is the work done, K​(f)
is the kinetic energy of the object at final position and K​(i)​ is
the kinetic energy of the object at the initial position:

● Work done by a conservative force in a closed path is zero.

Here, W is the work done, F is the conservative force and d is
the displacement vector. In case of a closed loop, the
displacement is zero. Hence, the work done by the
conservative force F is zero regardless of its magnitude.

Proof of Conservation of Mechanical energy

Let us consider the following illustration:

Here, Δx is the displacement of the object under the conservative force

F. By applying the work-energy theorem, we have: ΔK = F(x) Δx.
Since the force is conservative, the change in potential Energy can be
defined as ΔV = – F(x) Δx. Hence,

ΔK + ΔV = 0 or Δ(K + V) = 0
Therefore for every displacement of Δx, the difference between the
sums of an object’s kinetic and potential energy is zero. In other
words, the sum of an object’s kinetic and potential energies is constant
under a conservative force. Hence, the conservation of mechanical
energy is proved.

Case Study: Simple Pendulum

The pendulum is a very good example of conservation of mechanical

energy. Following illustration will help us understand the pendulum
motion:

● At position A, Potential energy is zero and the kinetic energy is

at maximum.
 ● When the object travels from position A to B, it’s kinetic
energy reduces and potential energy increases.
● At position B, the object stops momentarily. At this position,
the object’s kinetic energy becomes zero and its potential
energy reaches the maximum. The law of conservation of
mechanical energy comes into play here. The object’s entire
kinetic energy at position A has been converted to potential
energy at position B.
● Now, the object retraces its path, this time from position B to
position A. Back at position A, the object’s kinetic energy has
been restored to its initial level. Object’s Potential energy is
zero.
● Now, the object travels the exact same path as AB, but in
reverse direction of AC.
● This process repeats itself infinitely because the mechanical
energy of the object remains constant.

This property of mechanical energy has been harnessed by

watchmakers for centuries. Of course, in the real world, one has to
account the other forces like friction and electromagnetic fields.
Hence, no mechanical watch can run perpetually. But, if you get a
precise mechanical watch like Rolex, you can expect long power
reserves!

Solved Examples For You

Q: A mass of 2kg is suspended by a light string of length 10m. It is

imparted a horizontal velocity of 50m/s. Calculate the speed of the
said mass at point B.

Solution:

Potential energy at point A, V(A) = mgh(A)

Kinetic energy at point A, K(A) = (mv²)/2 = (2 × 2500)/2 = 2500J

Hence, total mechanical energy at point A, K(A) + V(A) = [2500 +
V(A)]J

Potential energy at point B, V(B) = mg h(B) = mgh (A+10) = mg h(A)

+ 2 × 9.8 × 10 = [V(A) + 196]J

Kinetic energy at point B, K(B) = (mv²)/2

Hence, total mechanical energy at point B, K(B) + V(B) = [K(B) +

V(A) + 196]J

By applying the law of conservation of energy,

V(A) + K(A) = V(B) + K(B)

Therefore, V(A) + 2500 = K(B) + V(A) + 196

or K(B) = 2500 – 196

Which gives: (mv²)/2 = 2304

(2×v²)/2 = 2304
v = [2304]​½

Therefore, velocity of the mass at point B = 48m/s

Potential Energy of a Spring

Have you ever noticed that the spring regains its normal shape despite
the force you put while compressing or stretching it? Why do you
need to exert extra stress to change a springs position? The secret is
the stored Spring potential energy. The physics behind the work,
energy, and force of elastic substances like springs! Let’s understand
the Spring potential energy.

Spring potential energy

When you compress or stretch a spring, as soon as the stress is

relieved, the spring attains its normal shape instantly. Its Elastic
potential energy helps it do so. Generally, these elastic substances
follow the Hooke’s law.
Hooke’s Law

Before unveiling the mechanism of spring potential energy, we need

to understand the Hook’s Law. According to this Law, the force
needed to change the shape of spring is proportional to the
displacement of the spring. The displacement referred here is how far
the spring is compressed or stretched from its normal shape.
Mathematically, Hook’s Law can be summarised as F= – k x.

Here ‘k’ is the spring constant and ‘x’ is the displacement. This spring
constant being unique for different springs depends on various factors
like the material of the spring and the thickness of the coiled wire used
in the spring. Hooke’s law is frequently represented in the negative
form since the force is a restoring force, but the positive version of
the law is also a valid representation.

Browse more Topics under Work Energy And Power

 ● Collisions
● Concepts of Potential Energy
● Conservation of Mechanical Energy
● Power
● The Scalar Product
● Work and Kinetic Energy
● Work-Energy Theorem
● Various Forms of Energy: The Law of Conservation of Energy

Spring potential energy

To find the Spring potential energy, we need to use the Hooke’s law.
Since the potential energy is equal to the work done by a spring and
work, in turn, is the product of force and distance, we get our force
from Hooke’s law. Distance here is the displacement in the position of
the spring.
In the figure, x is the displacement from the equilibrium position.
When we pull the spring to a displacement of x as shown in the figure,
the work done by the spring is :

W = ​0​∫​x​m​ Fdx = -∫kx dx = -k(x​m​)​2​/2

The work done by pulling force F​p ​ is :

Fp = k (x​m​)​2​ / 2

The work done by the pulling force F​p ​is in positive as it has overcome
the force of spring. Therefore,

W= k ​x​m​2​ / 2
When displacement is less than 0, the work done by the springs force
is

W​s ​= – kx​c 2​ / 2

and the work done by the external force F is = + kx​c2​/2. In the process
of displacement of the object from initial displacement x​i ​ to final
displacement, x​f ​ the work done is,

W​s ​= – ​x​f​∫​x​i​ ​kx dx = k x​i2​/2 – k x​f​ ​2​/2

From the equation, it is clear that the work done by the force of spring
depends only on the endpoints of displacement. Also, we can see that
in a cyclic process, the work done by the springs force is zero. Hence,
we can say that the spring force is a conservative force because it
depends on the initial and final positions only. Therefore, this work
done is in the form of the Spring potential energy.

Solved Examples For You

Q: If a spring extends by x on loading, then the energy stored by the

spring is (Given T is the spring force and K is force constant):
A) 2x/T​2 B) T​2​/2k C) 2k/T​2 D) T​2​/2x

Solution: B) Force or tension, T = kx [Hooke’s Law]. Hence, x = T/k

Energy stored in the spring = ​k x​2/​ 2 = T​2​/2k

Power

We hear the word “power” quite frequently in day to day life. Cricket
commentators talk about the Power behind a batsman’s shot while
broadcasting a cricket match, and football commentators may talk
about a particularly powerful free kick by a player. We among
ourselves have, at one point or another, arm-wrestled with a friend to
decide who is more powerful!
Browse more Topics Under Work Energy And Power
● Collisions
● Concepts of Potential Energy
● Conservation of Mechanical Energy
● Potential Energy of a Spring
● Power
● The Scalar Product
● Work and Kinetic Energy
● Work-Energy Theorem
● Various Forms of Energy: The Law of Conservation of Energy

Power
Simply put is the rate at which work is done. Power, like work, is a
scalar quantity. It is denoted by P and its SI unit is watt (W). This unit
is named after Scottish scientist James Watt, who is credited with the
invention of the steam engine. Thus, the average power formula over a
time period is:
For example, a wrecking ball of mass 500 kg is dropped from a height
of 50 metres on the ground. Let us calculate the power of its impact on
the ground. From the law of conservation of mechanical energy, we
know that Δ(K + V) = 0. Let us try and solve this.

To find the Time

Here, ΔV = m g h = 500 * 9.8 * 50 or, ΔV = ΔK = 2,45,000J

Since, it is a free fall, W = ΔK = 2,45,000J. Therefore K = (mv²)/2

Hence, 2,45,000 = (500 * v²)/2 or, (2,45,000 * 2)/500 = v²

Which gives v = √98o = 31.3 m/s.

Since, for a free fall, v = gt, we have: 31.3 = 9.8 × t

or t = 31.3/9.8 = 3.19s

To find the Power

By applying the power formula, P = W/t

we have, here, P = 2,45,000/3.19 = 76,802.5 W

Hence, P = 76.8 KW. Hence, the power of the wrecking ball’s impact
on the surface is 76.8 kilowatt.

Power in Terms of Force and Velocity

We already know that power is the time rate of Work done. So, at any
given point in time, the power can be defined as:

dW is the work done in the time period of dt. Since, we know that W
= F.d, we can rewrite the above equation as:

Here, F is the force, dx is the displacement of the object and dt is the

time period of that displacement. Since, we know that v = dx/t, we can
rewrite the above equation as:
F is the force and v is the instantaneous velocity of the object. Force
and velocity are the vector quantities and power is the scalar product
of these two vectors. Hence, we have derived the power formula in
terms of force and velocity. So,

P = F v cosθ

Let us consider another example. While testing a newly developed

engine, the engineers of Honda see that their 125 kg testing
motorcycle propels from standstill to a top speed of 100 km per hour
in 5 seconds. If the same engine is used in their racing motorcycle of
mass 85 kg, how many seconds will elapse before the racing
motorcycle achieves a speed of 100 km per hour?

Solution: We have: v = 100 × (1000/3600) = 27.78 m/s. We know

that, a = v/t or average acceleration of the test motorcycle a = 27.78/5
= 5.56 m/s². We also know that, F = ma. Hence Force applied by
engine is F = 125 × 5.56 = 695 N. By applying the power formula, P =
F v, the peak power of the engine is P = 695 × 27.78 = 19,307 W
For the Racing Motorcycle

Since, the engine is the same, its peak power will remain constant.
Therefore P = 19,307W. At peak power, the speed of racing
motorcycle is same, or v = 27.78 m/s. By applying the power formula,
P = F v or, 19307 = F × 27.78, we get, F = 19307/27.78 = 695 N.
Since, F = m a, we have 695 = 85 × a.

Therefore the acceleration of the racing motorcycle is a = 695/85 =

8.18 m/s². Hence the time required for the racing motorcycle to reach
100 kmph is, t = v/a = 27.78/8.18 or 3.4 seconds.

Power, Horsepower and Kilo-Watt-Hour

Other than the Watt, we encounter “horsepower” or hp as the most

common unit to describe power. All cars and motorcycles use hp to
describe the power of their engines. Also, most electric motors also
use h.p. to describe their power rating.

1 hp = 746 W

Kilo-watt-hour or KWH is the unit of energy. It is used most

commonly in our electric bills to denote the number of electrical units
consumed. One kWh is the application of 1000 W of power for 1
hour. So,

1 KWH = 1000 W x 3600 seconds = 3600000 J

Solved Examples for You

Q:​ A builder calls an engineer to install an elevator in his building.

When the engineer inquires about the requirements, builder says that
he wants the elevator to be able to carry a maximum of eight people at
an average speed of 3 m/s. If the average load of a person is assumed
to be 70 kg, and the elevator itself weighs 150 kg, find out the
minimum power rating of the required motor in hp, if there is no
friction involved.
If the total height of the top floor of the building is 50 m, find out the
cost of transporting eight people to the top floor, if the cost of
electricity is ₹11.65 per unit.

Solution:​ Mass of elevator with eight people = 8 × 70 + 150 = 710 kg.

Hence, F = 710 × 9.8 = 6,958N. Thus the minimum force required by
the motor to overcome the gravity is F = 6,958N. By applying the
power formula, P = F v, the minimum power rating of the required
motor is P = 6958 × 2 = 13,916 W.

Also, 1 hp = 746 W, therefore required hp rating of motor is =

13916/746 or, 18.65 hp. The height of the top floor is 50 m and the
average speed of the elevator is 2 m/s. Also v = d/t or, t = 50/2

The time taken by elevator to the top floor is 25 seconds. Electrical

consumption in kWh = motor rating in kW × time in hours. Electrical
units consumed in one trip = 13.916 × (25/3600). Energy Units
consumed in one trip = 0.097 kWh. Since the cost of one unit is
₹11.65 therefore the total cost of one trip in terms of electricity is,
11.65 × 0.097 or, ₹1.13
The Scalar Product

Velocity, displacement, force and acceleration are different types of

vectors. Is there a way to find the effect of one vector on another? Can
vectors operate in different directions and still affect each other? The
answer lies in the Scalar product. An operation that reduces two or
more vectors into a Scalar quantity! Let us see more!

What is a Scalar Quantity?

Before we learn about the Scalar product of two vectors, let’s refresh
what we have already learned about the difference between a vector
quantity and a scalar quantity. Scalar quantity is one dimensional and
is described by its magnitude alone. For example, distance, speed,
mass etc.

Vector quantities, on the other hand, have a magnitude as well as a

direction. For example displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
Some vector quantities are effectively the directional values of their
corresponding scalar quantities. For example, displacement,
effectively, is the distance in a particular direction. Vector quantities
are expressed with an arrow above the appointed symbols. For
example, displacement is expressed as . The following image
explains the difference between distance, a scalar quantity, and
displacement, a vector quantity:

In the above diagram, if we take the square AA1A2B and assume it’s
side as 5m, then the object travelling the red path has travelled a
distance of 15 meters. But, the displacement of the said object is only
5 meters in the direction of A to B. Similarly, if we assume that the
same object has finished the traversing the red path in one second,
then, the object’s speed is 15 m/s. But, the velocity of the said object
is only 5 m/s.

Now, in Physics, from time to time, we need to multiply two vector

quantities. Some of these multiplications require a scalar product. For
example, Work is a scalar quantity and is a product of Force and
Displacement. Here, we will learn how to derive a scalar quantity as a
product of two vectors, and, how these multiplications hold various
laws of mathematics.

Scalar Product of Two Vectors

Let’s consider two vector quantities A and B. We denote them as

follows:

Their scalar product is A dot B. It is defined as:

A.B = |A| |B| cosθ

Where, θ is the smaller angle between the vector A and vector B. An

important reason to define it this way is that |B|cosθ is the projection
of the vector B on the vector A. The projections can be understood
from the following images:

Since, A(Bcosθ) = B(Acosθ)​, w​e can say that

A.B = B.A
Hence, we say that the scalar product follows the commutative law.
Similarly, the scalar product also follows the distributive law:

A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C

Now, let us assume three unit vectors, i, j and k, along with the three
mutually perpendicular axes X, Y and Z respectively.

As cos (0) = 1, we have:

Also since the cosine of 90 degrees is zero, we have:

These two findings will help us deduce the scalar product of two
vectors in three dimensions. Now, let’s assume two vectors alongside
the above three axes:

So their scalar product will be,

Hence,

​A.B = A​x​B​x​ + A​y​B​y​ + A​z​B​z

Similarly, A​2​ or A.A =

In Physics many quantities like work are represented by the scalar

product of two vectors. The scalar product or the dot product is a
mathematical operation that combines two vectors and results in a
scalar. The magnitude of the scalar depends upon the magnitudes of
the combining vectors and the inclination between them.

Solved Examples For You

Q: Let’s find the angle between force and the displacement; where, F
= (2i + 3j + 4k) and d = (4i + 2j + 3k).

Solution: We already know that, A.B = A​x​B​x​ + A​y​B​y​ + A​z​B​z

Hence, F.d = F​x​d​x​ + F​y​d​y​ + F​z​d​z​ = 2*4 + 3*2 + 4*3 = 26 units

Also, F.d = F dcosθ

Now, F² = 2² + 3² + 4² = √29 units

Similarly, d² = 4² + 2² + 3² = √29 units

Hence, F d cosθ = 26

Then, cosθ = 26/(F d) = 26/(√29 × √29) = 26/29, which gives cosθ =

0.89 or θ = cos​-1​(0.89)

Work and Kinetic Energy

We all have heard the stories of great explorers who sailed the
unknown seas in their sailboats. Those were the days before any
engine was in existence. They only relied on wind to move their huge
ships. How does the wind move such objects? The answer lies in the
principles of Kinetic energy. In this article, we shall understand its
basic principles and how can it equate to work.

Kinetic Energy Definition

Kinetic Energy of an object is its capacity to put another object in

motion. A force displacing an object does work. Also, we know that
when an object in motion strikes a stationary object, it can cause it to
move. Hence it can do work. Thus, we define the ​kinetic energy as the
capacity of an object to do work by virtue of its motion.​
The kinetic energy of an object is denoted by KE and its SI unit is
joules (J). By now, we have started to sense that work and kinetic
energy are closely related. But, are they interchangeable? Can work
be expressed in terms of the kinetic energy of an object and vice
versa? Let us see!

Browse more Topics under Work Energy And Power

● Collisions
● Concepts of Potential Energy
● Conservation of Mechanical Energy
● Potential Energy of a Spring
● Power
● The Scalar Product
● Work-Energy Theorem
 ● Various Forms of Energy: The Law of Conservation of Energy

If you want to learn more about ​Kinetic Energy​ click here.

Work and Kinetic Energy – The Work-Energy Theorem

Consider an object with an initial velocity ‘u’. A force F, applied on it
displaces it through ‘s’, and accelerates it, changing its velocity to ‘v’.
Its equation of motion can be written as: v​2​ – u​2​ = 2as

Multiplying this equation by ‘m’ and dividing throughout by 2, we

get:

mv​2​/2 – mu​2​/2 = mas; where ‘m’ is the mass of the object.

Hence, mv​2​/2 – mu​2​/2 = Fs; where F is the force that caused the
havoc!

Therefore, we can write mv​2​/2 – mu​2​/2 = W; where W = Fs is the

work done by this force.

So what just happened? We just proved that 1/2 (mv​2​) – 1/2 (mu​2​) is
the work done by the force! In other words, the work done is equal to
the change in K.E. of the object! This is the Work-Energy theorem or
the relation between Kinetic energy and Work done. In other words,
the work done on an object is the change in its kinetic energy. ​W =
Δ(K.E.)

The engine of your motorcycle works under this principle. The

explosion of the burning mixture of fuel and air moves the piston. The
moving piston, in turn, moves the crank of the engine, which, in turn,
moves the selected gear and hence the drive chain that rotates the
driving wheel of the motorcycle.

Therefore, engineers use the work-energy theorem to calculate the

work done by each progressive component of the engine in its chain of
motion. By calculating the difference in work done, engineers can
isolate the performance of each component of the drivetrain and
attempt to improve its efficiency.

Solved Examples For You

Q 1: Which of the following kind of energy depends upon the mass

and the square of the speed of a body?

A) Kinetic B) Potential C) Electrostatic D) Nuclear

Solution: A) The Gravitational Potential energy, Nuclear and Kinetic
Energy all depend on mass. But out of the three only Kinetic energy is
such that it contains the term with the square of velocity. So the
answer is A.

Q 2: A rigid body of mass m kg is lifted uniformly by a man to a

height of one metre in 30 sec. Another man lifts the same mass to the
same height in 60 sec. The work done on the body against gravitation
in both the cases are in the ratio:

A) 1:2 B) 1:1 C) 2:1 D) 4:1

Solution: B) Well whoever said anything about work depending on

time, right? Work is independent of time as W = F.s doesn’t contain
time (as long as the force is time independent!). So we can say that in
this case, the work done will be similar in both cases and will present
a ratio of 1:1.

Work-Energy Theorem

If you transfer a certain amount of energy to an object in motion, what

will happen to it? Can you measure the amount of energy in terms of
work? How much work does it take to launch a satellite into space?
Let us find out the Work-Energy Theorem and answer these
questions!

Work-Energy Theorem

The term “work” is used in everyday life quite frequently and we

understand that it’s an act of doing something. For example, you are
working right now on your grasp of Physics by reading this article!
But, Physics itself might not agree on this. The Work-energy theorem
explains the reasons behind this Physics of no work!

Work is said to be done when an acting force displaces a particle. If

there is no displacement, there is no work done. You might get tired if
you keep standing for a long time, but according to Physics, you have
done zero work.

Thus, work is a result of force and the resulting displacement. Now,

we already know that all moving objects have kinetic energy. So, there
must be a relation between Work and kinetic energy. This relation
between the kinetic energy of an object and workdone is called
“Work-Energy Theorem”. It is expressed as:

Here, W is the work done in joules (J) and ΔK is the change in kinetic
energy of the object. To learn how the Work-Energy Theorem is
derived, we must first learn the nature of work as a scalar quantity and
how two or more vector quantities are multiplied.
Browse more Topics under Work Energy And Power
● Collisions
● Concepts of Potential Energy
● Conservation of Mechanical Energy
● Potential Energy of a Spring
● Power
● The Scalar Product
● Work and Kinetic Energy
● Various Forms of Energy: The Law of Conservation of Energy

Proof of Work-Energy Theorem

We will look at the Work-Energy Theorem in two scenarios:

Workdone Under a Constant Force

We have already learnt about the equations of motion earlier and

know that,

Here, v is the final velocity of the object; u is the

initial velocity of the object; a is the constant acceleration and s is the
distance traversed by the object. We can also write this equation as,
We can substitute the values in the equation with the vector quantities,

therefore:

If we multiply both sides with m/2, we get:

From ​Newton’s second law​, we know that F=ma, hence:

Now, we already know that W= F.d and, K.E. = (mv²)/2,

So, the above equation may be rewritten as:

Hence, we have:

Therefore, we have proved the Work-Energy Theorem. The Work

done on an object is equal to the change in its kinetic energy.

Workdone Under a Variable Force

A constant force is rare in the everyday world. A variable force is

what we encounter in our daily life. Proving the Work-Energy
Theorem for a variable force is a little tricky. If we take one axis as
the Force applied and the other axis as displacement, we come up with
the following graph:
Here, x is the displacement. Now let’s divide this area into rectangles
of infinitely small width along the x-axis:

Here, for an infinitely small displacement of “delta x”, we can assume

the force to be constant. Hence,

If we add all the rectangles in the second graph, we come up with the
total work. It can be expressed as,
If total number of rectangles approaches infinity, the width of these
rectangles along the axis x will approach zero,

Part one: Now we can define the work done as a definite integral of

the force over the total displacement as Now, we

already know that ​kinetic energy​ of an object can be expressed as:

We can express the change in the kinetic energy with

time as,

Or,
We know from Newton’s second law that acceleration is the change in
velocity of an object with the rate of time. So the above equation can
be alternatively written as,

Since F=ma and the velocity of an object is the change in

displacement over a time rate, the above equation can be alternatively

written as:

By cancelling out the time derivative from both sides of the equation,
we get,

If we integrate the above equation along the x-axis of the second

graph, we get,
Or Hence: The right-hand side
of the above equation denotes the work. Hence we get:

Hence, the work-energy theorem is proved for the variable force as

well.

Solved Examples For You

Q 1: A bullet of mass 20 g moving with a velocity of 500 m/s, strikes

a tree and goes out from the other side with a velocity of 400 m/s.
Calculate the work done by the bullet (in joules) in passing through
the tree:

A) 900 J B) 800 J C) 950 J D) 500 J

Solution: A) Given mass of the bullet, m = 20 g = 0.02 kg. Initial
velocity of the bullet = 500 m/s. Final velocity of the bullet = 400 m/s.
Now if we can calculate the change in energy of the bullet or in other
words the work done by the bullet on the tree, we have:

Hence, using the Work-Energy Theorem, we have: Δ(K.E.) of the

bullet = 1/2{0.02(500)​2​ – 0.02(400)​2​}

Therefore, Δ(K.E.) of the bullet = 900 J

Various forms of Energy: The Law of

Conservation of Energy

Energy is simply the capacity of an object to do work. Energy change

occurs during most events and processes in the Universe. In all of
these Energy, conservation is followed! Our Universe has a fixed
amount of energy. Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it
may change form. Here, we will learn about various forms of energy
with a special focus on the energy conservation.

Mechanical Energy
The capacity of an object to do work by virtue of its motion or
position is its Mechanical Energy. It is the sum of the kinetic energy
and potential energy. Since in most of the physical processes, we
usually come across Kinetic and Potential energy only, we can use it
to study energy conservation.

Browse more Topics under Work Energy And Power

● Collisions
● Concepts of Potential Energy
● Conservation of Mechanical Energy
● Potential Energy of a Spring
● Power
● The Scalar Product
● Work and Kinetic Energy
● Work-Energy Theorem

Kinetic Energy

The ability of an object to do work because of its motion is called

Kinetic Energy. For example, the wind’s kinetic energy pushes the
sail of a boat and the boat moves forward. Flowing water has kinetic
energy, and it has been harnessed to drive the grinders of flour mills
for centuries. Kinetic Energy is denoted by K and its unit is joules (J).
It is expressed as:

Here, K is the kinetic energy of the object, m is the

mass of the object and v is the velocity of the object

Potential Energy

Potential energy can be defined as the capacity of an object to do work

by virtue of its position. For example, a stretched bow string
possesses potential energy. When the bowstring is released, it propels
the arrow forward. Another example might be that of an object raised
above the ground. When the said object is released, it rushes
downwards.

A compressed spring also possesses potential energy, when it is

released, it expands with a force. Potential Energy is denoted by V and
its unit is joules (J). Here, we will concentrate on the potential energy
of an object by virtue of its position with respect to the earth’s gravity.
Let us consider the following illustration:
Here, m is the mass of the object in kilograms and h is the height of
the object from earth’s surface in meters. Here, the potential energy
of the object at a height of h can be expressed as:

V(h) = mgh

Here, g is considered to be the earth’s gravitational constant and its

value is set at 9.8m/s². We know that an object will accelerate at
different rates with respect to its distance from earth’s center of
gravity. But the surface heights are minuscule as compared to the
earth’s radius, and hence, for all practical purposes, the acceleration
under the earth’s gravitational force is taken to be a constant.
In the physical world, energy is transferred in many forms. Let us
discuss some of these forms.

Heat Energy

Heat energy is associated with the frictional force. For example, if we

rub our hands together in the winter, they feel warm. Similarly, the tip
of a dentist’s drill gets extremely heated while drilling into a tooth. So
a cooling mechanism is incorporated in the drill that regulates the
temperature by a jet of water.

Let us consider the following illustration where we consider an object

in motion. Let us say that this object comes to a complete rest by
virtue of the friction of the surface alone.

Here m is the mass of the object, v​i​ is the initial velocity of the object,
x is the displacement of the object and v​f​ is the final velocity of the
object v​f​= 0. After we apply the work-energy theorem, work done by
the frictional force of the surface will be:

W​(friction)​ = ΔK

W​(friction)​ = K​f​ – K​i​; since, K​f​ = 0 then, W​(friction)​ = – K​i​ = 1/2 [mv​i2​]

We also notice that work done by friction, in this case, is negative.

The frictional force transforms the kinetic energy of the block into
heat energy. This heat energy increases the temperature of both the
object as well as the surface.

Chemical Energy

Chemical energy can be most simply defined as the energy that binds
together the atoms and molecules of various materials. When these
molecular bonds are broken, a large amount of energy is released. For
example, when we light a fire to some wooden logs, we break down
the complex organic molecules, and their chemical energy is released.
Basically, a chemical reaction is carried by the transaction of energy.
On which basis there are two types of reactions:
 ● Exothermic reactions: A chemical reaction that releases
energy. For example, oxidation of coal. A kilogram of coal
releases 3×10​7​ J of energy when burnt.
● Endothermic reaction: A chemical reaction that absorbs energy.
For example, the reaction of ammonium nitrate and water
requires heat to proceed.

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy binds together the protons and neutrons in the nucleus
of each element. It is the strongest force in the universe. Nuclear
bombs harness the nuclear energy of uranium and plutonium. The
devastation of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of the Second
World War was caused by a minuscule amount of nuclear matter when
compared to the traditional bombing materials. Nuclear reactions can
be categorized into:

● Fission: When a larger nucleus disintegrates into smaller

nuclei. For example, the fission of uranium nucleus into
smaller nuclei like thorium and radium etc.
 ● Fusion: When two or more smaller nuclei fuse together to form
a bigger nucleus. For example, our sun’s energy is derived by
the fusion of hydrogen atoms.

Electrical Energy

Charges exert forces on each other and hence give rise to an electrical
energy. The flow of electrical current has energy. This energy can be
harnessed by passing the electrical current through various materials
and apparitions. For example, when electrical current passes through
the filament of a bulb, it produces light. And when electrical current is
passed through the motor of a fan, it rotates the blades.

Law of Conservation of Energy

The law of energy conservation states that energy we can neither

create nor destroy energy. Energy merely changes its form. For
example, the kinetic energy of a moving object transforms into heat
energy when the object comes to a full rest by the virtue of friction.

Broader perspective
Einstein proposed that matter and energy are interchangeable and their
relation can be expressed as ​E = mc²​. Here, E is the total energy of the
matter, m is the mass of the matter and c is the velocity of light in
vacuum. C is a constant at 300000000 m/s. Thus, a mere kilogram of
matter has the equivalent energy of 9×10​16​ J or the equivalent annual
output of a large power station (3000 MW capacity)!

Energy Conservation Under the Confinement of Mechanical Energy

L​et us confine ourselves to the boundaries of mechanical energy under

a conservative force. Here, we can prove the law of energy
conservation. Before we do that, let us understand the nature of a
conservative force. A conservative force has following characteristics:

● We get it from a scalar quantity. Hence, it is one dimensional.

● Work done by a conservative force depends only on end points
of the motion.
● If the endpoints of the motion are same i.e. the motion is in a
closed loop, the work done by a conservative force is zero.

Now, let’s consider the following illustration:

Solved Example for You

Example: Suppose an object falls from a height ​Δx​ towards the

ground. Evaluate the energy conservation in this system.

Solution. Here, Δx is the displacement of the object under the

conservative force F. By applying the work-energy theorem, we have
ΔK = F(x) Δx

Since the force is conservative, the loss of potential Energy can be

defined as ​ΔV = F(x) Δx

It means: ​ΔK + ΔV = 0
Therefore:​ Δ(K + V) = 0

This means, that for every displacement of Δx, the difference between
the sums of an object’s kinetic and potential energy is zero. In other
words, the sum of an object’s kinetic and potential energies is constant
under a conservative force.