LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY Three factors cause compression of the

lymphatic vessels:
FUNCTION OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
(1) contraction of surrounding skeletal
Lymphatic system
muscle during activity
- It is important for the protection of the
(2) periodic contraction of smooth muscle
body, but in addition to that, this system
in the lymphatic vessel wall, and
carries out other functions
(3) pressure changes in the thorax during
The functions of the lymphatic system include: breathing.
(1) Fluid balance.
right lymphatic duct
(2) Lipid absorption.
- empties into the right subclavian vein
(3) Defense.
thoracic duct
- empties into the left subclavian vein.
ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES AND VESSELS
The lymphatic system includes  The thoracic duct and right lymphatic
(1) Lymph duct empty lymph into the blood.
(2) Lymphocytes
(3) Lymphatic vessels LYMPHATIC ORGANS
Lymphatic tissue
(4) Lymph nodes
- Characterized by housing many
(5) Tonsils
lymphocytes and other defense cells,
(6) Spleen
such as macrophages.
(7) Thymus
The lymphatic organs include:
(1) Tonsil
 The lymphatic system, unlike the
(2) Lymph nodes
circulatory system, does not circulate
(3) Spleen
fluid to and from tissues. Instead, the
(4) Thymus
lymphatic system carries fluid in one
direction, from tissues to the circulatory
TONSILS
system. There are three groups of tonsils:
lymphatic capillaries (1) the paired palatine tonsils,
- are tiny, closed-ended vessels consisting (2) the pharyngeal tonsils, and
of simple squamous epithelium (3) the lingual tonsil.
- A superficial group of lymphatic
capillaries collects excess interstitial Palatine tonsil
fluids from the dermis and - located on each side of the posterior
subcutaneous tissue, and a deep group opening of the oral cavity; these are the
collects excess fluid from muscle, the ones usually referred to as “the tonsils.”
viscera, and other deep structures. Pharyngeal tonsil
- located on each side of the posterior
lymphatic vessels opening of the oral cavity
- carry lymph away from tissues. Valves in - When the pharyngeal tonsil is enlarged,
the vessels ensure the one-way flow of it is commonly called the adenoid
lymph. Lingual tonsil
- on the posterior surface of the tongue.
Tonsillectomy White pulp
- removal of the pharyngeal tonsils. - lymphatic tissue surrounding the
Adenoidectomy arteries within the spleen.
- removal of palatine tonsil. Red pulp
- associated with the veins.
LYMPH NODES - It consists of a fibrous network, filled
Lymph nodes with macrophages and red blood cells,
- rounded structures and enlarged capillaries that connect to
- classified as superficial or deep.
the veins.
- They are particularly abundant in the
lower abdomen, neck and armpits
Splenectomy
There are three superficial aggregations of - removal of the spleen, may be necessary
lymph nodes on each side of the body: if these techniques do not stop the
(1) inguinal nodes in the groin bleeding
(2) axillary nodes in the axilla
(3) cervical nodes in the neck.
THYMUS
Thymus
Trabeculae
- bilobed gland roughly triangular in shape
- Extensions of the capsule
- located in the superior mediastinum
- Subdivide a lymph node into
compartments containing lymphatic cortex
tissue and lymphatic sinuses. - dark-staining areas. lymphocytes are
Cortex numerous
- a segmented by strands called medulla
trabeculae. - lighter-staining, central portion of the
lymphatic nodules lobules. has fewer lymphocytes
- cells that can form dense aggregations of
tissue  The thymus is the site for the maturation
Lymphatic sinuses of a class of lymphocytes called T cells
- spaces between the lymphatic tissue  The thymus processes lymphocytes that
that contain macrophages on a network move to other lymphatic tissue to
of fibers. respond to foreign substances.
germinal centers
- lymphatic nodules containing the rapidly
dividing lymphocytes OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 The lymphatic system removes fluid
SPLEEN from tissues, absorbs lipids from the
Spleen small intestine, and produces B cells and
- roughly the size of a clenched fist and is T cells, which are responsible for much
located in the left, superior corner of the of immunity.
abdominal cavity
- functions as a blood reservoir, holding a
small volume of blood.
 IMMUNITY (1) The skin and mucous membranes
Immunity form barriers that prevent their
- the ability to resist damage from entry, and
pathogens, such as microorganisms; (2) tears, saliva, and urine wash these
harmful chemicals, such as toxins substances from body surfaces.
released by microorganisms; and
internal threats, such as cancer cells.
CHEMICAL MEDIATORS
Immunity is categorized into two systems that  are molecules responsible for many
work together to protect the body. These two aspects of innate immunity.
systems are referred to as:  Chemical mediators kill pathogens,
(1) Innate Immunity promote phagocytosis, and increase
- the body recognizes and destroys inflammation
certain pathogens, but the response to
Complement
them is the same each time the body is
- group of more than 20 proteins found in
exposed.
plasma.
(2) Adaptive Immunity
- certain complement proteins promote
- the body recognizes and destroys
inflammation and phagocytosis and can
pathogens, but the response to them
directly lyse (rupture) bacterial cells.
improves each time the pathogen is
Interferons
encountered.
- are proteins that protect the body
against viral infections.
Specificity and memory are characteristics of
adaptive immunity, but not innate immunity. WHITE BLOOD CELLS
Specificity  most important cellular components of
- ability of adaptive immunity to recognize immunity
a particular substance. chemotaxis
Memory - movement of white blood cells toward
- ability of adaptive immunity to these chemicals
“remember” previous encounters with a
particular substance. Phagocytosis
- ingestion and destruction of particles by
INNATE IMMUNITY cells called phagocytes
 Innate immunity involves many Neutrophils
mechanisms that help protect the body. - small phagocytic white blood cells.
These mechanisms include physical Macrophages
barriers, chemical mediators, white - monocytes that leave the blood, enter
blood cells, and the inflammatory tissues, and enlarge about fivefold
response. Sometimes macrophages are given specific
names
PHYSICAL BARRIERS (1) dust cells in the lungs
 prevent pathogens and chemicals from (2) Kupffer cells in the liver
entering the body in two ways: (3) microglia in the central nervous system
Cells of Inflammation ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
Basophils Antigens
- derived from red bone marrow, are - are substances that stimulate adaptive
motile white blood cells that can leave immune responses
the blood and enter infected tissues.
Antigens can be divided into two groups:
Mast cells
(1) foreign antigens
- derived from red bone marrow, are
(2) foreign antigens
nonmotile cells in connective tissue,
especially near capillaries
Foreign antigens
- are introduced from outside the body
Natural Killer Cells
- type of lymphocyte produced in red
Allergic reactions
bone marrow, and they account for up
- are sensitivities to substances called
to 15% of lymphocytes.
allergens that come into contact with
- NK cells use a variety of methods to kill
the skin, nose, eyes, respiratory tract,
their target cells, including releasing
and gastrointestinal tract
chemicals that damage cell membranes
and cause the cells to lyse.
Self-antigens
- are molecules the body produces to
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE stimulate an immune system response.
 It is very similar, although some details - the recognition of tumor antigens can
vary, depending on the intensity of the result in destruction of the tumor
response and the type of injury. In figure
Autoimmune disease
14.8, we use a bacterial infection to - results when self-antigens stimulate
illustrate an inflammatory response. unwanted destruction of normal tissue

When the bacteria enter the tissue, the chemical Adaptive immunity can be divided into
mediators produce several effects (1) Antibody-mediated immunity
(1) Vasodilation increases blood flow and (2) Cell-mediated immunity
brings phagocytes and other white
blood cells to the area Antibody-mediated immunity
(2) Phagocytes leave the blood and enter - involves a group of lymphocytes called B
the tissue cells and proteins called antibodies
(3) Increased vascular permeability which are found in the plasma.
Antibodies are produced by plasma cells
Local Inflammation
- an inflammatory response confined to a Cell-mediated immunity
specific area of the body - involves the actions of a second type of
Systemic Inflammation lymphocyte, called T cells. Several
- an inflammatory response that is subpopulations of T cells exist.
generally distributed throughout the T cells
body. - produce the effects of cell-mediated
immunity
helper T cells There are two classes of MHC molecules:
- promote or inhibit the activities of both (1) MHC class I
antibody-mediated immunity and cell- (2) MHC class II
mediated immunity.
MHC class I molecules
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF - found on the membranes of most
LYMPHOCYTES nucleated cells
 Stem cells in red bone marrow are MHC class II molecules
capable of giving rise to all the blood - found on the membranes of antigen-
cells presenting cells, B lymphocytes, and
 B cells and T cells originate in red bone other defense cells.
marrow. T cells are processed in the
thymus, and B cells are processed in red  Costimulation can be achieved by
bone marrow. cytokines which are proteins or peptides
 B cells and T cells move to lymphatic secreted by one cell as a regulator of
tissue from their processing sites. They neighboring cells
continually circulate from one lymphatic  Ex. interleukin-1 - is a cytokine released
tissue to another. by macrophages
 Small groups of identical B cells or T cells,
called clones, form during embryonic Lymphocyte Proliferation
development.  An important process that generates
the needed defense cells to protect the
ACTIVATION AND MULITPLICATION OF body
LYMPHOCYTES
 the helper T cell responds by producing
 The specialized B-cell or T-cell clones can
interleukin-2 and interleukin-2
respond to antigens and produce an
receptors
adaptive immune response.
 Macrophages present processed
For the adaptive immune response to be antigens to helper T cells, which divide
effective, two events must occur: and increase in number.
(1) antigen recognition by lymphocytes  Helper T cells stimulate B cells to divide
and differentiate into plasma cells that
(2) proliferation of the lymphocytes
produce antibodies
recognizing the antigen.
Antigen Recognition
 Lymphocytes have cell membrane ANTIBODY-MOVEMENT IMMUNITY
proteins, called antigen receptors, on  The antibodies bind to the antigens,
their surfaces. which can be destroyed through several
B-cell receptors different mechanisms. Because
- antigen receptors on B cells antibodies are in body fluids, antibody-
T-cell receptors mediated immunity is effective against
- T cells extracellular antigens, such as bacteria,
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) viruses (when they are outside cells),
molecules and toxins.
- glycoproteins that have binding sites for
antigens.
Structure of Antibodies  Antibodies indirectly destroy antigens by
 They are Y-shaped molecules consisting promoting phagocytosis and
of four polypeptide chains: two identical inflammation.
heavy chains and two identical light
chains Antibody Production
variable region primary response
- end of each “arm” of the antibody - results from the first exposure of a B cell
to an antigen.
gamma globulins (a.k.a antibodies)
- normally takes 3–14 days to produce
- found mostly in the gamma globulin part
enough antibodies to be effective
of plasma.
against the antigen.
immunoglobulins (Ig) (a.k.a antibodies)
- because they are globulin proteins
Memory B cells
involved in immunity
- responsible for the secondary response,
five general classes of antibodies are denoted or memory response, which occurs when
(1) IgG, the immune system is exposed to an
(2) IgM, antigen against which it has already
(3) IgA, produced a primary response
(4) IgE, and
The secondary response provides better
(5) IgD
protection than the primary response for two
reasons:
(1) The time required to start producing
antibodies is less (hours to a few days),
and
(2) more plasma cells and antibodies are
produced.

 The secondary response also includes

the formation of new memory cells,
which provide protection against
Effects of Antibodies
additional exposures to a specific
Direct effects
antigen.
- occur when a single antibody binds to an
antigen and inactivates the antigen, or
CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
when many antigens are bound together
 a function of cytotoxic T cells and is most
and are inactivated by many antibodies
effective against microorganisms that
Indirect Effects
live inside body cells.
- Macrophages attach to constant region
 involved with some allergic reactions,
and phagocytize the antigen;
the control of tumors, and graft
complement is activated inflammatory
rejection.
chemicals are released by mast cells
 When viruses infect cells, they direct the
cells to make new viruses, which are
 Antibodies directly inactivate antigens
then released to infect other cells.
or cause them to clump together.
  Cytotoxic T cells can distinguish between Natural
virally infected cells and noninfected - Natural implies that contact with the
cells because the T-cell receptor can antigen or transfer of antibodies occurs
bind to the MHC class I/viral antigen as part of everyday living and is not
complex, which is not present on deliberate.
uninfected cells.
 Exposure to an antigen activates Artificial
cytotoxic T cells and produces memory T - implies that deliberate introduction of
cells. an antigen or antibody into the body has
 Cytotoxic T cells lyse virally infected occurred.
cells, tumor cells, and tissue transplants.
Cytotoxic T cells produce cytokines, ACTIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY
which promote inflammation and Active natural immunity
phagocytosis. - results from natural exposure to an
antigen, such as a disease-causing
Cytotoxic T cells have two main effects: microorganism, that stimulates the
(1) They release cytokines that activate immune system to respond against the
additional components of the immune antigen.
system
ACTIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
(2) Cytotoxic T cells can come in contact
Active artificial immunity
with other cells and kill them.
- results from deliberate exposure to an
antigen (vaccine) to which the person’s
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY own immune system responds.
There are four ways to acquire adaptive
immunity: PASSIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY
(1) active natural Passive natural immunity
(2) active artificial - the transfer of antibodies from a mother
(3) passive natural to her fetus during gestation or to her
(4) passive artificial baby during breastfeeding.

Active immunity PASSIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY

Passive artificial immunity
- results when an individual is exposed to
- involves the collecting of antibodies
an antigen (either naturally or
from one source and introducing them
artificially) and the response of the
to an infected individual, usually through
individual’s own immune system is the
injection.
cause of the immunity
- the transfer of antibodies from an
Passive immunity
animal or another person to a person
- occurs when another person or an
requiring immunity.
animal develops immunity and the
immunity is transferred to a nonimmune
 Antibodies that provide passive artificial
individual.
immunity are referred to by the general
term antiserum because the antibodies
 Natural and artificial refer to the method
of exposure or antibody transfer.
 are found in serum, which is plasma EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE LYMPHATIC
minus the clotting factors. SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
 Aging appears to have little effect on the
lymphatic system’s ability to remove
OVERVIEW OF IMMUNE INTERACTIONS
fluid from tissues, absorb lipids from the
 Innate immunity, antibody-mediated digestive tract, or remove defective red
immunity, and cell-mediated immunity blood cells from the blood.
can function together to eliminate an By age 40
antigen.  much of the thymus has been replaced
Innate Immunity with adipose tissue
- General response that does not improve after age 60
with subsequent exposure
 the thymus decreases in size to the point
Adaptive Immunity that it can be difficult to detect.
- Specific response that improves with
subsequent exposure; begins with a
 Both primary and secondary antibody
macrophage presenting an antigen to a
responses decrease with age. More
helper T cell
antigen is required to produce a
Antibody-mediated immunity
response, the response is slower, less
- Antibodies act against antigens in
antibody is produced, and fewer
solution or on the surfaces of
memory cells result.
extracellular microorganisms.
 Aging has little effect on the lymphatic
Cell-mediated immunity
system’s ability to remove fluid from
- Cytotoxic T cells act against antigens
tissues, absorb lipids from the digestive
bound to MHC molecules on the surface
tract, or remove defective red blood
of cells; they are effective against
cells from the blood.
intracellular microorganisms, tumors,
 Decreased helper T-cell proliferation
and transplanted cells.
results in decreased antibody mediated
and cell-mediated immune responses.
IMMUNOTHERAPHY
 The primary and secondary antibody
Knowledge of how the immune system operates
responses decrease with age.
has produced two fundamental benefits:
(1) an understanding of the cause and  The ability to resist intracellular
progression of many diseases and pathogens decreases with age.
(2) the development or proposed
development of methods to prevent,
stop, or even reverse diseases.

Immunotherapy
- treats disease by altering immune
system function or by directly attacking
harmful cells.
- Immunotherapy stimulates or inhibits
the immune system to treat diseases.