 

IUP Precalculus 2022 1 0

 
B=
 −3 1 , find the followings:

1 Matrics and Systems of Lin- 2 2
A + B, 3B, B − 2A.
ear Equations
Definition 1.1 An (m × n) matrix or a ma-
Theorem 1.4 Let A, B and C be m × n
trix of dimension m × n is a rectangular ar-
matrics and let c and d be scalars.
ray of numbers with m rows and n columns:
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n 1. A + B = B + A.
 
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 
  2. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
 . .. .. 
 .. . ··· . 
  3. c(dA) = (cd)A
am1 am2 · · · amn
4. (c + d)A = cA + dA; c(A + B) =
The numbers aij are the entries of the ma-
cA + cB.
trix. The subscript on aij means that it it in
the ith row and the jth column.
" #
2 3
Example 2 Given A = and B =
Definition 1.2 The matrics A = [aij ] and −5 1
" #
B = [bij ] are equal if and only if they have 4 −1
, solve the matrix equation
the same dimension m × n and aij = bij 1 3
for i = 1, 2, . . . , m and j = 1, 2, . . . , n. 2X − A = 4B
for the unknown matrix X.
Definition 1.3 Let A = [aij ] and B =
[bij ] be matrics of the same dimension m×n
Definition 1.5 If A = [aij ] is an m × n
and let c be any real number.
matrix and B = [bij ] is an n × k matrix,
1. The sum A + B is the m × n matrix then the product AB is the m × k matrix
[aij + bij ]. [cij ] where cij is the inner product of the ith
row of A and the jth column of B:
2. The difference A − B is the m × n
matrix [aij − bij ]. cij = ai1 b1j +ai2 b2j +· · ·+aik bkj +· · ·+ain bnj .

3. The scalar product cA is the m×n ma-

trix [caij ].

 
2 −3
 

Example 1 Given A = 0 5   and
7 −2

1
 Example 3 Evaluate the product AB and where x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are the unknowns and
aij , bi (i = 1, 2, . . . m, j = 1, 2, . . . , n)
BA if possible where
    are constants.
1 0 0 5 −3 2
    Example 6 The following system
  
A =  0 1 2 and B =  6 1 0.
−1 0 1 −2 5 2 4x1 − x2 + 3x3 = −1;
3x1 + x2 + 9x3 = −4

Example 4 Evaluate the product AB and is a system of linear equations.

BA if possible where
" # " # A system of linear equation
1 3 5 −3 2
A= and B = . a11 x1 +a12 x2 + · · · +a1n xn = b1
−1 0 6 1 0 a21 x1 +a22 x2 + · · · +a2n xn = b2
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
am1 x1 +am2 x2 + · · · +amn xn = bm
Theorem 1.6 Let A, B and C be matrics
can
 be written in matrix form
 as   
for which the following products can be ob- a11 a12 . . . a1n x1 b1
tained. Then  a21 a22 . . . a2n   x2   b2 
    
 .. .. ..   ..  =  ..  .
 . . .   .   . 
1. A(BC) = (AB)C.
am1 am2 . . . amn xn bn
2. A(B + C) = AB + AC. If we denote these matrices by A, x and b, respec-
tively, we have the equation
3. (B + C)A = BA + CA.
Ax = b.
The matrix A is called the coefficient matrix of
Remark 1.7 Even when both AB and BA are the system.
defined, they are not necessarily equal. The above system can be also written as the fol-
lowing augmented matrix:
 
Example 5 Write the following system of a11 a12 . . . a1n b1
 a21 a22 . . . a2n b2 
 
linear equations as a matrix equation.  .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . 
x − y + 3z = 4 am1 am2 . . . amn bm
x + 2y − 2z = 10
3x − y + 5z = 14 Example 7 Write the coefficient matrix and
the augmented matrix of the system of equa-
tions
Systems of Linear Equations
6x − 2y − z = 4
An arbitrary system of m linear equations in n
x + 3z = 1
unknowns can be written as
a11 x1 +a12 x2 + · · · +a1n xn = b1 7y + z = 5
a21 x1 +a22 x2 + · · · +a2n xn = b2
.. .. .. .. To solve a system of linear equations
. . . .
am1 x1 +am2 x2 + · · · +amn xn = bm
(1)

2
 2. Interchange two rows Ri and Rj , de-
Theorem 1.8 Every system of linear equa-
noted by Ri ↔ Rj .
tions has either no solutions, exactly one so-
lution, or infinitely many solutions. 3. Add the multiplication of k (̸= 0) with
the i-th row to the j-th row, denoted by
Rj + kRi .
Example 8 The system
x + y = 1; Two (m × n)-matrices A and B which can be
x − y = 0, transformed by finite times of elementary row op-
1 1 erations are row-equivalent, denoted by A ∼ B.
has exactly one solution x = , y = ,
2 2
while Theorem 1.10 Let S1 and S2 are two sys-
x + y = 4; tems of linear equations whose augmented
matrices are A1 and A2 , respectively. If
2x + 2y = 6,
A1 ∼ A2 , then two systems has the same
has no solution. Moreover,
solution set.
x + y = 1;
2x + 2y = 2, A matrix is in row-epsilon form if it satisfies the
following conditions:
has infinite many solutions.
1. The first nonzero number in each row is 1; it
is called the leading entry.
Elimination Method Adjust the coefficients;
take sum or substraction of a pair of the equations 2. The leading entry in each row is to the right
to eliminate one variable. Repeat this until only of the leading entry in the row immediately
one variable remaining. above it.
3. All rows consisting entirely of zeros are at the
Example 9 Find all solutions of the system. bottom of the matrix.
2x + y = 1 In addition, a matrix in row-epsilon form is said to
3x + 4y = 14 be in reduced row-epsilon form if every number
above and below each leading entry is 0.

Example 11 The matrix

Example 10 Solve the system.  
0 1 −1 0
x − 2y + 3z = 1  
1 0 3 4 
 
x + 2y − z = 13
0 0 0 1
3x + 2y − 5z = 3 is not in row-epsilon form. On the other hand,
the matrix  
Gaussian Elimination 1 3 −6 10
 
0 0 1 4
Definition 1.9 (Elementary Row Operations) 1.  
Multiply the i-th row through by a 0 0 0 1
nonzero constant k, denoted by kRi .

3
 is in row-epsilon form. Moreover, the matrix epsilon form and reduced row-epsilon form.
   
1 3 0 0 0 1 −2 1 1
   
0 0 1 0 −3 0 1 2 5 
   
0 0 0 1 1 
  1 1 3 8
0 0 0 0 0
is in reduced row-epsilon form.
Definition 1.11 Let A be an (m × n)-
To put a matrix in row-epsilon form matrix. After reducing A to row-echelon
form, the number of rows all of which are
• Consider the leftmost column that does
not consist entirely of zeros. not zero is called the rank of A, denoted by
rank A.
• Bring a nonzero entry of the leftmost
column to the top of the column.
 
• Obtain 1 in the top of the leftmost col-
1 4 −3 7
umn and obtain zeros of all of the rows  
below the top of the leftmost column. Example 14 The matrix 0 1 6 2


0 0 1 5
• Next, consider the submatrix eliminat-
ing the first row of the last matrix and has
 the rank
 3, while the matrix
repeat the above procedure on the re- 0 1 1 0
 
mained submatrix. (Make sure that this 0 0 1 2 has the rank 2.
 
leading 1 is to the right of the leading en- 0 0 0 0
try obtained before)
• Repeat the above procedure until the en-
We can determine the type of solutions by the fol-
tire matrix is in row-epsilon form.
lowing theorem.

The above procedure is called Gaussian elimina- Theorem 1.12 For a system of m linear
tion; in addition, if we execute Gaussian elimina-
tion and let the matrix to be in reduced row-epsilon equations in n unknowns, which is written as
form, the procedure is called Gauss-Jordan elim- Ax = b,
ination.
The equation has solutions if and only if the
Example 12 Put the following matrix in row- coefficient matrix A has the same rank as the
epsilon form and reduced row-epsilon form. augmented matrix [A|b]. Moreover, we ob-
 
4 8 −4 4 tain the followings:
 
 3 8 5 −11 
  1. if rank A = n, then the system has
−2 1 12 = 17 exactly one solution.

2. if rank A < n, then the system has

Example 13 Put the following matrix in row- infinitely many solutions.

4
Example 15 Solve the following systems us-
ing Gaussian Elimination.

1.
2x + 3y = 3
x − 2y = 5
3x + 2y = 7

2.
x + 2y − 3z − 4w = 10
x + 3y − 3z − 4w = 15
2x + 2y − 6z − 8w = 10

Example 16 Solve the system

x + 2y − z = 9
2x − z = −2
3x + 5y + 2z = 22

Example 17 Solve the system

x − 3y + 2z = 12
2x − 5y + 5z = 14
x − 2y + 3z = 20

Example 18 Find the complete solution of

the system.
x1 + 2x2 + x3 − 3x4 = 1
2x1 + 5x2 − 7x4 = 1
−x1 + x2 − 7x3 + 9x4 = −4
3x1 + 8x2 − x3 − 5x4 = 1

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Determinants and Cramer’s Rule Example 21 Evaluate det A of
 
Definition 1.13" The determinant
# of the 2×
2 3 −1
a b  
2 matrix A = is A=  0 2 4 

c d
  −2 5 6
a b 
 
det(A) = |A| =   = ad − bc
 c d
Example 22 Evaluate det A of
 
2 −3 4
Example 19 Evaluate det(A) of  
" # A=  1 0 6 

6 −3 3 −2 0
A=
2 3

Theorem 1.16 (Cramer’s Rule) If a sys-

Definition 1.14 (Minors and Cofactors) Let
tem of n linear equations in the n variables
A be an n × n matrix.
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn has the matrix form AX =
1. The minor Mij of the element aij is B, and if |A| ̸= 0, then the solutions are
the determinant of the matrix obtained |Ax1 | |Ax2 |
x1 = , x2 = ,...,
by deleing the ith row and the jth col- |A| |A|
|Axn |
umn of A. xn = ,
|A|
2. The cofactor Aij of the element aij is where Axi is the matrix obtained by replac-
Aij = (−1)i+j Mij . ing the ith column of A by the matrix B.

Example 20 Find the minor M12 and the Example 23 Solve the system
cofactor A12 of the matrix 2x − y = −9
 
2 3 −1 x + 2y = 8
 
A=  0 2 4 

−2 5 6
Example 24 Solve the system
2x + 3y − 5z = 1
Theorem 1.15 If A is an n × n matrix, then x+y−z =2
the determinant of A is obtained by
2y + z = 8
det(A)
= a11 A11 + a12 A12 + · · · + a1n A1n .
(this method is called expanding the deter-
minant by the first row)

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