CSIR-UGC(NET)

Physical Sciences
SAMPLE

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

Quantum Mechanics

1. QUANTUM MECHANICS

Quantum theory represents a generalization of classical physics. Just as classical physics fails
for speeds approaching the speed of light and special relatively should be used. Classical physics fail
for the description of subatomic particles and quantum mechanics must be used. On the basis of
quantum mechanics the problem of spectra of black body, photo electric effect, Compton scattering etc
can be explained while classical mechanics fail to explain such phenomena.
Spectra of Black Body
A black body is one in which it absorbs all the radiation incident on it. That, the spectrum is
independent of the composition shape its of the black body and dependent only on its temperature.
Rayleigh and jeans attempted to explain black body radiation using classical physics but Rayleigh Jeans
prediction does not match the experimental observation except for small v. At large v, it diverges. This
failure of the prediction based on classical physics is known as ultraviolet catastrophe.

Rayleigh Jeans
prediction

Experimental result

v
Planck’s Theory of Cavity Radiation
Max Planck found by an interpolation between the low frequency Rayleigh Jeans formula and
the high frequency Wien formula (which predicts that u(v) ~ ev/T using a model of radiation matter
interaction)
8h v3
u(v,t)  ...(1)
c 3 (ehv / kT  1)
The form of u(v, T) as proposed by Planck matches with experimental observations. In particular,
the law frequency limit v  0
8kT 2
u(v,T)  v
c3
which is exactly the Rayleigh Jeans formula.
At high frequency, v  
8h 3 hv / kT
u(v,T)  v e ...(2)
c3
which is of the form prediction by Wien.
Rewriting the Planck formula in the form
 8 v 2  hv
u(v,T)   3  hv / kT ...(3)
 c e 1
hv
This suggests that the average energy of a mass is hv / kT
e 1

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

When’s Displacement Law

This law states that the wavelength where the energy density is maximum. max and product of
the temperature T is a constant
max T = 0.289 cm-K
To find the maximum of u(v, T)

du 8h d  v3 
= c 3 dv  (ehv / kT  1) 
dv  
For, u to be maximum

du
= 0
dv
h hv/kT
so, 3v2 (ehv/kT –1) = v3 e
kT
hv hc
Let  = x
kT kT
The above equation becomes
x
e–x + = 1
5
A numerical solution gives x = 4.965

hc
or max T = kT 4.965 = 0.288 cm-K ...(4)

This is Wien’s Displacement formula.

The Photoelectric Effect
Experimental Facts : Heinrich Hertz found out experimentally that, electrons were ejected from
a metallic surface when light is incident on it. The variation of current versus potential difference, V is
given by
i

Ia
a
Ib
b

V0 V
There is a stopping potential V0, for which no current flows. As V increases current soon reaches
a saturation value. For a different intensity of light, the saturation value of current charges but the
stopping potential remains same as long as the wavelength of incident light is kept fixed.
The features of photoelectric effect were not fully explained by classic using Planck’s quantum
theory. According to Einstein, when it hits a photo metal, a photon is completely absorbed by an
electron. The kinetic energy of the ejected electron will be KE = hv – W.
where W is the work done needed to overcome the attractive binding forces and also collisions
with other atoms as it comes out. KE is maximum when W is minimum, say W 0
KEmax = hv – W 0

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

The minimum amount of work done needed to pull out the most loosely bounded electron and
assuming no collisions on the way out is called the work function, W 0. In terms of the stopping potential
V0,
eV0 = hv – W 0
The existence of a minimum frequency is obvious because hv  W 0

W0
v min 
h
Whether an electron is ejected from the metal or not does not depend on the intensity or the
number of photons per unit volume but on the frequency, v. So, the electron current does not depend
on the frequency but on the intensity. Current depends on the number electrons ejected and this
depends on the intensity. If the incident frequency v is less than vmin, no matter how high the intensity,
no photon can eject on electron because hvmin is the minimum energy required. As one photon is
absorbed by an electron, there is also no time lag. Thus, Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect explains
all the observed phenomena which could not be reconciled with classical wave theory.
Compton Scattering
When a beam of X-rays of sharply defined wavelength  falls on a graphite target, and scattered
rays intensity measured, the scattered X-ray consists of the two wavelengths, one at , the same as
the incident X-ray, and ’ a wavelengths larger than . This Compton shift  = ’ –  depends on the
angle at which the scattered X-rays are observed.
e

 

’
The presence of a larger wavelength could not be explained by classical physics. Following
Einstein’s hypothesis of photons, as energy bundles possessing momentum, Compton explained the
experimental results ad due to particle like collisions between photon and electron.
Momentum conservation gives
  
k  k   p ...(5)

h 2 h
where, k  
2  

k  


and p = linear momentum of the scattered electron
 
k  hk  p
Squaring
2 k2 + 2 k’2 – 22 kk’ cos  = p2

h2 h2 2h2
or 2
 2  cos   p2
  
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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

Energy conservation gives

hv  hv ' m02c 4  p2c 2  m0c 2 ...(6)

where, m0 is the rest mass of the electron.

2
 hc hc 
   m0 c 2   m02 c 4  p 2c 2
   

2
 hc hc  2  hc hc  2 2
or        2m0 c       p c
   

2h2 h h  2h2 cos 

  2m0 c     
     

h
Thus,     m c 1  cos   ...(7)
0

= c (1 – cos )

h
c = = 0.0243, Å is called Compton wavelength
m0 c

 = ’ –  is maximum, when  = 

2h
 = m c
0

and minimum, when  = 0

 = 0
In the analysis given above the target electron is assumed to be free. But electrons in an atom
are bounded to atoms. When the incident radiation is in X-ray region, the energy of photon is much
larger than the binding energy of the electron. So, the electron can be regarded as essentially free.
For deeply located electrons, it is tightly bound or for lower photon energies, the whole atom
participates in the collision. Then M, the mass of the atom is to be used in place of m0 in,

h
 = (1 – cos )
m0 c

As, M >> m0
  0
Hence, there is no change in the wavelength of scattered light.

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

2. WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY

Light shows the phenomena of interference, diffraction, polarisation, photoelectric effect, Compton
effect and discrete emission and absorption of radiation. The phenomena of interference, diffraction and
polarisation can only be explained on the basis of wave theory of light. These phenomena show that
light possesses wave nature. On the other hand the phenomena of photoelectric effect, Compton effect
and discrete emission and absorption of radiation can only be explained on the basis of quantum theory
of light, according to which light is propagated in small packets or bundles of energy hor hv. These
packets are called photons or quanta and behave like corpuscles. Thus these latter phenomena indicate
that light possesses corpuscular (or particle) nature. Thus we can say that light possesses dual nature.
In some experiments it behaves as waves while in other experiments it behaves as particles.
In 1923-24, de Broglie proposed that the idea of dual nature (i.e. wave-particle duality) should be
extended to all micro-particles, associating both wave and corpuscular characteristics with every particle.
The experiments such as those in which e/m of the material particles (electron, -particle etc.) is
measured, indicate that the matter (i.e. material particles) possesses particle nature.
Upto 1923 the matter was considered to be completely corpuscular in nature: but in that year Louis de
Broglie proposed that a material particle such as an electron, proton etc., might have dual nature, just
as light does. According to de Broglie a moving particle, whatever its nature, has wave properties
associated with it. De Broglie proposed that the wavelength  associated with any moving particle of
momentum p (mass m and velocity v) is given by
h h
 
p mv '
where h is Planck’s constant.
The waves associated with material particles are called the matter waves or de-Broglie waves.
The particle and wave properties are strictly complementary. A material particle cannot behave as a
particle and a wave at the same instant of time. If we devise an experiment showing wave properties
of the matter, we cannot see its particle properties and vice-versa. The following scheme shows the
equivalence between the wave and particle properties of the matter.

Particle property Wave property

momentum wavelength
energy frequency

Wave Functions In Coordinate and Momentum Representation

The wave function  for a free particle satisfies the Schroendinger differential equation

  2  2
i  0 ...(1)
t 2m x 2
It is satisfied by a function
 = Aei(kx – t) ...(2)
Since eq. (2) is a solution of the Schroedinger’s equation for any value of k and corresponding
2
 hk 
to       , we write specifically this fact by a subscript k on 
 2m 

 k (x, t)  A(k)ei(kx k t) ...(3)
General solution shall be linear superposition of all such solutions, i.e.

(x, t)  A(k)e(ikx k t ) dk. ...(4)

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

at instant
t = 0
1  ikx
(x,0)   A(k)e
dx 
2 

1 ...(5)
A(k)    (x,0)e dx 
–ikx

2 

This is Fourier transform pair: knowledge of either function enables us to find the other. Like ,
A(k) also completely specifies the state of a free particle system. Just as ||2dx represents the probability
that the particle lies between x and x + dx, in the same way |A(k)|2dk is probability that the particle’s
momentum lies between hk and h(k + dk). We therefore call A(k) the momentum wave function.
To find out momentum wave function at other instants (t  0), we write

1
 (x,t)   [A(k)e
–ik t
] eikx dx.
2

Now, by inverse Fourier transformation, we obtain

1
A(k)–ik t  [ (x,t)e –ikx dx]
2

1
or A(k)  e  ik t  (x, t)e –ikx dx ...(6)
2

From the fact that a knowledge of  enables us to find A(k) and vice versa, if follows that these
two functions give us two different representations of the same state. They contain essentially the same
information about the system. The two equally valid representations ae called the coordinate representation
and the momentum representation respectively.
Ex. Show that the functions
1/ 2 1/2 1/2
 1   1  1
1    , 2    cos x,  3    sin x
 2   

in the interval x = 0 to x = 2 are orthogonal to each other.

1/2 1/2
2  1   1 1 2
Sol.   2     cos x dx   cos s dx
0 0
   2 

1 1
 [sin x]02   [sin 2 – sin 0]  0
 2  2

2 1 2 1 2
  2  3 dx   sin x cos x d x sin 2x dx
0  0 2 0

1
 [– cos 2 – (– cos 0)]  0
4
Similarly,
2
 1 3 dx  0
0

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

Ex. The function given below is defined in the interval x = –a to x = + a

y1 (x) = N1 (a2 – x2)
Assuming the functions to be zero for x < –a and x > + a find the values of the normalisation
constant N1.
a
Sol. N12  (a2 – x 2 )dx  1
a

a
 2 x5 
or N a 4 x  a 2 x 3    1
2
1
 3 5  a

 4 2
or N12  a5  2     1
 5 5

15
or N12 
16a5

15
or N1 
16a5

  2t  
Ex. The wave function of particle is (x) = A exp i  x 
2m   . What is the expectation value of its
s
  

momentum ?
Sol. The expectation value of the momentum is

   
P     *  i dx

 x 

The value,

   2t  
i  Ai  i   exp i  x  
x  2m  

= + i  h
Hence the expectation value is

 P      *  dx  



Since,   *  dx  1


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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

3. COMMUTATORS

Quantum mechanical commutators have the following properties

[A,B]
ˆ ˆ  – [B,
ˆ A]
ˆ ...(i)

[A,B
ˆ ˆ  C]
ˆ  [A,B]
ˆ ˆ  [A,C]
ˆ ˆ ...(ii)

[A,B,C]
ˆ ˆ ˆ  [A,C]
ˆ ˆ  [B,C]
ˆ ˆ ...(iii)

[A,B,C]
ˆ ˆ ˆ  [A,B]C
ˆ ˆ ˆ  B[A,C]
ˆ ˆ ˆ ...(iv)

[AB,C]
ˆ ˆ ˆ  [A,C]B
ˆ ˆ ˆ  A[B,C]
ˆ ˆ ˆ ...(v)

[A,[B,C]]
ˆ ˆ ˆ  [B,[C,
ˆ ˆ A]]
ˆ  [C,[A,B]]
ˆ ˆ ˆ 0 ...(vi)
Proof :

As [A,B]
ˆ ˆ  A,B
ˆ ˆ – BA.
ˆˆ

(i) [A,B]
ˆ ˆ  A,B
ˆ ˆ – BA
ˆˆ

ˆ ˆ – AB)
 – (BA ˆˆ

i.e., [A,B]
ˆ ˆ  – [B,
ˆ A]
ˆ

(ii) [A,B
ˆ ˆ  C]
ˆ  A(B
ˆ ˆ  C)
ˆ  (Bˆ  C)A
ˆ ˆ

 AB
ˆ ˆ  AC
ˆ ˆ – BA ˆˆ
ˆ ˆ – CA

 AB
ˆ ˆ  BA
ˆ ˆ  AC
ˆ ˆ – CA
ˆˆ

 [A,B]
ˆ ˆ  [A,C]
ˆ ˆ

(iii) [Aˆ  B,C]

ˆ ˆ  (Aˆ  B)C
ˆ ˆ  C(A
ˆ ˆ  B)
ˆ

 AC
ˆ ˆ  BC
ˆ ˆ  CA
ˆ ˆ  CB
ˆˆ

 (AC
ˆ ˆ  CA)
ˆ ˆ  (BC
ˆ ˆ  CB)
ˆˆ

 [A,C]
ˆ ˆ  [B,C]
ˆ ˆ

(iv) [A,BC]
ˆ ˆ ˆ  ABC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  BCA
ˆˆˆ

Adding and subtracting BAC

ˆ ˆ ˆ , we get

[A,BC]
ˆ ˆ ˆ  ABC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  BCA
ˆ ˆ ˆ  BAC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  BAC
ˆˆˆ

 ABC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  BAC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  BAC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  BCA
ˆˆˆ

 (AB
ˆ ˆ  BA)C
ˆ ˆ ˆ  B(AC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  CA)
ˆˆ

[A,B]C
ˆ ˆ ˆ  B[A,C]
ˆ ˆ ˆ

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

(v) [AB,C]
ˆ ˆ ˆ  ABC
ˆ ˆ ˆ – CAB
ˆˆˆ

Adding and subtracting ACB

ˆˆˆ

[AB,C]
ˆ ˆ ˆ  ABC
ˆ ˆ ˆ – CAB
ˆ ˆ ˆ  ACB
ˆ ˆ ˆ  ACB
ˆˆ

 A(BC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  CB)
ˆ ˆ  (AC
ˆ ˆ  CB)B
ˆˆ ˆ

 A[B,
ˆ ˆ C]
ˆ  [A,
ˆ C]B
ˆ ˆ

(vi) [A,[B,C]]
ˆ ˆ ˆ  A[B,C]
ˆ ˆ ˆ – [B,C]A
ˆ ˆ ˆ  A(BC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  CB)
ˆ ˆ  (BC
ˆ ˆ  CB)A
ˆˆ ˆ

 ABC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  ACB
ˆ ˆ ˆ  BCA
ˆ ˆ ˆ  CBA
ˆˆˆ ...(1)

Similarly. [B,C,
ˆ ˆ A]
ˆ  BCA
ˆ ˆ ˆ  BAC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  CAB
ˆ ˆ ˆ  ACB
ˆˆ ˆ ...(2)

and [C,[A,B]]
ˆ ˆ ˆ  CAB
ˆ ˆ ˆ  CBA
ˆ ˆ ˆ  ABC
ˆ ˆ ˆ  BAC
ˆˆˆ
Adding (1), (2), (3), we get
[A,[B,C]]
ˆ ˆ ˆ  [B,[C,
ˆ ˆ A]]
ˆ  [C,[A,B]]
ˆ ˆ ˆ 0
(a) Commutation Relation between Position and Momentum:
(i) For commutation of x and px,

 
where x  xˆ and px  pˆ 
i x
Consider the operation of [x, px] on a function (x,)
i.e. [x,p
ˆ ˆ x ](x)  (xp
ˆ ˆ x  pˆ x x)
ˆ (x).
We have
 nx ,ny ,nz

    
and pˆ x xˆ   (x )     x .
i x i x 

 Equation (1) gives

     
[x,p
ˆ ˆ x ]  x    x
i x i x 

     
 x x     i
i  x x  i

i.e. [x,p
ˆ ˆ x ]  i

Also [xˆ 2 ,pˆ x ]  [xx,p

ˆˆ ˆx]

 [x,p
ˆ ˆ x ]xˆ  x[x,p
ˆ ˆ ˆx] (since [ab, c] = [a, c] b + a [b, c])

 ixˆ  xi
ˆ

 2ihx.
ˆ ...(3)

Similarly, [xˆ 3 ,pˆ x ]  [xx

ˆ ˆ 2 ,pˆ x ]  x[x
ˆ ˆ 2 ,pˆ x ]  [x,p
ˆ ˆ x ]xˆ 2

ˆ xˆ  ixˆ 2
 x2i

 3ixˆ 2 ...(4)

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

Therefore by induction, we have

[xˆ n ,pˆ x ]  nixˆ n1 ...(5)

(ii) ˆ ˆ 2x   [x,p
 x,p ˆ ˆ x ,pˆ x ]  [x,p
ˆ ˆ x ]pˆ x  pˆ x [x,p
ˆ ˆx]

 ipˆ x  p x ˆi

  x,pˆ 2x   2ipˆ x ...(6)

3 2
Similarly,  x̂,pˆ x   3ihpˆ x . ...(7)

(iii) For commutation of position operator x and momentum operator

h 
p̂ y  ,
i y
   
[x,p
ˆ ˆ y ]  (xp
ˆ ˆ y  pˆ y x)
ˆ x  (x )
i y i y
  h 
x  x
i y i y
= 0. ...(8)
[x,p
ˆ ˆ y ]  0. ...(9)
(iv) Similarly
[x,
ˆ y]
ˆ  xy
ˆ ˆ  yx
ˆˆ  0

and [pˆ x , pˆ y ]   (pˆ x pˆ y  pˆ y pˆ x ) 

        
    
 i x i y  i y i x

 2 2
  2  2 0
xy yx

[pˆ x ,pˆ y ]  0. ...(10)

Ex. Show that if two operators A

 and B
 are Hermitian, then their product A  is also Hermitian if
 B

and only if A
 and B
 commute.

Sol. Since A  = B
 B  , the integral
 A

  * (AB)
   d   * (BA)
    d   * B(A
  )d

If B
 is Hermitian, the following relation exists
s

  * B(A
 )d  (A
 )(B ) *d
  (B
 ) * .(A
 ) d

  A * (B
 ) * d ( A
 Hermitian)

  (AB) *  * d

That is, A  is also Hermitian.

 B

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

n h
Ex. Show that [xˆ ,pˆ x ]   nxn 1
2i
where n is a positive number.

  h d  h d n 
Sol. (xnp x  p x xn )   xn   (x ) 
  2i dx  2i dx 

h n d h h n d
 x  nx n1  x
2i dx 2i 2i dx

h
  nxn1
2i

h
[xˆ n ,pˆ x ]  nx n1
2i

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

4. HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

This principle states that it is impossible to mention accurately and simultaneously the values of
both the members of particular pairs of physical quantities that dictate the behaviour of an atomic
system. Some examples of such conjugate quantities are given below:
(i) The position x of a particle in a rectangular coordinate and the corresponding momentum
component px,
(ii) The angular position of a particle in the perpendicular y-z plane and the corresponding
angular momentum component Jx,
(iii) The energy E of a particle and the time t of its measurement.
Quantitatively, the uncertainty principle states that the order of magnitude of the product of the
uncertainties in the values of the two conjugate quantities must be at least equal to the reduced Planck’s
constant h. Thus, if  and  are two canonically conjugate quantities, then
      , …(1)

where   and   are the uncertainties in  and .
For the examples given above, the uncertainty relations are:
x  px    , …(2)

  Jx    , …(3)

t  Ex    …(4)

Application of Uncertainty Principle
(a) Nonexistence of free Electrons in an Atomic Nucleus
It is known that the rest mass of an electrons is m0 = 9.11 × 10-31 kg, the diameter of an atomic
nucleus is about 2 × 10-14m, and the maximum possible kinetic energy of an electron emitted from a
radioactive nucleus is 4 MeV.
If it is possible for an electron to exist in the nucleus, it would lie anywhere within the diameter
d of the nucleus. Thus the maximum uncertainty in the position of the electron would be
x = d = 2 × 10–4m
According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, we have
xp   ,
where p is the uncertainty in the momentum of the electron. The minimum uncertainty in the
momentum will be
1.054  10 34 J.s
 0.527  10 20 kg.m.s 1

p   14
x 2  10 m
Therefore, the minimum momentum of the electron, if it exists in the nucleus, would be
pmin = p = 0.527 × 10-20 kg.m.s–1.
The total relativistic energy E of the electron is expressed by
E2 = p2c2 = m20c4,
where c is the velocity of light in free space.
For the electron with the minimum momentum pmin, the minimum energy Emin would hence be
given by
Emin2 = p2minc2 + m20c4,
Substituting c = 3 × 108 m.s–1 and the values of m0 and pmin given above, we get

1.58  1012
Emin  1.58  10 12 J  ev  9.88MeV
1.6  1019
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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

That is, a free electron must have an energy of a least 9.88 MeV in order to exist in the nucleus.
As the maximum kinetic energy of an electron emitted from a radioactive nucleus is only 4 MeV, it
follows that free electrons cannot exist in atomic nuclei.
(b) First Bohr Radius of the Hydrogen Atom
Let r denote the orbital radius of the electron revolving round the nucleus in the hydrogen atom.
The maximum uncertainty in the position of the electron with respect to the nucleus is x = r.
Using the uncertainty principle, the minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the electron is
found to be

 
p  
x r
The minimum possible value of the momentum would be


p m in   p 
r
The kinetic energy of the electrons is

p 2min 2
K.E.   ,
2m 2mr 2
and the potential energy of the electrons is (in SI units)

e2
P.E.   ,
40r

where 0 is the permittivity of free space. The total energy of the electron is

2 e2
E  K.E.  P.E.  
2mr 2 40r

In the ground state, the energy E would attain a minimum value Emin and the radius r would attain
the value a0 where a0 is the first Bohr radius. For the energy E to be a minimum, we have.

 dE 
 dr   0,
 r a0

which yields

40 2  2
a0  2
 0 2
me me
This is the familiar expression for the first Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom. Substituting 0 =
8.854 × 10–12 F.m–1, h = 6.62 × 10–34 J.s, m = 9.11 × 10–31 kg, and e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, we obtain a0 =
5.3 × 10–11 m.

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

5. DIRAC’S BRA AND KET NOTATION

According to Dirac each dynamical state may be represented by a certain type of vector known
as ket vector or ket represented by symbol | >. In order to distinguish the kets from each other, we
complete each symbol by inserting a particular letter in the middle. For example | a> denotes the ket
vector corresponding to state a of the system (a in old notation).
The kets form a linear vector space: any linear combination of several ket vectors is also a ket
vector. For example let us consider two kets | a> and | b> and two arbitrary complex numbers c1 and
c2, the linear combination.
|  > = c1 | a > + c2 | b > (vector of ket space) ...(1)
Accordingly ket vectors may be multiplied by complex numbers and added together to give
other ket vectors.
If a ket vector may be expressed linearly in terms of certain other ket vectors, it is said to be
dependent on them. A set of ket vectors are said to be independent if no one of them is expressible
linearly in terms of others. It is well known in linear algebra that with every vector space one can
associate a dual vector space. The vectors of dual space are called bra vectors or simply bras and
denote in general one of them by the symbol < | , the mirror image of the symbol for a ket vector. If
one wants to specify a particular one of them by a label b, say, it is written in the middle as < b |
The two spaces –bra and ket, are said to be dual to each other, If the ket space has a finite
number of dimensions, the dual space (bra space) has the same number of dimension. The bra
conjugate to ket | a > is represented by the symbol <a |; subjected to conditions
| a > + | b > < a | + < b |
and c | a >  c* < a |
where the arrow indicates the correspondence between the two spaces. Each one of the two
spaces, taken by itself, is a linear space, The connection between dual spaces is given by defining the
scalar product of a bra vector and a ket vector such that

 a  b   (  a ,  b )    *a b dq

expressing the new notation in terms of old. It is convention to omit the double bar and write

 a | b   (  a ,  b )    *a  b dq

Thus we may look upon the symbols <and> as a distinct kind of bracket. The scalar product <a
| b> now appears as a complete bracket expression and a bra vector <a | or a ket vector | b> as an
incomplete bracket expression. Now we have the rules that any complete bracket expression denotes
a number and any incomplete bracket expression denotes a vector of the bra or ket space according
to whether it contains the first or second part of bracket. The first three (bra) and the three ket letters
of bracket provide the names for the two kinds of state vectors (bra and ket). The bra vector < | is
analogous to the complex conjugate (or Hermitian adjoint) of the wave function of the system. Evidently
we have
<a | b> = <b | a>*
<a | {| b> + | b’>} = <a | b> + <a | b’>
<a | {c | b>} = c <a | b>
where c is any number.
The bra conjugate to ket
| > = c1 | a> + | c2 | b>
is <  | = c1* < a | + c2* | <b |
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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

Thus the correspondence between the kets and bras is analogous to the correspondence between
the wave functions of wave mechanics and their complex conjugates. We further note that if a ket
vanishes, its conjugate bra also vanishes and vice versa.
A bra and a ket vectors are said to be orthogonal if their scalar product is zero and the two bras
or two kets said to be orthogonal if the scalar product of one with the conjugate imaginary of the other
is zero. Further we shall say that the two states of our dynamical system are orthogonal if the vector
corresponding to these states are orthogonal.
The length of a bra vector < a | or of its conjugate imaginary ket vector | a > is defined as the
square root of the possible number <a | a>.

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

QUESTION WITH SOLUTION

1. A free particle with energy E whose wavefunction is a plane wave with wavelength  enters a
v
region of constant potential v > 0. Where the wavelength to the particle is 2. The ratio  
E
is
1 2
(A) (B)
2 3
3 4
(C) (D)
4 5

2. The energy density of state of an electron in a one-dimensional potential wells of Infinitely high
walls is (the symbols have their usual meanings).

L m Lm
(A) (B)
(  2E) ( E)
Lm L m
(C) (D)
 2E 2E

3. The above figure shows the plot of the wave function un for an electron confined in a box form
X = 0 to X = L, the quantum number of the above state n is

X=0 X=L
(A) 3 (B) 4
(C) 5 (D) 6

4. Consider 8 electrons in a one-dimensional box of length a extending form x = 0 to x = a. What

is the min. allowed total energy using pauli's exclusion principle for the system ? (m = mass of
electron)
10h2 8h2
(A) (B)
ma2 ma2
15h2 15h2
(C) (D)
4ma 2 2ma 2
v0 3v
5. A particle with energy coming form left encounters a potential  at x = 0. v(x) = 0 for
2 2
3v 0
x < a and v(x)   for x > a, transmission coefficient is
2
1 2
(A) (B)
2 3
4 8
(C) (D)
9 9

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

2 x  it / h L L
6. If   cos e then < x > in the limit   x  is
L L 2 2

3
(A) (B) 0
4L
1 L
(C) (D)
4L 2

7. The duration of radar pulser is 10–6 s. The uncertainty in its energy would be
(A) 0 (B) 1.05 × 10–35 J
(C) 1.05 × 10–28 J (D) 1.05 × 10–21 J

8. The uncertainty in the location of a particle is equal to de-Broglie wavelength then the uncertainty
in its velocity is
v
(A) v (B)
2
3
(C) 2v (D) v
2

 
9. The wave function of a certain particle is  = Acos2x for – to , then the value of A is
2 2

8 3
(A) (B)
3 8

1 3
(C) (D)
2 2

10. The wave function in the ground state of hydrogen atom is given as
 = Ae–r/a
where r-measures distance from nucleus and a is constant. The value of A is
1 1
(A) (B)
a a3
1 1
(C) (D)
a 52

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

SOLUTIONS

1. (C) For free particle

p2 h2
E  2 ...(1)
2m  2m

h2
KE  E  v  ...(2)
(2 )2  2m
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1),

v 3
 
E 4
2. (A) For one-dimensional potential well

n 2h2 8mL2E
Eh   n 
8nL2 h2

dn L m
Energy density = 
dE  2E

3. (C) Quantum Number = Number of maxima of minima of .

= 5.

n2h2
4. (C)  En 
8ma2
 E = E1 + E2 + ... + E5

h2
 E [12  22  32  42  52  62  72  82 ]
8ma2

15h 2
 E
4m a 2
5. (C) Transmission coefficient

2
 v 0 3v 0 
2  2 
  4
2
 3v 0  9
 2 
 

6. (B)  Given function is odd.

7. (C) E.t  

 6.6  10 34
E = =
t 2    106

1.05  10 34 J  s
=
10 6 s
= 1.05 × 10–28 J

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

h
8. (A)     =
mv
From uncertainty principle,
 .p ~ h

h h
     p ~  = mv
  h 
 mv 
 

     p = mv ...(1)
Now p = mv or p = mv ...(2)
From (1) and (2)
m v = mv
or     v = v

9. (A) P =   *  dx  1
2
 A2  A cos2 x.A cos2 x dx  1
l2

A2  / 2  1  cos 2x   1  cos 2x 

4   / 2  2  2  dx  1
  

A2 / 2
2

4   / 2
1  2 cos 2x  cos 2x dx  1

A2  / 2 1  cos 4x
  (1  2 cos 2x  )dx  1
4  / 2 2

A2 /2 1  A2
 1
 / 2  2   4

4

/ 2  cos 4x 
  / 2  2cos 2x  2  dx  1
 

A2 3    
 ·  0 1
4 2  2 2 

3
or A2 ( )  1
8

 8 
or A  
 3 

10. (B) P =   *  d  1
r / a
 A e dz

  2
= A2    e 2r / a .r 2 sin  d d  1
0 0 0

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 Physical Sciences (Sample)

 d = r2 dr sin  d d

 A2 . 4  e 2r / a .r 2 dr  1
0

3   m
 A2.4p × 1   e  ax xm 1dx  
3

0 am 
 2
 
a

2 1 3
A 2 . 4  a 1
23
1
 A
a3

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