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CONTENT

Chapter-1 :Disaster and Disaster Management

a) Introduction
b) Terms related to disaster and disaster management
c) Classification of disaster
d) Causes of Disaster
e) Effect of Disaster
f) Disaster Management

Chapter -2 : Earthquake
a) Introduction
b) Terms related to earthquake
c) Classification
d) Magnitude and Intensity
e) Major causes
f) Fault and its types
g) Wave produced due to earthquake
h) Consequence
i) World distribution of earthquake
j) Distribution of earthquake in India
k) Earthquake prediction
l) Safety rules

Chapter -3 : A case study on earthquake,

NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE :-

a) Koyna Earthquake of 1967

b) Bihar – Nepal Earthquake of 1988
c) Killari (Latur) Earthquake of 1993
d) Bhuj Earthquake of 2001
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WORLD PERSPECTIVE :-
a) Nepal Earhquake of 2015
b) Haiti Earhquake in 2021
c) Afghanistan Earhquake in 2022
d) Turkey – Syria Earhquake in 2023

Chapter -4 : Conclusion and Reference

CHAPTER – 1 :Disaster and Disaster Management

Introduction
The word disaster implies a sudden overwhelming and unforeseen event. At the household
level, a disaster could result in a major illness, death, a substantial economic or social
misfortune. At the community level, it could be a flood, a fire, a collapse of buildings in an
earthquake, the destruction of livelihoods, an epidemic or displacement through conflict.
When occurring at district or provincial level, a large number of people can be affected. Most
disasters result in the inability of those affected to cope with outside assistance. At the
household level, this could mean dealing with the help from neighbours; at the national level,
assistance from organizations such as the International Federation of Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies, the United Nations, various nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and
government agencies themselves. As the limiting factor in disaster response is often the
coping capacity of those affected, improving their resilience when responding to disasters is a
key approach to lessening the consequence of a disaster.

The term ―DISASTER‖ owes its origin to French word ―Disastre‖, a combination of two
words ―Des‖ meaning ―Bad‖ and ―Aster‖ meaning ―Star‖ thus the term Disaster refers to
―Bad or Evil Star‖.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a disaster as ―a sudden ecological

phenomenon of sufficient magnitude to require external assistance‖.

It is also defined as any event, typically occurring suddenly, that causes damage, ecological
disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services, and which exceeds
the capacity of the affected community on a scale sufficient to require outside assistance
(Landsman, 2001).

Disasters are events that occur when significant numbers of people are exposed to extreme
events to which they are vulnerable, with resulting injury and loss of life, often combined
with damage to property and livelihoods.
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Disasters, commonly leading to emergency situations, occur in diverse situations in all parts
of the world, in both sparsely populated rural and densely populated urban regions, as well as
in situations involving natural and man-made hazards. Disasters are often classified according
to their speed of onset (sudden or slow), their cause (natural or man-made), or their scale
(major or minor).

Terms related to disaster and disaster management:-

Disaster:- Disasters, whether natural or anthropogenic, are sudden adverse unfortunate and
extreme events. It is the result of an immediate situation on a long process. Disasters occur
rapidly, instantaneously and indiscriminately, which disrupts normal human life in its
established social, economic and traditional system.

The United Nations declared the 1990s as the international Decade of Disaster Reduction.
The India Disaster Report of 2000 identified certain types of disasters, which may be broadly
categorized into natural and human induced.

Hazards:- It can be defined as a potentially damaging physical event, social and economic
disruption or environmental degradation; Hazards can be the created by man on the
environment. A hazard may become disaster only when it strikes the inhabited area. Thus, all
the extreme events are hazards but not all the hazards are disaster.

Vulnerability:- It refers to capable of or susceptible to a particular hazard and disaster, or the

ability of a person or community has, to predict, cope with, or avoid and recover from the
consequences of a hazard or disaster. Vulnerability is thus the probability of being damaged,
destroyed or lost because of a natural hazard.

Risk:- Risk is usually with the human inability to cope with a particular situation. In terms of
disaster management it can be defined as the probability of harmful consequences, or
expected losses of death, injury, damage to property and the environment, jobs, disruption of
economic activity or social systems, undeniably usually poorer communities will be more at
risk than others.

Emergency:- An emergency can be soon as a local event within a community that affects a
limited number of people or property. An emergency could require extreme measures to
correct and cope with, but can usually be managed by the community itself, using its own
resources.

Environmental stress:- When the cumulative effects of environment hazards, environmental

disasters and other forms of environment degradation and pollution become so immense that
the tolerance limit of the natural environment to assimilate them is surpassed and the
environmental balance is disturbed, the resultant state of the highly disturbed natural
environment is called environmental stress.

Classification of disaster
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Disasters are classified as per origin, into natural disasters and man-made/anthropogenic
disasters.

1.Natural Disaster:According to the International Federation of Red Cross & Red

Crescent Societies Natural Disasters are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused
either by rapid or slow onset events that have immediate impacts on human health and
secondary impacts causing further death and suffering. These disasters can be

 Geophysical (e.g. Earthquakes, Landslides, Tsunamis and Volcanic Activity)

 Hydrological (e.g. Avalanches and Floods)
 Climatological (e.g. Extreme Temperatures, Drought and Wildfires)
 Meteorological (e.g. Cyclones and Storms/Wave Surges)
 Biological (e.g. Disease Epidemics and Insect/Animal Plagues)

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction characterises Natural Disasters in
relation to their magnitude or intensity, speed of onset, duration and area of extent e.g.
earthquakes are of short duration and usually affect a relatively small region whereas
droughts are slow to develop and fade away and often affect large regions.

2. Man-made/ Anthropogenic Disasters: Man-Made Disasters as viewed by the

International Federation of Red Cross & Red Crescent Societies are events that are
caused by humans which occur in or close to human settlements often caused as a results
of Environmental or Technological Emergencies.
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Man-made disasters refer to non-natural disastrous occurrences that can be sudden or longer
term. Sudden man-made disasters include structural collapses, such as building and mine
collapse, when this occurs independently without any outside force. In addition, air disasters,
land disasters and sea disasters are all man-made (International Red Cross). They can be
classified as--

Technological (the failure or breakdown of systems, equipment and engineering standards

that harms people and the environment; structural collapses, such as bridges, mines and
buildings, cyber terrorism)

Industrial (disasters caused by industrial companies, either by accident, negligence or

incompetence; Chemical and nuclear explosion)

Warfare (disasters caused by socio-political conflicts that escalate into violence; war, intra
society conflicts)

C.B.R accidents (chemical, biological, radiological)

Transport accidents (air, maritime, road, railway)

Pollution (air, maritime, land)

Socio-natural Disaster: This term is used for the circumstances where human activity is
increasing the occurrence of certain hazards beyond their natural probabilities. The
phenomenon of increased occurrence of certain natural events, such as landslides, flooding,
land subsidence and drought, that arise from the interaction of natural hazards with
overexploited or degraded land and environmental resources.
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High Powered Committee (HPC) was constituted in August 1999 under the chairmanship
of J.C.Pant. The mandate of the HPC was to prepare comprehensive model plans for disaster
management at the national, state and district levels. This was the first attempt in India
towards a systematic comprehensive and holistic look at all disasters. Thirty odd disasters
have been identified by the HPC, which were grouped into the following five categories,
based on generic considerations:

1) Water and Climate: Floods, Cyclones, Tornadoes and hurricanes (cyclones),

Hailstorms, Cloudburst, Heat wave and cold wave, Snow avalanches, Droughts, Sea
erosion, Thunder/ lightning.
2) Geological: Landslides and mudflows, Earthquakes, Large fires, Dam failures and
dam bursts, Mine fires.
3) Biological: Epidemics, Pest attacks, Cattle epidemics, Food poisoning.
4) Chemical, industrial and nuclear: Chemical and Industrial disasters, Nuclear.
5) Accidental: Forest fires, Urban fires, Mine flooding, Oil spill, Major building
collapse, Serial bomb blasts, Festival related disasters, Electrical disasters and fires,
Air, road, and rail accidents, Boat capsizing, Village fire.
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Causes of Disaster:
Major Important Natural cause are :

1. Earthquakes: An earthquake is the shaking of the earth’s surface caused by rapid

movement of the earth’s crust or outer layer. Ever since it came into existence 4.6 billion
years ago, the earth has been a. dynamic, evolving system. The position of the different
continents and oceans that we see today, has changed a number of times in the earth’s
history. It occur various damage which b affect human life. and environment mostly.
That’s why it considered as a disaster.

2. Volcano:- It is a common cause of disaster. A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a

planetary-mass object, such as Earth , that allows hot lava , volcanic ash , and gases to
escape from a magma chamber below the surface.
3. Cyclones- Cyclone is an area of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by a wind system
blowing in the northern hemisphere. Cyclones form when moisture evaporates from the
warm oceans during the hot season. The air rises, condenses and gathers momentum as it
moves over the ocean. It affect both man and nature mostly , for so it is important cause
of disaster.
4. Landslides- Landslides refer to a rapid down-slope movement of rocks or soil mass
under the force of gravity. It is also known as slope failure and mass wasting. Landslides
may be typed as mudflow where there is down-slope movement of soil and debris flow,
which is the down-slope movement of coarse material and rocks.
Man Made Cause:

1. Terrorism: This is the another cause of the disaster. That result in loss of life and
property. Terrorists are violence and strike without working and also they use bombs,
guns etc. and those affect the people mostly.

2. Industrial and technological disaster- These are much larger in scale and are the
result of technology failures or industrial accidents. Such disasters affect both local
populations and may even a much larger area. Industrial disaster result due to
accidental leakage of water or air pollution.

3. Biological disaster, war, bomb threat fire accident, epidemic, travel accidents are
the Nuclear Accident: It is a type of exploration deriving its force from nuclear
reaction of fission and fusion.When this types of accident occur it is often as a result
of intent and the end results are even more catastrophic with a large percentage of
those involved losing their lives. For so it is a cause of disaster.

Effect of Disaster:
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Disaster has two kinds of effects, one is positive effects and another is negative effects which
are applicable on environment as well as on mankind. Here we will discuss -

1. Disasters and their negative effects on human beings

2. Positive effects of Natural Disasters

Negative Effects

Disasters and their negative effects on human beings -

Natural disasters affect human beings in numerous ways. The effects include

Food insecurity

Disasters are a leading cause of hunger. Food insecurity leads to many health, social,
political, and economic disturbances.

i) Droughts, for example are detrimental to agricultural production losses and

food security.
ii) The floods have their own negative impacts on food security. It makes the land
wet and difficult to use. This leads to food shortages which in turn leads to
altering food habits resulting in malnutrition and diseases. Reduced wage
income and poor purchasing power lead to borrowing at high rates and their
consequences.
iii) Earthquakes sometimes trigger tsunamis, landslides, and even volcanic
activity. Tsunamis result in lesser fishing activity and resultant food insecurity
in the coastal areas. In many cases, after earthquakes, water and food shortages
become acute. In most situations after disasters, distribution happens to be the
bottleneck.

Emotional aftershock

After natural disasters, traumatic stress reactions are common. They lead to Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD) among some of the affected people and people who witnessed the
disasters. They experience flashbacks, anxiety, depression, emotional numbness,

hallucinations, troubled sleep, and excessive reactions to loud noises, anger, sadness, self-
destructive behaviour, memory problems, fear of crowds, and so on. People also feel the
guilt of having survived the incident.

Physical disorders like tiredness, dizziness, pounding heart, headaches, and sleeplessness are
noticed among many.

The loss of loved ones, the impact of horrific scenes, the hopelessness of the situation, and
fear of the future or a combination of one or two of these may cause the disorder.

Some may get into drinking and even drug abuse in the aftermath of disasters.
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Health Risks:

Over the last few decades, millions of people got killed by natural disasters. Corona virus has
become a household terror of un imaginable proportions. Apart from a million deaths, its
after effects on people linger. Also, the lives of billions of people were severely affected. But
there are also other diseases which threaten the world.

i) Communicable diseases spread immediately after each disaster more due to

population displacement.
ii) Diarrheal disease outbreak due to contaminated water occurs after a flood.
iii) The cholera epidemic is also common.
iv) Hepatitis A and E are also transmitted due to a lack of access to safe water
and sanitation.

Displacement of large groups of people:

Natural disasters like drought, floods, landslides, earthquakes, wildfires, and tsunami have
caused many to displace from their homes. In India, the rural population migrating to nearby
cities after the severe drought is a common sight. Their livelihood is taken away and they
have to make do with whatever work available in cities. This creates a burden on the
resources of the cities also. Further, most of the displaced population get stagnated in the
cities permanently.

Financial distress

Natural disasters have the potential to destroy tangible and intangible economic assets. One
has to understand the short and long term financial impact on individuals, firms and
government more carefully.

The financial stress is more pronounced in the livelihood of the poor. It causes insecurity
among people. The personal financial distress can come from various things. For example, a
lost job, bankruptcy, a sudden medical emergency and so on. The stress can cause a regret
mode phenomenon – regretting for past blunders. If you owe someone a lot of money, it can
lead to mental stress. The financial stress can occur due to the death of earning member of the
family. Many times, people do not have insurance cover for such eventualities.

Positive Effects

Positive effects of Natural Disasters

Disasters are not welcome but they do come. While it does massive destructions, it also has
some ecological benefits. However, it should not be construed that we are finding good out of
bad.

Natural disasters are nature’s way of keeping things in balance. They provide some
ecological balancing of the temperature of earth.
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Positive effects on environment

Heavy rains, storm, and hurricanes transfer heat from the tropic to the poles and balance the
climatic conditions.

Hurricanes and storms redistribute the top soil and benefit agriculture.

Floods bring in nutrients that were deposited along the way elsewhere.

Volcanoes when they erupt bring up the nutrients that were trapped in the earth’s deep insides
and enrich the soil. They also release useful chemicals like hydrogen and carbon –di- oxide
which are part of the water cycle. They also create land mass and hence new islands.

Positive effects on human behaviour

At times of crisis, human beings come forward to save people and nurse the wounded.
Volunteers crop up and try to save people even at the cost of their own life. Neighbours help
spontaneously by giving food, shelter and clothes. Charity comes in the form of money and
materials from all directions irrespective of caste, religion, region or creed. There is a general
atmosphere of feeling sad for the affected ones.

People learn to appreciate the power of nature. We should not take it for granted. It gives a
sense of clarity on the out- look for life.

Positive effects on productivity

Reconstruction work demands more assimilation of newer talents and innovation. New
projects benefitting the poor come up and provide better facilities to withstand future
occurrences.

Alerting the authorities

Disasters put nations and governments to an alert mode and prepare them to plan and execute
disaster management efforts on a regular basis. Systems and organizations get activated to
face future such disasters.

Finding positive effects in such calamities cannot be construed as evil thinking. Disasters do
affect us and they are unavoidable in most cases. But then we have to make the best out of
such situations. This demands understanding of the pros and cons of even the inevitable.

Disaster Management

The defines disaster management as the organisation and management of resources and
responsibilities for dealing with all the humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in
particular preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the impact of
disasters.The processes of reduction and management and basic components of disaster
reduction processes are described in the following :
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Pre-Disaster Management:

Preparedness (P) : It studies about mode, nature, severity of hazard and assess the risk.
Prepare plans and create infrastructural facilities for incoming situation. It collects adequate
financial, medical, administrative support etc.

Mitigation (M) : It focuses on reducing economic losses in case of disaster occurrence and
more emphasize on economic impacts on the society.

Prevention (P) : It doesn’t mean to stop the occurrence of natural disaster but to prevent the
adverse effects by adopting safety measures.

Post-Disaster Management:

There are 3 stage In post Disaster management.

Relief (R): Immediate steps after the moment of disaster that is people rescue operation
under debris and etc.

Recovery (R): It is community based process that involves adaptation and adjustment from
adversary’s situation of people both mentally and physically; and also bring that affected
persons into mainstream.

Rehabilitation (R): Succession of rehabilitation program of distressed and displaced people

depends upon economic health of concerned country.
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CHAPTER – 2 : EARTHQUAKE

Introduction
An earthquake is the vibration, sometimes violent to the earth’s surface that follows a release
of energy in the earth’s crust. This energy can be generated by a sudden dislocation of
segments of the crust, by a volcanic eruption or even by a manmade explosion. The
dislocation of the crust causes most destructive earthquakes. The crust may first bend and
then the stresses exceed the strength of rocks, they break. In the process of breaking,
vibrations called seismic waves are generated. These waves travel outward from the source of
the earthquake along the surface and through the earth at varying speeds depending on the
material through which they move. These waves can cause disasters on the earth’s surface.

In its broadest definition, the term earthquake refers to any seismic event, whether natural or
manufactured by people, that creates seismic waves and is associated with the generation of
seismic waves. Earthquakes are primarily generated by the rupture of geological faults, but
they may also be triggered by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine
explosions, and nuclear testing. Earthquakes are also caused by the rupture of geological
faults. The hypocenter or focus of an earthquake is the location where the first rupture occurs.
The epicenter is the location on the surface of the earth immediately above the hypocenter,
measured in meters.

Terms related to earthquake

Focus: The point inside the Earth where the rock breaks off and pressure is released, The
focus point generally occurs 45 miles below
the ground.

Epicentre: The point on the Earth's surface

vertically above the focus of an earthquake,
i.e. directly above the true centre of the
seismic disturbance from which the shock
waves of an earthquake seem to radiate. The
epicentre usually registers the strongest
shaking.

Fault plane: The planar (flat) surface along

which two blocks of the earth's crust suddenly slip past one another during an earthquake.

Fault line: A fault line is the surface trace of a fault, the line of intersection between the
earth's surface.

Fault scrap: A fault scrap is the topographic expression of faulting attributed to the
displacement of the land surface by movement along faults.
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CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES
It has become apparent after the discussion of the causes of seismic events that there is wide
range of variation in the nature and magnitude of earthquakes. Each earthquake differs from
the other and thus it becomes difficult to classify all the earthquakes into certain categories.
Inspite of these limitations earthquakes are classified on the basis of common characteristics
as given below.

1.Classification on the basis of causative factors

(A) Natural earthquakes are those which are caused by natural processes i.e. due to
endogenetic forces. These are further divided into four subcategories.

(i) Volcanic earthquakes are caused due to volcanic eruptions of explosive and fissure types.
Generally, volcanic earthquakes are confined to volcanic areas. The intensity and magnitude
of such earthquakes depend on the intensity and magnitude of volcanic eruptions. Examples,
severe earthquakes caused by violent explosions of Krakatao volcano in 1883 and Etna
volcano in 1968.

(ii) Tectonic earthquakes are caused due to dislocation of rock blocks during faulting
activity. Such earthquakes are very severe and disastrous. Examples, 1872 earthquake and
1906 earthquake of California (USA), 1923 earthquake of Sagami Bay (Japan), 2001
earthquake of Gujarat etc.
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(iii) Isostatic earthquakes are triggered due to sudden disturbance in the isostatic balance at
regional scale due to imbalance in the geological processes. Generally, the earthquakes of
active zones of mountain building are included in this category.

(iv) Platonic earthquakes are infact deep-focus earthquakes which occur at greater depths.
The centres (foci) of these earthquakes are generally located within e depths ranging from
240 km to 670 km.

(B) Artificial or man-induced earthquakes or anthropogenic earthquakes are caused by

human activities such as pumping of water and mineral oil from underground aquifers and oil
reserves respectively, deep underground mining, blasting of rocks by dynamites for
constructional purposes (e.g. for the construction of dams and reservoirs, roads etc.), nuclear
explosion, storage of huge volume of water in big reservoirs etc. Examples, 1931 earthquake
of Greece due to Marathon Dam, 1936 earthquake of Hoover Dam (USA) due to Lake Mead,
Koyna earthquake (Maharashtra, India) of 1967 due to Koyna reservoir etc.

2. Classification on the basis of focus

Guttenberg has divided the world seismic centres on the basis of the depths of their foci
into 3 types viz-

(i) Moderate earthquakes-foci are located at the depths from the ground surface (0
km) to 50 km,
(ii) Intermediate earthquakes-seismic foci at the depths between 50 km and 250 km
and
(iii) Deep focus earthquakes-seismic foci at the depths between 250 km and 700 km.
Moderate and intermediate earthquakes are also called as shallow focus and
intermediate focus earthquakes respectively.

3. Classification on the basis of human casualties

Earthquakes are grouped into 3 categories on the basis of their hazardous impacts in terms of
human casualties.

(i) Moderately hazardous earthquakes- When human deaths caused by severe seismic
tremors are below 50,000 mark. Examples, Kamakura earthquake of Japan of 1293 A.D.
(22,000 deaths), Tabas earthquake of Iran of 1978 A.D. (25,000 deaths). Armenian
earthquake of earstwhile USSR of 1988 (26,000 deaths), Lisbon earth of Portugal in 1531
A.D. (30,000 deaths), Chile earthquake of 1939 A.D.(40,000 deaths), Quito earthquake of
Ecudador in1797 A.D. (41,000 deaths), Calabria earthquakes of Italy in 1783 A.D. (50,000
deaths), North Iranian earthquake of 1990 A.D. (50,000 deaths) etc.
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(ii) Highly hazardous earthquakes causing human deaths ranging between 51,000 and
1,00,000 occurred in 1268 (in Silicia, Asia Minor, death toll, 60,000), in 1667 (in Shemaka,
Caucasia, death toll 60,000), in 1693 (Catania, Italy, 93,000 deaths). in 1693 (Naples, Italy,
93,000 deaths), in 1932 (Kansu, China, human deaths, 70,000), in 1935 (Quetta, Baluchistan,
death toll, 60,000), in 1970 (Chimbote, Peru, 67,000 deaths), in 2001 (Bhuj, Gujarat, 50,000-
1,00,000 death) etc.

(iii) Most hazardous earthquakes causing human casualties above 1,00,000 mark occurred
in the year 1290 (in Chihli, China, 1,00,000 deaths), in 1556 (in Shen-Shu, China, 8,30,000
deaths), in 1737 (Kolkata, India, 3,00,000 deaths), in 1908 (in Messina, Italy, 1,60,000
deaths), in 1920 (in Kansu, China 1,80,000 deaths), in 1923 (in Tokyo, Japan, 1,63,000
deaths), in 1967 (in Tang-Shan, China 7,50,000) deaths etc.

Magnitude and Intensity of an earthquake

Magnitude is a measure of the size of an earthquake while the damage effect of an
earthquake at various places around the epicentre is termed as Intensity. The Magnitude is a
quantitative measure of the amount of energy released at the hypocentre during an
earthquake. Hence, for a given earthquake the magnitude value is fixed whereas the intensity
values vary from place to place, usually decreasing as we move away from the epicentre.
There are different types of magnitude scales, but the standard one which has been most
widely used is the Richter Scale or the Local Magnitude (ML), which was proposed by
Charles Richter in 1934. There are other types of magnitude scales like Body wave
magnitude (mb) which uses the amplitude of the initial P wave. However, this magnitude
scale saturates at higher values beyond 6 to 6.5, which means it tends to remain same even
for larger earthquakes. Hence, another scale called the Surface wave magnitude (Ms) was
defined in 1950 based on amplitude of the Rayleigh wave. Modern Seismology uses a better
scale called the Moment Magnitude (Mw), which is based on analysis of digital waveform
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data using the Seismic Moment.

The intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual ground shaking and damage caused at a
location during an earthquake. The most popularly used Intensity scale is the Modified
Mercalli Intensity (MMI) denoted by Roman capital numerals. For any earthquake, the
magnitude remains the same but the intensity changes at each location depending on the
distance from the earthquake and the damage caused by it.

Major Causes Of Earthquake

An earthquake occurs because of the movements of tectonic plates beneath the surface of the
earth. These movements create waves that propagate through the earth. These waves are
known as seismic waves. It causes mild to heavy shaking and vibrations. The intensity of
these vibrations can vary, but sometimes they can bring about great destruction. Earthquake
in oceans is known as Tsunami, which is equally devastating.

Earthquakes can be human-made or natural, although the latter is more abundant. These
earthquakes are not random; rather, they are the effect of different changes occurring in the
earth’s crust for a long time. The main causes of earthquakes fall into five categories:

1. Volcanic Eruptions

The main cause of the earthquake is volcanic eruptions. Such type of earthquakes occurs in
areas, with frequent volcanic activities. When boiling lava tries to break through the surface
of the earth, with the increased pressure of gases, certain movements caused in the earth’s
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crust. Movement of lava beneath the surface of the earth can also cause certain disruptions.
This sends shockwaves through the earth, causing damage. These earthquakes are mild. Their
range is also limited. However, there have been certain exceptions, with volcanic earthquakes
bring havoc and death to thousands of people.

2. Tectonic Movements

The surface of the earth consists of some plates, comprising of the upper mantle. These plates
are always moving, thus affecting the earth’s crust. These movements categorized into three
types: constructive, destructive, and conservative. Constructive is when two plates move
away from each other, they correspond to mild earthquakes. When two plates move towards
each other and collide, this is known as destructive plate boundaries. This is very
destructive. Conservative corresponds to passing by of plates of crust. Earthquakes of this
type have varying intensities.

3. Geological Faults

A geological fault is known as the displacement of plates of their original plane. The plane
can be horizontal or vertical. These planes are not formed suddenly but slowly develop over a
long period. The movement of rocks along these planes brings about tectonic earthquakes.
These faults occur due to the impact of geological forces. The displacement of plates creates
the fracturing of rocks, which releases a lot of energy. This type of earthquake can be
disastrous.

4. Man-Made

The interference of man with nature can also become a cause of the earthquake. The
disturbance of crustal balance due to heavy clubbing of water in dams can cause
earthquakes. Nuclear bombing can send specific types of shockwaves throughout the surface
of the earth, which can disturb the natural alignment of tectonic plates. Mining can also cause
disturbance due to the extensive removal of rocks from different areas.

5. Minor Causes

Some minor causes such as landslides, avalanches, the collapse of heavy rocks, etc. can also
cause minor shockwaves. The gases beneath the surface of earth contract and expand, giving
rise to movements in plates beneath the crust. The plutonic earthquake occurs because of
adjustments in rock beds in the interior of the earth’s crust. All these factors correspond to
minor earthquakes, but sometimes these can also vary to moderate earthquakes.

FAULTS
A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks
to move relative to each other. This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an
earthquake – or may occur slowly, in the form of creep. Faults may range in length from a
few millimetres to thousands of kilometres. Most faults produce repeated displacements over
geologic time. During an earthquake, the rock on one side of the fault suddenly slips with
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respect to the other. The fault surface can be horizontal or vertical or some arbitrary angle in
between.

A fault plane is the plane that represents the fracture surface of a fault. A fault trace or fault
line is the intersection of a fault plane with the ground surface. A fault trace is also the line
commonly plotted on geologic maps to represent a fault.

TYPES OF FAULTS
The are mainly three types of faults, they are as follows:

1.Normal fault

2.Reverse fault

3.Strike-slip fault

1.Normal Fault: The block above the inclined fault moves down relative to the block below
the fault. This fault motion is caused by extensional forces and results in extension. [Other
names: normal-slip fault, tensional fault or gravity fault] Examples include Basin & Range
faults.

2.Reverse Fault: The block above the inclined fault moves up relative to the block below the
fault. This fault motion is caused by compressional forces and results in shortening. A reverse
fault is called a thrust fault if the dip of the fault plane is small. [Other names: reverse-slip
fault or compressional fault.] Examples include the Rocky Mountains and the Himalayan
Mountains.

3.Strike-slip Fault: Movement of blocks along a fault is horizontal and the fault plane is
nearly vertical. If the block on the far side of the fault moves to the left, as shown in this
animation, the fault is called left-lateral . If it moves to the right, the fault is called right-
lateral. The fault motion of a strike-slip fault is caused by shearing forces. [Other names:
trans current fault, lateral fault, tear fault or wrench fault.] Examples include the San Andreas
Fault, California; Anatolian Fault, Turkey.
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Wave produce due to earthquakes

Seismic waves
The energy released during an earthquake travels as seismic waves in all directions through
the earth's layers, reflecting and refracting at each interface. These waves are of two types -
Body waves and Surface waves. Body waves can travel through the earth's inner layers, but
surface waves can move only along the surface of the earth like ripples of water waves.
Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves.

Types of Seismic waves

1.Body waves:A body wave is a seismic wave that moves through the interior of the earth, as
opposed to surface waves that travel near the earth's surface. There are two types of body
waves as described below—

 P waves (primary waves): The first type of body wave is the P wave or Primary
wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave that travels with a velocity of about 6
km/s. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the water
filled layers of the Earth. It pushes and pulls the medium that it moves through, since
it is longitudinal in nature like the sound waves.
 S waves (secondary waves): The second type of body wave is the S wave or
Secondary wave, which travels slower than the P wave, with a velocity of about 3.5
km/s. The S wave is transverse in nature like the light waves, and cannot move
through a liquid medium.
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Schematic diagram showing the propagation of body waves

2.Surface waves: These are the waves that travel along the earth's surface and are the most
damaging ones, having the largest amplitudes. These are of two types as described below--

 Love waves: The first kind of surface wave is the Love wave, named after A.E.H.
Love, a British mathematician who worked out the mathematical formulation for this
type of wave in 1911. It is the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-
to-side. It is a little slower than the S wave and hence arrives after the P and S waves.
 Rayleigh waves: The other type of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named after
Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically demonstrated the existence of such waves in
1885. This wave rolls along the ground like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
Hence, it moves the ground up and down and side-to-side in the same direction as that
of the wave propagation. Most of the ground shaking during an earthquake is due to
the Rayleigh waves, which can be the largest waves.
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Schematic diagram showing the propagation of surface waves

Consequences of earthquake
Earthquakes are a natural phenomenon which, within a very short period of time and without
any warning, can cause demolition of structures of any type, with the loss of human lives and
material property. These losses frequently exceed the economic capacity of the affected
region.

1.Damage to building

High magnitude earthquakes can lead to a complete collapse of buildings. Debris from
collapsing buildings is the main danger in the course of an earthquake because the falling
effects of huge, heavy objects can be deadly to humans. High magnitude earthquakes result in
the shattering of mirrors and windows, which also present danger to humans.

2.Damage to infrastructure

Earthquakes can cause electricity lines to fall. This is dangerous because the exposed live
wires can electrocute humans or start fires. Major earthquakes can cause rupturing of roads,
gas lines, and water pipelines. Broken gas lines can cause gas to escape. Escaping gas can
result in explosions and fires, which may be difficult to contain.

3.Damage to Lifeline Systems

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Lifeline systems such as water, gas, oil, and electrical supply, and sewerage systems, are
vulnerable in an earthquake. When the affected area is left without water, electricity, and gas,
the material losses are very high, even though the loss of human life can be fairly low. A
prolonged breakage of these systems causes suffering of inhabitants as well as industry, and
leads to serious indirect damage such as fires, floods, and water and environmental pollution.

4.Landslides and rockslides

When an earthquake occurs, large rocks and sections of earth located uphill can be
dislodged, consequently, rolling rapidly down into the valleys. Landslides and rockslides can
cause destruction and death to the people living downstream.

5.Floods

High magnitude earthquakes can instigate cracking of dam walls, collapsing in the long run.
This would send raging waters into nearby areas leading to massive flooding.

6.Fires

Fires frequently accompany urban earthquakes. They may occur due to damage of electrical
power or gas supply installations. During this century, several earthquakes have been noted
because of the number of human lives lost. This is the result of fires. For example, during the
1906 San Francisco earthquake, fires killed about 6000 people, while during the Great Kanto
earthquake in 1923, about 140,000 people suffered in the ensuing fire. It is thought that
during the Kobe earthquake (Great Hanshin Earthquake), 10% (550 people) suffered directly
by fire.

7.Tsunami

A tsunami is a series of long high sea tremors sparked by an earthquake or volcanic eruptions
under the sea. A tsunami can wipe out an entire surrounding coastal area population. A
typical example is the March 11, 2011, earthquake and tsunami that struck the coast of Japan
leaving more than 18,000 people dead in its wake.

8.Liquefaction

Liquefaction is a phenomenon where the soil becomes saturated and loses it strength. When
sediments consisting of high water content are subjected to constant trembling, water
pressure held in the sediment pores slowly increases.

Ultimately, the sediments lose almost all cohesive strength and start acting like liquids.
Buildings and other structures built on top of this liquefied soil overturn or sink into the
ground. Earthquakes are responsible for most of the liquefaction occurring across the world.
 P a g e | 23

A typical example of the liquefaction phenomenon is the earthquake of 1692 in Jamaica that
resulted in the devastation of the town of Port Royal.

9.Stress and Panic

During an earthquake, people exhibit unusual behavior. People may run away, jump out of
windows, or show other signs of panic. Although earthquakes themselves last for a very short
time, a large number of people suffer traumatic consequences for many years. Psychological
stress of people following natural disasters has been incompletely studied. Many have lost
relatives and a large number have had to move from their homes. In all, stress has serious
consequences that can be manifest in poor human interaction, loss of work capability, and
diminished psychological stability. It should be a duty of the community to help these people
return to a normal life.

10.Human Losses

The most tragic number after an earthquake is the number of people that have been killed.
Indeed, earthquakes are usually remembered by the number of dead. In this century,
earthquakes have caused the death of more than 1,400,000 people, or an average of 15,000
people per year. During this century, the 1976 Tangshan earthquake in China killed the
highest number of people. It is likely that this earthquake led to the death of more than
250,000 people.

World Distribution of Earthquake:

If we look at the world distribution map of earthquakes it appears that the seismic centres are
closely related to certain zones of the globe. Earthquakes are, in fact, associated with the
weaker and is statically disturbed areas of the globe. Most of the world earthquakes occur in
(i) the zones of young folded mountains, (ii) the zones of faulting and fracturing, (iii) the
zones representing the junction ofcontinental and oceanic margins, (iv) the zones of
active volcanoes, and (v) along different plate boundary.
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The world map of the distribution of earthquakes prepared by the seismologists on the basis
of computer analysis and simulation of 30,000 earthquakes that occurred between 1961 and
1967 very much coincides with the traditional map of world distribution of earthquakes e-g.
(1) Circum Pacific Belt surrounding the Pacific Ocean, (2) Mid Continental Belt
representing epicentres located along the Alpine-Himalayan Chains of Eurasia and
northern Africa and epicentres of East African Fault Zones, and (3) Mid-Atlantic Belt

representing the earthquakes located along the mid-Atlantic Ridge and its offshoots.

Distribution of Earthquake in India

The Geological Survey of India (G. S. I.) first published the seismic zoning map of the
country in the year 1935. With numerous modifications made afterwards, this map was
initially based on the amount of damage suffered by the different regions of India because of
earthquakes. Colour coded in different shades of the colour red, this map shows the four
distinct seismic zones of India. Following are the varied seismic zones of the nation, which
are prominently shown in the map.

 Zone - II: This is said to be the least active seismic zone.

 Zone - III: It is included in the moderate seismic zone.
 Zone - IV: This is considered to be the high seismic zone.
 Zone - V: It is the highest seismic zone.
P a g e | 25
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Depending upon the frequency and intensity of the earthquakes, the whole country can
be divided into three broad seismological zones. These are –

1.Himalayan zone

The area most prone to earthquakes in India is the young fold mountain range of the
Himalayan zone. This zone is called as zone of maximum intensity. It covers states like
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, the Bihar-Nepal border and the
north eastern states, especially Assam.

2. Indo-Gangetic zone

To the south of the Himalayan zone and running parallel to it, is the Indo-Gangetic zone.
Most of the earthquake are of moderate intensity of 6 to 6.5 on Richter scale but are more
harmful due to high density of population in this area. This zone is called as zone of
comparative intensity.

3. peninsular zone

Most stable landmass and only a few earthquakes have been experienced in this region. It is
also known as the zone of minimum intensity. States like Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Andhra Pradesh, few parts of Maharashtra and Gujarat, fall in this category.
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Earthquake prediction

The most destructive element of earthquakes is that they can strike anywhere, anytime. There
is no evidence showing that a major earthquake has ever been successfully predicted. But that
doesn’t mean attempts are not being made to study and predict earthquakes.

It is important to make the differentiation between earthquake forecasting and earthquake

prediction. Forecasting utilizes existing data and trends to form estimates of the location,
frequency and magnitude of earthquakes.

It becomes possible to focus on earthquake-prone areas and establish better and quicker
acting safety measures, build earthquake resistant structures, and make the population more
prepared and aware.

Earthquake prediction, on the other hand, is about pinpointing earthquakes. It is characterized

by the ability to correctly determine these factors about a future earthquake-

 Time
 Location
 Magnitude

These factors are, a lot of seismologists say, impossible to predict accurately. But
nevertheless, methods have been devised to predict earthquakes, at least, to some extent.

The following are some of the methods and indicators used for earthquake prediction-

1.Radon Emissions
It has been observed that quantities of radon, a radioactive gas, is emitted from fissures in
rocks before an earthquake. A network of radon detectors,
especially in areas vulnerable to earthquakes, could act as
an early detection system, potentially predicting
earthquakes before even a week or so.

2.Strange Animal Behaviour

This is one of the oldest indicators that have been said to signal earthquakes. From ancient
Greece to L'Aquila in 2009, animals have been found to flee the scene in the days before an
earthquake. Restlessness and abnormal behaviour are also said
to be observed in animals before earthquakes. Some earthquake
precursors may be more apparent to animals, with their more
refined senses.
 P a g e | 28

3.Hydrochemical Changes
Chemical changes in groundwater have been found in certain earthquake sites. An increase in
the concentration levels of dissolved minerals and gaseous components, which may be due to
below-ground shifts, has been noted.

4.Electromagnetic Precursors
Electromagnetic fluctuations have long been attributed to earthquakes. A company
called QUAKE FINDER, founded in 2000, has been working on the detection and analysis of
electromagnetic earthquake precursors. They are still set on their mission, despite being
discouraged repeatedly by the scientific community.
The VAN methods is a popular one among the different theories of electromagnetic
precursors. This measure changes in the geoelectric potential, called Seismic Electric Signals
to predict earthquakes.

5.Changes in Seismic Wave Velocity

The ratio of seismic wave velocities, Vp/Vs (velocity of primary and secondary seismic
waves), is considered by some as a potential prediction method.

6.Foreshocks
Major earthquakes are often preceded by minor tremors, called foreshocks. These are
generally considered good enough indicators to issue warnings and trigger safety measures.

7.Machine Learning
Machine learning is perhaps the method with the most potential to develop into an actual
predictive technology. A competition conducted in December 2018 yielded very promising
results that showed ML models capable of predicting earthquakes.

Safety rules of an Earthquake

It is a wrong notion that earthquakes kill people. In reality it is the collapse of buildings,
especially those which are poorly constructed that takes a huge toll of life and property.
Hence, it is very important to have a general awareness about earthquakes and take
precautionary and preventive steps to protect oneself and others.

What to do before an earthquake?

 Keep available the following items - a fire extinguisher, a first aid kit, a battery
powered radio, a flashlight and extra batteries at home.
 Learn how to use the first aid kit in case of injury.
 Learn how to turn off the gas and electricity.
 Decide a meeting point with your family in case of a major earthquake Do not keep
heavy objects on shelves since they can fall on you during an earthquake.
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 Keep heavy furniture, cupboards and appliances anchored to the walls or to the floor.
 Be familiar with the Earthquake plan
at your school or workplace.

What to do during an earthquake?

 Remain calm! If you are indoors, stay

inside. If you're outside, stay outside.
 If you are indoors, stand against a wall
near the middle of the building, stand
in a doorway, or crawl under some
heavy furniture like a desk or a table.
Stay away from windows and outside
doors.
 If you are outdoors, stay in the open
away from power lines and anything
that might fall. Stay away from
buildings since they may collapse on
you.
 Do not use matches, candles, or any
flame.
 If you're inside a vehicle, just stop it
and stay inside until the earthquake
stops.

What to do after an earthquake?

 Check yourself and others for injuries

and provide first aid to the needy.
 Look for any damage in the water,
gas, or electricity lines. If there is any
damage, then shut it off.
 Check for the smell of gas and open
all the windows and doors if you smell it, and leave the place immediately.
 Turn on the radio for updates.
 Stay out of damaged buildings.
 P a g e | 30

 Wear proper foot wear to protect from damage to feet from broken material and
debris.
 Stay away from beaches since there could be a tsunami caused by the earthquake.
 If you are at school or work place, then follow the emergency plan or instructions of
the person in-charge.
 Expect aftershocks to happen in the next few hours and days.
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CHAPTER – 3 : A Case Study OnEarthquake

National Perspective :-
India has had a number of the world's greatest earthquakes in the last century. In fact, more than
50% area in the country is considered prone to damaging earthquakes. The northeastern region of
the country as well as the entire Himalayan belt is susceptible to great earthquakes of magnitude
more than 8.0. The main cause of earthquakes in these regions is due to the movement of the Indian
plate towards the Eurasian plate at the rate of about 50 mm per year. Besides the Himalayan region
and the Indo-Gangetic plains, even the peninsular India is prone to damaging earthquakes as clearly
illustrated by the Koyna (1967), Latur (1993), and the Jabalpur (1997) earthquakes
 P a g e | 32

SOME RECENT INDIAN EARTHQUAKES :-

KOYNA EARTHQUAKE OF 1967 :- This was a magnitude 6.5 earthquake that took place close to the
103 metre concrete gravity dam at Koyna (Berg et al., 1969). Prior to this earthquake, the area used
to be considered aseismic. However, after the construction of dam and filling up of reservoir in 1962,
the seismic activity increased significantly. The main shock of December 10, 1967 caused widespread
damage, killing about 200 persons and injuring more than 1500 persons. The maximum shaking
intensity was assigned as VIII on the MM scale. This earthquake provides one of the important
instances of the reservoir-induced seismicity. A strong motion accelerograph located in the gallery at
mid-height of the dam recorded peak vertical acceleration of 0.36g and peak horizontal acceleration
of 0.45g and 0.39g. The dam, designed for a seismic coefficient of 5% g by the pseudo-static analysis,
performed quite well with only nominal damage to the dam. This earthquake lead to the revision of
Indian seismic zone map wherein the area around Koyna was brought in zone IV from zone I, and
seismic zone for Bombay was upgraded from zone I to zone III

Bihar – Nepal Earthquake of 1988 :- This magnitude 6.6 earthquake shook northern
Bihar and Nepal on August 21, 1988 at 04:39 hours (e.g., GSI, 1993; Jain, 1992; Jain et
 P a g e | 33

al., 1991, Subramanyam, et al. ???, Thakkar et al. ???). About 1004 persons died (282 in
India and 722 in Nepal) and more than 16,000 injured; casualties were significantly
reduced since in the summer time most people sleep outdoors. Significant damage was
caused in three distinct regions: the area near the epicenter, and the areas around Munger
(India) and Bhaktapur (near Kathmandu in Nepal); this damage pattern due to peculiar
geology of the area is exactly similar to that of the 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquak

Killari (Latur) Earthquake of 1993 :- On September 30, 1993 a magnitude 6.4

earthquake shook the area near village Killari in Latur district killing about 8,000 persons
(GSI, 1996; Jain et. al, 1994; Seeber et al., 1993, 1996). The maximum intensity of
shaking was about VIII to IX. Until this earthquake the area was considered non-seismic
and placed in the lowest seismic zone (zone I) by the Indian code (IS:1893-1984). Most
of the damage was contained in a relatively small area of 20 km x 20 km. The affected
area did not have any modern towns, modern buildings or major industries. In some of the
villages more than 30% of the population was killed. This earthquake will be known for
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outstanding rescue, relief and rehabilitation carried out for any earthquake in recent
Indian history; perhaps outstanding by even international standards
 P a g e | 35

Bhuj Earthquake, 2001

A powerful earthquake struck near Bhuj in the Kachchh region of the State of Gujarat on
January 26, 2001 at 8:46 am. The magnitude of the earthquake was 6.9 on the Richter Scale
and the focal depth was 25 km. It may be noted that this was a borderline earthquake between
the "moderate" and "great" categories of earthquakes. The epicentre of the earthquake was
located near the town of Bhuj in the western-most district of Kutch. The shocks of this

earthquake were felt as far as Nepal.

i) Seismic History of the Region

The earthquake affected area lies in seismic zone V, the highest risk zone, as per the seismic
zone map of the country. This region had faced severe earthquakes in the past as well.

Some of the major earthquakes of this region are listed in below table—

ii) Damage caused by the Bhuj Earthquake

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The earthquake caused substantial loss of life and property. The initial death toll was reported
in the range of more than 20000. About 1,67,000 people received injuries of varying
proportions. As per the estimates, over five lakh houses were damaged and more than three
lakhs destroyed. Heavy damages occurred to the infrastructure of health and education sector.
About 12000 primary health centres in rural areas were damaged. About 9600 primary
schools, 2040 secondary schools and 140 technical education and higher education buildings
were damaged due to the earthquake. Heavy damages to rural water supply were reported.
Similar type of damage and destruction was observed from the industrial sector as well,
where buildings of small-scale, medium scale and large-scale industries were damaged in big
numbers. Infrastructure belonging to cottage industries and handicrafts were also affected.
Facilities like roads, telecommunication, and electricity were paralysed. Many cities in
Gujarat faced serious damage. Ahmedabad, the biggest city of the State, was devastated
although it is about 300 km from Bhuj. Gujarat, being the second most industrialised state in
the country, took a heavy beating in terms of adverse socio-economic impacts. The initial
estimates put the total loss in Gujarat due to this earthquake at around Rs. 15000 crores. In
fact, the damage would have been much more but for the facts that Bhuj is a less populated
area, the earthquake had a deep focus, and it occurred in day time when people were awake
and mostly in the open on a holiday. Nevertheless, this was the worst earthquake in the
country in recent decades in terms of the dead and injured and also property loss.

iii) Rescue and Relief

The initial efforts were to restore the essential services like telecommunication, electricity,
water supply and law and order in the affected areas. A large number of personnel from
various departments were pressed into relief and rescue operations. In all about 36 units of
Army Engineers, 34 companies of Paramilitary Forces, over 3000 Police personnel, 2600
Home Guards, 480 engineers, over 120 senior
administrative staff and over 11000 other
administrative staff were involved in these
operations. Medical teams moved from all parts
of the country. To coordinate such a huge relief
operation, a number of control rooms were
established/reactivated at the State Headquarters
and other places. Response of national and
international community was tremendous in
providing assistance by sending search and rescue teams and equipment besides relief
material.

As Gujarat was having a very well-established industrial sector, number of private industrial
houses provided assistance in all possible manner to the State Government in post disaster
management. Number of private companies adopted villages for reconstruction and
rehabilitation works as well.
 P a g e | 37

Gujarat has a very strong NGO network as well. This network has very well-known networks
like SEWA (Self Employed Women's Association), which has a presence in all parts of the
State There are other NGOs as well. The NGO networks helped the affected people in
restoring confidence, and meeting their demands.

iv) Reconstruction and Rehabilitation

The strategy adopted by the Government of Gujarat for reconstruction and rehabilitation of
the affected areas was based on the following consideration:

 Clear reconstruction strategy with regard to housing

 Revival of the economy and reconstruction of the livelihood options
 Reconstruction of public services
 Community participation and specific role of NGOs and private sector
 Institutional arrangements for carrying out the main objectives of the strategy adopted
To oversee the post-earthquake reconstruction and rehabilitation work, an apex body
designated as the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority (GSDMA) was constituted in
February 2001 under the chairmanship of the
Chief Minister with a Central Implementing
Group under the Chief Secretary for coordinating
activities of various line departments.

The major objective of GSDMA is to undertake

social and economic rehabilitation and
resettlement of the affected community. This includes the new housing, infrastructure,
economic rehabilitation, social rehabilitation and other related programmes GSDMA was
also entrusted to prepare programmes for mitigating losses on account of disasters as strategy
for long-term disaster preparedness.

The GSDMA is also required to undertake research study on causes for losses on account of
natural disasters and suggest remedial measures to minimise the same.

WORLD PERSPECTIVE :-

Napal Earthquake of 2015 :- The Nepal earthquake of 2015, also known as the Gorkha
earthquake, occurred on April 25, 2015, in Nepal. The earthquake had a magnitude of 7.8
Mw and its epicenter was located in the Gorkha district of Nepal. The earthquake resulted in
the deaths of over 8,000 people and injured more than 21,000.

earthquake caused extensive damage to infrastructure and buildings in Nepal, with many
historic landmarks and cultural sites destroyed. It triggered several landslides avalanches,
which led to additional casualties and hampered relief efforts in the affected
areas.
 P a g e | 38

The earthquake was felt in neighboring countries, including India, China, and Bangladesh,
and the tremors were even felt as far away as Pakistan, Bhutan, and Myanmar. Several
countries and international organizations responded to the disaster by providing aid and
support to Nepal.

The Nepal earthquake of 2015 was one of the deadliest earthquakes in the country's history,
and it highlighted the need for disaster preparedness and response measures in Nepal and
other earthquake-prone regions

2) Haiti Earthquake in 2021 :- Haiti is a country in the Caribbean Sea, taking up the western
third of the island of Hispaniola, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Haiti is home to over
11 million people, making it the most populated country in the Caribbean. On 14 August 2021, Haiti
was hit by a magnitude 7.2 earthquake with an epicentre in the Canal du Sud (120 km west of the
capital, Port-au-Prince) at a depth of 10 km (Boiselet, 2021). Days later, on 16 August, Hurricane
Grace hit the island, bringing heavy rains, floods and further landslides, complicating relief efforts
(Birenbaum, 2021). Haiti sits in a seismically active area along the Enriquillo-Plaintain Garden fault
zone, which results from the contact between the North American and Caribbean plates (Boiselet,
2021). This earthquake was reminiscent of the magnitude 7.0 earthquake in 2010 that occurred on
the fault segment closest to Port-au-Prince, killing more than 200,000 people (Stein and others,
2021)

The earthquake in 2021 occurred on another segment of the same fault as the 2010 earthquake,
further west of the capital (Stein and others, 2021). As shown below, the 2010 earthquake increased
 P a g e | 39

stress significantly along the western portion of the fault, which resulted in the 2021 seismic event,
which was twice as powerful as its predecessor (Boiselet, 2021; Stein and others, 2021)

3) Afghanistan Earthquake in 2022 :- A 5.3 magnitude earthquake struck in Qadis

District, Badghis Province in the Western Region of Afghanistan at 16:10 local time
(UTC+4:30) on 17 January 2022. The earthquake was preceded by a smaller
earthquake and was felt in Badghis, Ghor and Hirat Provinces. The earthquake
reportedly resulted in human casualties and damages to homes and infrastructure in
Qadis District, Badghis Province […] Initial reports indicate that 26 people were
reportedly killed, four people injured, and hundreds of houses were damaged or
destroyed. Heavy rains in the area prior to the earthquake reportedly rendered mud brick
houses more vulnerable to damage. (OCHA, 18 Jan 2022)

The preliminary estimate by the inter-agency team is that up to 1,000 houses were
damaged or destroyed by the earthquake. According to the information received from
the local sources, the number of deaths due to the earthquake have risen to 27 people.
People in affected areas are using water wells that are unsafe. In Badrawak village,
there are concerns for the potential of landslides on hills on both sides of the community
with a population of 2,520 people (360 families). On 20 January, another earthquake
struck in the areas, leading to the death of one person. Residents in the area remain
very concerned about further earthquakes. Many are too afraid of going into their homes
and are currently living under the makeshifts/traditional tents in cold weather conditions.
As of 20 January, the joint assessment team has assessed 742 families and identified
434 families requiring humanitarian aid, while further assessments are ongoing within
the affected areas.
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4) Turkey – Syria Earthquake in 2023 :- On Feb. 6, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake

occurred in southern Turkey near the northern border of Syria. This quake was
followed approximately nine hours later by a magnitude 7.5 earthquake located
around 59 miles (95 kilometers) to the southwest.

The first earthquake was the most devastating to hit earthquake-prone

Turkey in more than 20 years and was as strong as one in 1939, the most
powerful recorded there. It was centered near Gaziantep in south-central Turkey,
home to thousands of Syrian refugees and the many humanitarian aid
organizations also based there.

The Turkish government is leading the response there through coordination by

AFAD and with the Turkish Red Crescent. State authorities declared a level-4
emergency leading to a call for international assistance. Turkish President Recep
Tayyip Erdogan declared a three-month state of emergency in 10 of the country’s
provinces.

Governments around the world were quick to respond to requests for

international assistance, deploying rescue teams and offering aid. The country
of Turkey is recognized in English as Türkiye by the United Nations (UN).
P a g e | 41
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Chapter – 4 : Conclusion and Reference

Conclusion

―we cannot stop earthquakes, but we can learn more, in hopes of discovering ways to protect
ourselves from them. There are a few ways we could help prevent some damage of
earthquakes in the future. Many buildings are constructed in areas of earthquake risk. If a
building is being constructed in a city that has experienced earthquakes, new plans and
building materials should be used to strengthen the building. Recently, materials like this
have been invented, such as a combination of steel and rubber plates on buildings to absorb
the shock of the earthquake. Another easy safety thing for earthquakes is for the government
of a city to invest in a proper seismograph centre, and make sure there is always at least one
person monitoring it in case of an earthquake. Simple precautions are the most effective way
to minimize earthquake damage.‖

―Earthquakes shake the ground surface, can cause buildings to collapse, disrupt transport and
services, and can cause fires. They can trigger landslides and tsunami.

Earthquakes occur mainly as a result of plate tectonics, which involves blocks of the Earth
moving about the Earth's surface. The blocks of rock move past each other along a fault.
Smaller earthquakes, called foreshocks, may precede the main earthquake, and aftershocks
may occur after the main earthquake. Earthquakes are mainly confined to specific areas of the
Earth known as seismic zones, which coincide mainly with ocean trenches, mid-ocean ridges,
and mountain ranges.

The point of origin of an earthquake is called the focus. The epicentre is the point on the
Earth's surface directly above the focus. Most earthquake foci are within a few tens of
kilometres of the Earth's surface. Earthquakes less than 70 km deep are classified as shallow-
focus. Intermediate-focus earthquakes are 70-300 km deep, and deep-focus earthquakes more
than 300 km deep. Shallow-focus earthquakes occur in all of the Earth's seismic zones, but
intermediate- and deep-focus earthquakes are almost exclusively associated with seismic
zones near ocean trenches.

The destructiveness of an earthquake depends on the size, the depth (shallow ones are more
destructive) and the location. Earthquake size can be stated in terms of the damage caused
(the intensity) or the amount of ground motion and the energy released by the earthquake
(related to the Richter magnitude).‖

― Earthquakes are not new to the world. It is a very common thing on many parts of the earth.
Japan is the constant victim of earthquakes. So, the Japanese make houses of paper boards.
India, too is not altogether free from this natural calamity. But in India, it is very few and far
between. In 2001Gujarat had faced a terrible shock from a divesting earthquake and the Bhuj
are was completely damaged. Earthquake cannot be prevented. They catch up by surprise.
Hence, let us wait for the scientific developments that may find a remedy to this terrible
upsurge.‖
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Reference

Physical Geography by Savindra Singh

Geography of India by Mahesh Kumar Barnwal
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https://www.britannica.com/science/earthquake-geology
https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/animation/fault_types_3_basic_responses_to_stress_#:~:text=
Different%20types%20of%20faults%20include,%2Dslip%20(shearing)%20faults.
https://www.insightsonindia.com/world-geography/physical-geography-of-the-
world/geomorphology/internal-forces-their-impact/earthquakes/distribution-of-earthquakes/
https://onlineasdma.assam.gov.in/kmp/pdf/1485522164csq1004.pdf
https://pmgt.org.nz/emergency-
prep/?utm_term=earthquake%20safety&utm_campaign=Crime+Prevention+Topics&utm_so
urce=adwords&utm_medium=ppc&hsa_acc=3901438876&hsa_cam

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