Valencia National High School | Senior High School

Practical Research 1
Review of Related Literature and Related Studies
Mr. Ace B. Cardeno

A literature review is a written synthesis of the related reference materials used for the study such as
journal articles, books, and other documents. It allows the researcher to identify, trace, analyze and
study the current trends and issues that are related to the particular area of study. It must be organized
into subtopics so as to surface the need and the arguments of the study.

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources- it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically
evaluates all presented information to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject
(McCombes, 2019).

THE MULTIPLE PURPOSES OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

• It provides a historical background for your research;
• it gives an overview of the current context in which your research is situated by referring to
contemporary debates, issues and questions in the field;
• it includes a discussion of relevant theories and concepts which underpin your research; it
introduces relevant terminology and provides definitions to clarify how terms are being used in
the context of your own work;
• it describes related research in the field and shows how your work extends or challenges this,
or addresses a gap in work in the field;
• it provides supporting evidence for a practical problem or issue which your research is
addressing, thereby underlining its significance.

READING AND NOTE-TAKING STRATEGIES

• find out more about the field in which you are working and identify a topic for the research;
• develop your own understanding of the field;
• find out what other research has been done in the area;
• keep up to date with developments in the field;
• place your own research in a context;
• identify theoretical perspectives that you might wish to draw on;
• find support for your views and arguments;
• explore possible research methods to use for your own research;
• pursue your enjoyment of reading around the subject;
• explore different perspectives in the field and position yourself among them;
• make observations about writing conventions in your discipline to develop your own academic
writing style.

TECHNIQUES FOR READING EFFICIENTLY

SQ3R
A commonly recommended procedure for reading efficiently is known as SQ3R (Survey, Question,
Read, Recall, Review). By following the suggested steps, you are actively encouraged to interact with
the text instead of taking in the information in a passive and unquestioning way. It is, of course, a
strategy which can be used flexibly according to your individual preference and purpose for reading at
a particular time.
1. Survey the text to ascertain the gist or general idea.
2. Question - while surveying the text, think about questions that you would like the text to answer
if you decide it is relevant to read in more detail.
3. Read the text carefully if you think it is pertinent for your research.
4. Recall the main points after you have read the text.
5. Review the text to confirm that you have recalled all the main points that are significant for you
and your work.

STRUCTURING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

a. An introduction which explains how your review is organized;
b. Headings and subheadings that provide a map to show the various strands of your argument;
c. A summary where the key arguments are reiterated in a concise way.
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THREE WAYS FOR ORDERING CITATIONS:
1. Distant to close (Most distantly related to your work-Most closely related to your work
2. Chronological (Earliest related work-Most recent related work)
3. Comparison and contrast of different approaches or particular features or characteristics of
relevant theories and research
One approach-An alternative approach-Another approach

In-Text Citations

Citing Related Literature

• Citation is basically acknowledging the source of a text, idea or work using a widely recognized
guideline.
• Scholars need to have a common language and manner in reporting where they got their
sources. They used citation styles that are broadly accepted and used. Using these helps other
researchers know where the idea, or work came from, allowing them to check these or utilize
these in their own studies.

What type of information requires a reference?

The general rule to bear in mind is that you do not need a reference for information that is considered
to be common knowledge and is in the public domain. Typically, this is information that is generally
accepted as being true - a fact - in your field. On the other hand, the origin of an idea or an opinion,
research finding or theory that is open to challenge and debate should be referenced. This category
would include statistics, formulae and illustrations. In some disciplines, especially where the
development of knowledge tends to be cumulative, information which once required a reference can
become common knowledge over time.

For example, although it was once contested that the earth was round, we can now safely assume that
this is a commonly accepted fact which does not need to be referenced. However, in other disciplines
such as philosophy, where knowledge is constantly being debated, reinterpreted and revisited, the
concept of 'common knowledge' is more remote. Indeed, research has shown that the number of
citations used in the humanities and social sciences is far greater than in science and engineering
(Hyland, 2004).
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Common or contested knowledge

Christopher Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492.

According to recent research involving DNA samples from 500-year-old bones, it has been claimed that
Christopher Columbus is buried in the cathedral in Seville, Spain and not in the Dominican Republic.
(Associated Press, 2006).

The two statements about Christopher Columbus in the example illustrate the difference between
common and contested knowledge. In the first example, no citation is included as it is widely accepted
that Columbus did under take the voyage across the Atlantic in 1492. However, the second statement
does require a source to be given as the location of the remains of Columbus is still disputed.

Integral references

An integral reference is a citation where the cited author's name has a grammatical function in the
sentence in which you include it in your writing. There are various ways in which an integral reference
can occur. First, the cited author can be the subject of a sentence which includes a paraphrase, sum-
mary or direct quotation from the cited author's work

Cited author as subject

Donna Haraway 11991, 1997), amongst other scholars, has argued that knowledge is embodied and
situated, that the content of a scientific text is shaped by the place of its production.

Cited author in initial adjunct phrase

According to Barone et al. 11997), it is part of the current agenda of social cognitive psychology to
acquire a better understanding of individual differences in self-regulation.
Cited author as agent in passive sentence
One cross-sectional study that may support this hypothesis was conducted by Gyurcsik and
Brawley (2001).

Non-integral references

In a non-integral reference the cited author's name appears in brackets out side the structure of the
sentence in the text and has no grammatical function within that sentence. If using a numerical system
of referencing, a number appears in brackets after the referenced information.

A single non-integral reference

There are four broad categories of issues that affect commitment: personal characteristics, role-related
characteristics, structural characteristics, and work experiences (Mowday et al. 1982).

A generalization: combined attribution

Role-related characteristics of organizational commitment are also discussed in terms of job scope or
challenge, role conflict, and role ambiguity (Mowday et al., 1982; Allen and Meyer, 1990).

Attribution to different authors

Other notable effects of organizational change) include reduced job satisfaction and distrust (Bateman
and Strasser, 1984), a decline in motivation (Mowday, Porter and Steers, 1982; Bennett and Durkin,
2000), absenteeism (Mowday et al., 1982; Clegg, 1983), health (Begley and Czajka, 1993), union
issues and job insecurity (Worral et al., 2000).

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Types of citation
1. Paraphrasing-One of the most common strategies used to avoid plagiarism is by paraphrasing
or conveying another author’s message using your own words (Vineski, 2016).
• The original idea or essence of the sentence remains the same although structured differently
and articulated in another way.
• You may be guided by the following steps in paraphrasing a literature (Vineski; Purdue OWL,
2016).
A. Read the literature several times until you fully understand its meaning.
B. Write your own words how you understood the script without looking at the original work.
C. Compare your phrasing with the original wording. Ensuring that you capture the key ideas
behind the source literature
D. “Use quotation marks” for words you used or borrowed from the original script.
E. Indicate the source of the idea, including the author, title of the work, year, even the page
number so you can acknowledge it in your work.
2. Summarizing
• Summarizing entails capturing the main ideas of the text, allowing you to have a “broad
overview of the source material” (Driscoll & Brizee, 2013, para.4).
• It involves determining the gist of a literature, focusing your attention to the main idea of the
text, and key concepts and words that support the main idea.
• You can try some of the tips on the next slides to help you summarize a text (Jones, 2012,
para.7):
A. Summarizing a Text -Underline the main ideas in a paragraph or in a section. Determine
other concepts that support this main idea.
B. Summarizing a Text-Set the text aside and write a summary of it, providing only the gist
of the literature
C. Summarizing a Text-Consider the six basic questions in capturing the key concepts in
the text: “Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How.
• In doing so, take note that it is recommended that you put quotation marks on terms you
have adopted from the source.
3. Synthesizing
• Synthesizing involves “combining ideas” from literature and from “prior knowledge” and using
these information to “form a new idea, perspective, opinion or insight” (The Ohio State
University, 2016, para.9).
• It involves interacting with the text and determining how they relate to your existing
understanding of the concept.

Step in Synthesizing
1. Consider identifying the key idea behind the text first.
2. Determine how the literature is related to what you already know, including your past knowledge
about the topic and with other studies or reference materials you have read.
3. Reflect on key insights and realizations have gained from reading this source.

4. Using Direct Quotations

• As mentioned, if you borrowed words or passages from another source, it would be important
that you acknowledge these.
Below are some guidelines you can use in utilizing direct quotations (Stolley, Brizee & Paiz, 2013,
para.4):
A. Indicate the name of the author, year of the resource material and page number or paragraph
number, if the source came from the internet, in the same line of the direct quotation.
B. Use quotation marks to indicate these direct quotes from the literature. You can also put the
text on its own block, in accordance with the citation style you want to use.
C. Use quotes purposefully. Use it for impact in your research paper.
D. Adopt only the necessary text. If you only want to highlight a phrase or a sentence, quote only
these and not the whole paragraph.
E. Use ellipsis points (…) in shortening a quote and to indicate that you have removed some words.
Just ensure that the thought of the sentence essentially remains the same. For example: “Reyes
attributed sickness … as one of the major reasons for student absenteeism.

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Using Proper Citation
• Recognizing the author of the idea or work you were referring to in your research paper is a
practice which you will learn in writing. There are a few citation guides which you can use.

EXAMPLES:

A Summary
... several research programs have challenged the assumption that intentions are an important cause
of behavior. For example, Wegner and Wheatley (1999) pro posed that the subjective experience of
intentions causing behavior is an illusion.

Generalization: combined attribution

Wegner and Wheatley pointed to an influential program of research by Bargh and colleagues (e.g.,
Bargh and Chartrand, 1999; Bargh, Chen, and Burrows, 1996; Bargh and Ferguson, 2000; Bargh, et
al., 2001) which suggests that behaviour is determined by mental processes that are put into motion
by features of the environment and that operate outside of conscious awareness and guidance. In sum,
whereas several models of health and social behavior assume that intentions cause behavior, recent
research into automatic behavior and the illusion of conscious posits little or no causal role for intention.

A short direct quotation

Wegner and Wheatley (1999) proposed that the subjective experience of intentions causing behavior
is an illusion; both intention and behavior are caused by a third variable; 'unconscious mechanisms of
the mind' 1490).

A long direct quotation

... Muraven et al. (1998) suggest that: It is good to exert self-control on a regular basis because in the
long run, these exercises will strengthen self-control and make a person less susceptible to the
depleting effects of a single exertion. 1456)

How to Do In-Text Citations and Reference List

In-text Citation Reference List Reference List
One Author Example 1: General Guide:
Reyes (2016) Author, A. A. (Year of
highlighted… Publication). Title of
work: Subtitle of
Example 2: work. Location:
…rigorous procedure Publisher.
(Reyes, 2016).
Two Authors Example 1: General Guide:
Reyes and Santos (2016) Author, A. A., & Author,
highlighted… B. B. (Year of
Publication). Title of
Example 2: work: Subtitle of
…rigorous procedure work. Location:
(Reyes & Reyes, 2016) Publisher.
Three to Five Authors Example 1: General Guide:
Reyes, Santos and Tan (2016) Author, A. A., Author,
proposed… B. B., & Author C. C.
(Year of Publication).
Example 2: Title of work: Subtitle
…rigorous procedure (Reyes, of work. Location:
Santos & Tan 2016). Publisher.
In succeeding citations:
…process (Reyes et al. 2016)

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 Six or More Example 1: Author, A. A., Author,
Authors Reyes et al. (2016) proposed… B. B., Author, C. C.,
General Guide: Author, D. D., Author, E.
Example 2: E., & Author, F. F.,
…rigorous procedure (Reyes (Year of Publication).
et al. 2016). Title of work: Subtitle
of work. Location:
Publisher.
Unknown Author Example 1: Use the title General guide using the
of the work title:
…rigorous procedure Short version of the title.
(Research Guide, 2016). (Year of Publication).
Title of work: Subtitle
of work. Location:
Publisher.
Unknown Author Example 2: Anonymous General guide for
Author anonymous author:
…rigorous procedure Anonymous. (Year of
(Anonymous, 2016). Publication).
Title of work: Subtitle
of work. Location:
Publisher.
Organization Example 2: Use the title General guide:
of the work Name of the
…of the population Organization. (Year
(Philippine Statistics of Publication).
Authority [PSA], 2016). Title of work: Subtitle
In succeeding citations: of work. Location:
…population (PSA, Publisher.
2016)
Two Works Example: •Include both authors in the
…rigorous procedure reference list
(Reyes, 2016; Tan, •Arrange alphabetically
2015). Author, A. A. (Year of
Publication). Title of work:
Subtitle of work. Location:
Publisher.
Author, B. B. (Year of
Publication). Title of work:
Subtitle of work. Location:
Publisher.
Journal Follow the previous intext •General Guide:
Article, citations examples Author, A. A. (Year of
Newspaper depending on the Publication). Title of
or Magazine number of authors article. Title of journal or
(Print) newspaper or magazine,
volume number (issue
number), pages.
Encyclopedia Example: •General Guide:
Location: Publisher. …social science Author, A. A. (Year of
(Encyclopedia Name, Publication). Title of
2015). encyclopedia entry. In
Encyclopedia Name.
(Volume number, pages).
Unpublished Follow the previous intext •General Guide:
Dissertation citations examples Author, A. A. (Year of
Publication). Title of
dissertation. (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation).

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 Name of Institution,
Location.
Conference Follow the previous intext •General Guide:
Proceedings citations examples Author, A. A., & Author, B.
depending on the B. (Eds.). (Year of
number of authors Publication). Proceedings
from Conference
Abbreviation: Name of
Conference. Location:
Publisher.
Online Follow the previous intext •General Guide with DOI:
Journal citations examples Author, A. A. (Year of
depending on the Publication). Title of
number of authors article. Title of journal,
volume number, page
range. doi: 00000 or
http://dx.doi.org/00000
Online Follow the previous intext •General Guide without DOI:
Journal citations examples Author, A. A. (Year of
depending on the Publication). Title of
number of authors article. Title of journal,
volume number. Retrieved
from URL
Electronic Follow the previous intext •General Guide without DOI:
Book citations examples Author, A. A. (Year of
depending on the Publication). Title of
number of authors e-book. Retrieved
from URL
Online Follow the previous intext •General Guide without DOI:
Periodical citations examples Author, A. A. (Year of
depending on the Publication). Title of
number of authors article. Title of online
periodical, volume
number (issue number if
available). Retrieved from
URL

Choice of reporting verb

A further choice to be made with regard to citations is that of the reporting verb and its tense. If using
an integral reference, a reporting verb is often necessary. It introduces what the cited author thinks,
said or did. In the example below 'argued' is the reporting verb.

Ambrose (1991: 861 argued that the policy of containment acted as a guiding light for the United States
to emerge from isolationism and make a strong commitment to intervention in global affairs for the first
time 'in a period of general peace'.

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Reporting verbs can be categorized according to the type of activity they rep resent on the part of the
cited author (Thomas and Hawes, 1994; Thompson and Ye, 1991):
1. ‘Doing' activities refer to procedures and research findings, for example: observe, dis cover,
show, illustrate, analyze, conduct, study, examine
2. 'Thinking' activities refer to an author's beliefs and thoughts, for example: believe, view,
speculate.
3. 'Discussion' activities refer to what a cited author has said, for example: argue, discuss, suggest,
state, propose, claim, describe.

Tense of reporting verb

Another decision that a writer must take when using reporting verbs is the choice of verb tense. It will
probably not be until completing later drafts that you will want to focus in detail on the issues outlined
in this section but it is helpful to have an overview of tense usage when reporting the work of others
from an early stage. There are three main tenses that you can choose between:
1. the past simple tense - Hall (2006) explained how ...
2. the present perfect tense - Hall (2006) has explained how ...
3. the present simple tense - Hall (2006) explains how ...

THE PAST SIMPLE TENSE

The past simple is the safest tense to choose for a reporting verb as, in the majority of circumstances,
it is grammatically acceptable. In particular, when referring to what a researcher did, the past simple is
more common for the reporting verb because the action represented by the verb refers to an activity
which took place at a specific moment in the past.

Reporting verb in the past simple

Chappelle et al. (1995) found that the intermediate species hydrogen was potentially important for
diagnosing which anaerobic respiration process was dominant.

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

The present perfect is common when referring to an area of enquiry within which a number of
researchers are working.

VERB IN THE PRESENT PERFECT

Reactive transport modelling of groundwater systems has become an important field of research during
recent years (e.g. Zheng and Bennett, 1995; Steefel and MacQuarrie, 1996...)

In Example below the general area of research is referred to using the present perfect ('have also
considered') and then the past simple is used when a specific piece of research is mentioned
('investigated').

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Contrast between the present perfect and the past simple.
Numerous experiments have also considered the efficiency of action initiation as a function of
implementation intentions. For example, Webb and Sheeran (2003) investigated the relationship
between implementation intentions and ego-depletion.

The present Simple Tense

While reading around your topic you have probably noticed that it is common for authors to use the
present tense when reporting what a cited author thinks, believes, writes, or says. The move from past
to present tends to be related to how close the research is to you: to your opinion, to your research, or
to current knowledge (Swales and Feak, 2004). Some would argue that it gives the impression that
your research is up-to-date and in the domain of current debates in your field.

Reporting verb in the present

According to Findlen (1994) the world's first museums emerged in Italy in the 16th century. Analyzing
the context and processes of this emergence, she writes:
Humanists, natural philosophers, and collectors were not just found anywhere in society. They
inspected nature in a precisely demarcated setting, the museum, that took its place alongside the courts
and academies of late Renaissance and Baroque Italy as a space in which learned and elite culture
converged (Findlen 1994: 97, emphasis hers).

Choice of tense in the clause or sentence where the information is reported

As well as the tense of the reporting verb, the tense in the clause where the cited information is reported
is also significant. The choice depends on the meaning which you wish to convey. If the information
reported refers to the results of a single study the past simple is used.

Reported findings in the past simple tense

Hamilton et al. (1980) found that asking participants to form an impression of a target person led to a
greater degree of thematic organization of the presented information than did asking participants to
memorize the information.

If the information reported reflects current knowledge or beliefs, or it is information which can be
generalized, the present tense is more likely to be used

REPORTED FINDINGS IN THE PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE

Orbell and Sheeran (1998) suggest that there are four possible patterns of consist ency between
intentions and behavior.

EFFECTIVE AND UNACCEPTABLE CITATIONS

Acceptable and unacceptable uses of a source text

An extract from a sample source text is provided below; it is taken from Communities of Practice:
Learning, meaning and identity by Etienne Wenger.

The Source Extract

Our institutions, to the extent that they address issues of learning explicitly, are largely based on the
assumption that learning is an individual process, that it has a beginning and an end, that it is best
separated from the rest of our activities, and that it is a result of teaching. Hence we arrange classrooms
where students - free from the distractions of their participation in the outside world - can pay attention
to a teacher or focus on exercises. We design computer-based training programs that walk students
through individualized sessions covering reams of information and drill practice. To assess learning we
use tests with which students struggle in one-to-one combat, where knowledge must be demonstrated
out of context, and where collaborating is considered cheating. As a result, much of our institutionalized
teaching and training is perceived by would-be learners as irrelevant, and most of us come out of this
treatment feeling that learning is boring and arduous, and that we are not really cut out for it.

So, what if we adopted a different perspective, one that placed learners in the con text of our lived
experience of participation in the world? What if we assumed that learning is as much a part of our
human nature as eating or sleeping, that it is both life-sustaining and inevitable, and that - given a
chance - we are quite good at it? And what if, in addition, we assumed that learning is, in its essence,
a fundamentally social phenomenon, reflecting our own deeply social nature as human beings capable
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of knowing? What kind of understanding would such a perspective yield on how learning takes place
and on what is required to support it? In this book, I will try to develop such a perspective.

Source: Wenger, 1998:3

An acceptable direct quotation

When discussing conventional approaches to learning, Wenger 11998: 3) argues that education
institutions are largely based on the assumption that learning is an individual process, that it has
beginning and an end, that it is best separated from the rest of our activities, and that it is a result of
teaching.

An acceptable summary
Wenger (1998) speculates on how we might alter our approach to learning if we change our
underpinning assumptions about the ways that individuals learn. In his view, learners tend to be
alienated by the individualized approach to learning which still predominates in many institutions and
he proposes that we should move towards a more social approach.

An unacceptable paraphrase/summary
Institutions make the incorrect assumption that learning is an individual process and it results from
teaching. Students learn in classrooms where they focus on the teach er and exercises. Collaborating
is regarded as cheating. Therefore, most students view learning as irrelevant, boring and arduous and
don't believe that they are cut out for it (Wenger, 1998).

Although the source material is acknowledged in the example and some of the wording has been
changed or omitted, the structure and many of the phrases are the same as in the original text: 'that
learning is an individual process'; '... institutionalized teaching and training is perceived by would-be
learners as irrelevant ... learning is boring and arduous, and that we are not really cut out for if. In
addition, the initial phrase in the citation, 'Institutions make the incorrect assumption that ...' makes a
stronger statement than Wenger in the original source, 'Our institutions ... are largely based on the
assumption ...'.Thus it could be argued that the citation is misrepresenting the strength of the assertion
being made by Wenger.

Unacceptable borrowing
Our institutions are largely based on the assumption that learning is an individual process. But what if
we adopted a different viewpoint and assumed that learning is a fundamentally social phenomenon?
How would this affect our understanding of learning and the way we facilitate it?

There is no acknowledgement of the cited author in the example and the wording is very close to
Wenger's original sentences despite the fact that much of the detail has been omitted.

References:
• Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Fraenkel, J. R. (2009). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
• Leedy, P. D. & Ormrod J. E. (2013). Practical Research: Planning and Design. New York:
Pearson Education, Inc.
• Moore, N. (1983). How to Do Research: A Practical Guide to Designing and Managing
Research Projects. London: Facet Publishing.

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