11

General Chemistry 2
Quarter 3 – Module 5:
Thermochemistry
Chemistry 1 – Senior High School
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 3 – Module 3: Thermochemistry
February 2021

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 What I Need to Know

This module will tackle about thermochemistry whose concerned is on the

quantities of heat evolved or absorbed during chemical reactions. This module is
presented into three lessons:

• Lesson 1 - Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions, Endothermic

and Exothermic Processes, First Law of Thermodynamics
• Lesson 2 - Enthalpy of a Chemical Reaction - Thermochemical
Equations
• Lesson 3 – Calorimetry, Standard Enthalpy of Reaction and
Formation

After going through this module you are expected to:

1. explain the first law of thermodynamics how factors influence the
rate of a reaction (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-124);
2. explain enthalpy of a reaction (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-125); and
3. calculate the change in enthalpy of a given reaction using Hess Law
(STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-127).

What I Know

Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answers on a separate sheet of
paper.

A. Multiple Choice. Write the letter of the correct answer on a separate

sheet.

1. Heat _________.
A. flows from cooler to warmer object
B. is transferred when Liquid A is at 25 0 C mixes with Liquid B is
also at 250C
C. is the energy that transfers from one object to another due to the
temperature difference between them
D. All of the above are true

2. _________ is an exothermic reaction.

A. melting of ice C. evaporating alcohol
B. condensing steam D. A, B, and C

3. __________ can readily exchange mass and energy.

A. closed system C. open system
B. isolated system D. surroundings
4. The change in energy (∆E) for a gas that releases 43 J of heat and
has done 120 J of work on it is __________.
A. 55 J B. 77 J C. 99 J D. 100 J

5. The ∆E for a gas that absorbs 200 J of heat and does 12 J of work
is _________.
A. -212 J B. -188 J C. 188 J D. 212 J

6. _________ is the difference between the enthalpies of products and

enthalpies of reactant.
A. system enthalpy C. enthalpy of the equation
B. enthalpy of reaction D. enthalpy of surroundings

For numbers 10 & 11, refer to the chemical equation below:

SO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) SO3(g) ∆H = -99.1 kJ

7. If 250 g of SO2 is converted to SO3, the heat evolved is ________.

A. -387 kJ B. -325 kJ C. 325 kJ D. 387 kJ

8. Knowing the enthalpy (∆H) of the reaction in number 10, we can say that
the reaction is _____.
A. endothermic C. either A or B
B. exothermic D. cannot be determined

9. The equation for calculating the heat changes is given by _____.

A. Q = -mc∆H C. Q = -C∆T
B. Q = mc ∆T D. either B or C

10. A student dissolved a substance in a beaker. The beaker became too

cold. The sign of ∆H is ______.
A. positive ( + ) C. either positive or negative
B. negative ( - ) D. insufficient data to determine

11. Substance X and substance Y both weigh 25 g and are initially at 27 0C.
When they both absorb equal amount of heat, the temperature of substance
X became 54 0 C while that of Y became 75 0C. The substance having a lower
specific heat is ________.
A. substance X C. insufficient data to determine
B. substance Y D. they have the same specific heat

12. A student heated 40 g of gold from 1000C to 357 0C. The heat absorbed
by gold _______.
A. 1.3 kJ B. 1.4 kJ C. 1.5 kJ D. 1.6 kJ

13. A 500 g iron bar was cooled from 97 0C to 15 0C. Determine the heat
releases in the process. c of Fe = 0.45 J / g-K
A. -18.2 kJ B. -15.3 kJ C. 15.3 kJ D. 18.2 kJ

14. Zero is the equivalent standard enthalpy formation of _____ .

A. less stable allotropes C. the reactant of less concentration
B. more stable allotropes D. the reactant of greater concentration
 15. ___________ has a standard heat of formation that is not equal to zero.
A. Br2 B. CO2 C. Fe D. Na

Lesson Energy Changes in Chemical

1 Reactions

The physicists and chemists share the same interest in energy and its
transformations. To a physicist, energy is the capacity to do work. To a chemist,
energy is the capacity to make change happen. The science that deals with energy
relationships during its transformations from one form to another is
thermodynamics.

What’s In
SCRAMBLED WORDS. Write the words formed related to the
lessons of this module on your answer sheets.

1.___________ Y N E E R G
2. ___________ K W O R
3.____________ E Y N G R E T I C K I N E
4. ___________ E Y N G R E L A P O I T N E L
5. ___________ E E N G Y R T A E H
6. ___________ C I M E T O D E N H R E G N A H C
7. ___________ C I M E T O X E H R E G N A H C
8. ___________ T E A H Y T C A A P I C
9. ___________ A E H T C I F S P E C I
10. __________ Y C L R M T R A O I E E
11. __________ S T A E H F O N O R E I T C A
12. __________ P Y E N H T A L
13. __________ S C S T H E R O M M A N Y D O
14. __________ M E T S Y S
15. __________ S G N S U R I D N R O U

What’s New
Physical and chemical changes are accompanied by energy change.
Below are examples of familiar physical and chemical changes that are
obviously accompanied by energy change. Give 3 more examples and write them
down on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Burning of fuels releases energy.
2. Boiling of water or cooking of food require energy.
3. Photosynthesis need energy from the sun in order to happen.
 4. _______________________________________________
5. _______________________________________________
6. _______________________________________________
The lesson that you are about to learn is about thermochemistry, the study
of heat and energy changes that accompany physical and chemical processes.

What Is It

ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS: ENDOTHERMIC AND

EXOTHERMIC PROCESSES

Changes in matter are usually accompanied by absorption or evolution

of energy. The energy change observed a consequence of breaking and formation of
bonds. To separate atoms, energy is needed to overpower the forces that hold them
together. In short, energy is absorbed to break bonds. Conversely, when bonds are
formed, energy is evolved. Such energy is the most commonly observed as heat. If
heat is absorbed during the process, the reaction is endothermic. If heat is evolved,
the change is exothermic.

System and Surroundings

In studying energy changes, it is important to distinguish between

system and surroundings. The portion of the universe singled out for study is called
the system. Everything else outside is referred to as the surroundings. In other
words, it is any part of the universe that is isolated from the rest by a boundary or
wall. It makes up the rest of the universe that is in close contact with the system.
For example, when performing laboratory experiments, the chemicals constitute the
system, while the surroundings include the container, the air, and everything
outside, that are in contact with the system. This type of system which allows
exchange of energy but not matter with its surroundings is said to be a closed
system. On the other hand, an open system allows exchange of matter and energy
with the surroundings, while an isolated system is one wherein there is no exchange
of matter and energy.

Consider water in a beaker on top of a stove as the system. Upon

heating, the system absorbs heat from the surroundings causing its temperature to
increase. Once the stove is turned off, the system gives off heat to the surroundings
causing its temperature to decrease.

Endothermic and Exothermic Process

In an endothermic process, heat flows into the system from the

surroundings. Melting of ice, for example is an endothermic process. Hence, since I
am a part of the surroundings, if I touch the ice, it would feel cold because the heat
from my fingers is passed on to the ice. The ice also absorbs heat from the air around
it causing the temperature of the surroundings to drop. If ice is placed in a glass of
water, the temperature of water and the glass will drop since the heat from the water
and the glass will flow to the ice. Heat is generally transferred from a hotter to a
colder one. For the same reason, our fingers may get burned upon touching a hot
object since the heat from the object is transmitted to the fingers in contact with it.

Conversely in an exothermic process, heat flows out of the system into

the surroundings. Fuels like LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) or wood, give off heat
when they are burned. Upon burning, the system releases heat to the surroundings
which might be the air around the stove or the food that is being cooked. Because of
heat transfer, there is a change of the temperature in the surroundings. Similarly,
mixing concentrated acid and water is exothermic. Because of the heat produced the
surroundings becomes hot. Thus, water is never added to acid due to localized
heating which may cause spattering or violent reaction. Hence, it is safer to add acid
to water because dilution would lessen the heat effect.

This Photo by Unknown Author

is licensed under CC BY
Fig 2. Food inside the container Fig 3. Melting ice (endothermic Fig. 4 Exploding fireworks
is the system and everything process) (exothermic process)
else is the surrounding

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The term thermodynamics is derived from the Greek word "thermes"

which means heat and "dynamo" which means power. Thermodynamics deals with
the study of energy and its transformations. This field of study will help in
understanding the relationship between heat and work in all living and nonliving
things. A living cell, for instance, evolves heat, does work, and utilizes energy
obtained from burning food. Burning of gasoline inside an internal combustion
engine provides the push that propel the vehicle, aside from giving out heat. A moving
machine that does work also generates heat. Thermodynamics will provide guidelines
that will enable us to understand the energetics and directions of reactions.

According to the law of conservation of energy, energy can neither be

created nor destroyed, energy is conserved. In short, energy is conserved. This
known as the first law of thermodynamics. The law further states that energy
may be transformed from one form to another and that any energy lost by the
system must be gained by the surroundings, and vice versa. Energy can also be
transferred back and forth between the system and the surroundings in the form of
heat and work.

The energy contained within the system, referred to as internal energy,

E, is simply the sum of the kinetic and potential energy of all the components of the
system. The change in internal energy, ∆E, of the system is a state function, thus,
its value is independent of the manner, in which the state of the system is attained.
The value is the same regardless of the pathway and depends only on the initial and
final states of the system. It does not depend on how and where the change is carried
out. Thus, if a system is transformed from state A, to a different state B, the value of
∆E is expressed as ∆E = EB - EA

If the transformation is carried out by exchange of heat and performance

of work between a system and its surroundings, the total change in energy of a
system, ∆E, is equal to the sum of the heat absorbed or evolved by the system, q,
and the work performed by or done on the system, w, as expressed by the following
equation:
∆E = q + w

Unlike ∆E, q and w, are not state function, and, therefore, path
dependent. Hence, the amount of heat and work formed during a change in state of
a system depend on the way the change is carried out. However, even though the
individual values of q and w change, their sum is a state function. For example, if
the path from initial to final state the value of q, the value of w decreases by an
amount that will give the same ∆E value and vice versa. The following data will show
that ∆E is a state function while q and w are nonstate functions.

Table 1. State and Non-state Functions

∆E w q
Bunsen burner -885 kJ + 5 kJ -890 kJ
Engine -885 kJ -220 kJ -665 kJ

In the laboratory, igniting methane using a Bunsen burner evolves

energy in the form of heat amounting to around 885 kJ/mol. There is almost no work
transferred. But if the same amount of methane is burned in an internal combustion
engine of a fraction of the energy evolved is converted to work and the rest are
converted to heat. This shows that ∆E is a state property, while q and w are nonstate
properties. In applying the equation [∆E = q + w] that expresses the first law of
thermodynamics, the signs of q and w must always be taken into account.

• q and w are positive (+) when heat or work enters the system from the
surroundings, i.e., heat is absorbed by the system and work is done on
the system

• q and w are negative (-) when heat or work transfers from the system to
the surroundings, i. e., heat is evolved and work is done by the system

• if both q and w are (+), sign of ∆E is also (+); internal energy increases

• if both q and w are (-), sign of ∆E is also (-); internal energy decreases

• if q is (+) and w is (-), or, if q is (-) and w is (+), sign of ∆E depends on

the magnitudes of q and w
 heat added to the system heat evolved by the system
(+q) (-q)
work done on the system SYSTEM work done by the system
(+w) ( -w )
SURROUNDINGS
Fig. 5. Heat (q) and work (w) are positive if they enter the system and negative, when
they leave the system

Sample Problem:

Calculate ∆E if 100 kJ of heat energy is absorbed by the system and 30 kJ of work

is done on the surroundings.
Given:
q = + 100 kJ (absorbed by the system; sign is +)
w = -30 kJ (done by the system; sign is -)
Required:
∆E value
Solution:
∆E = q + w
= 100 kJ + (-30 kJ)
= 70 kJ
Answer:
∆E = 70 kJ

Explanation: The addition of heat increases the energy of the system by 100 kJ, but
doing work decreases the energy of the system by 30 kJ. The net result is 70 kJ as
shown stepwise.

What’s More
Write the letter of the correct answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. This refers to the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies of different
temperature.
A. Energy B. Heat C. Radiation D. Thermochemistry

2. To quantify the heat flow into or out of a system, the property enthalpy. Enthalpy's
magnitude depends on the amount of substance. Therefore, it is a _____ property.
A. extensive B. intensive C. either A or B D. cannot be determined

3. Heat flows from ___________.

A. hot to cold C. hot to cold then back to hot
B. cold to hot D. cold to hot then back to cold

4. The system that does not allow transfer of mass or energy is a/an ________.
A. closed system C. open system
B. isolated system D. surroundings

5. A mole of ice becomes liquid as it absorbs 6.01 kJ of energy. this reaction is

a/an _____.
A. endothermic C. either A or B
B. exothermic D. cannot be determined
6. Burning 1 mole of methane results in the system to decrease enthalpy by 890.4
kJ. This shows that the reaction is a/an _____.
A. endothermic C. either A or B
B. exothermic D. cannot be determined

7. The first law of thermodynamics, called _________, states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed but could be converted from one form to another.
A. Law of Definite Proportion C. Law of Conservation of Mas
B. Law of Multiple Proportion D. Law of Conservation of Energy

8. ________ equation follows the law of conservation of energy.

A. ∆Esys = ∆E surr C. ∆Esys - ∆Esurr = 0
B. ∆Esys = ∆E surr D. None of the above

9. Heat is exchanged between the system and the surroundings. This is an example
of _______ change.
A. chemical B. physical C. extensive D. intensive

10. When you hold an ice cube in your hand, the heat flow from ______________ and
the melting of ice is ____________.
A. your hand to the ice; exothermic C. your hand to the ice; endothermic
B. the ice to your hand; exothermic D. the ice to your hand; endothermic

Lesson Enthalpy of a Chemical

2 Reaction
Most chemical reactions in laboratories and even in living systems occur
under constant pressure. During such chemical reactions carried out in vessels
exposed to atmospheric pressure, energy change between the system and the
surroundings usually involve heat transfer only. The amount of work involved under
this condition is very minimal. since work involved is negligible, the energy
exchanged is usually in the form of heat.

What Is It
Enthalpy of Chemical Reactions

The term enthalpy, from the Greek word, enthalpein, meaning " to
warm" refers to the energy transferred under constant pressure. It is represented by
the symbol, H. It is often referred to, as heat content. Like e (internal energy),
enthalpy, H, is also a state function, and therefore, not path dependent. Enthalpy
cannot be measured, but it is possible to measure the change in enthalpy or heat
content, ∆H.

For reactions that occur in an open container, at constant pressure, ∆H

is equal to the difference in enthalpy between the final and initial states of the system
as given by the equation:
∆H = Hfinal - Hinitial
Enthalpy change, ∆H, that accompanies chemical reaction is called heat of reaction.
This is the net energy change resulting from the breaking and the making of bonds.
It represents heat absorbed or evolved when the reactants are converted into
products, at constant pressure.

∆H = H products - H reactants
AH = q (at constant pressure)

The sign of ∆H indicates all the direction of heat transfer. A positive value
of ∆H, indicates that the system absorbs heat from the surroundings and is,
therefore, endothermic. A negative value indicates that heat is released by the
system, hence, the process is exothermic.

endothermic: q = ∆H > 0 ; Hproducts > Hreactants

exothermic : q = ∆H < 0 ; H products < Hreactants

Surroundings Surroundings
SYSTEM SYSTEM
Heat ∆H > 0 Heat ∆H < 0
Endothermic Exothermic
Fig. 6. Direction of Heat Flow for Endothermic and Exothermic Systems

Thermochemical Equations

The enthalpy relation between reactants and products is usually shown

in a thermochemical equation. A thermochemical equation is a balanced equation in
which the value of ∆H, with the appropriate sign, is usually written at the right side.
Since both the physical state and amount of substance involved in the process affect
the magnitude of ∆H, a thermochemical equation also shows whether the substance
is a solid, liquid, gas or aqueous, while the coefficients represent the number of moles
of reactants and products. Furthermore, reversing the reaction would lead to a ∆H
value that has the same magnitude but opposite in sign as shown below.

∆H forward = -393.5 kJ C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H reverse = + 393.5 kJ

Fig. 7. Reversing the reaction changes the sign but not the value of ∆H

A typical example of a thermochemical equation that is endothermic is

the conversion of methyl alcohol to carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Note that ∆H is
positive or ∆H >0.

CH3OH (g) CO(g) + O2(g) ∆H = + 90.7 kJ (endothermic)

On the other hand, and exothermic process such as formation of

hydrofluoric acid from hydrogen and fluorine, is represented by following equation:

H2(g) + F2(g) 2HF(g) ∆H = -557 kJ (exothermic)

Enthalpy also indicates the amount of heat stored as potential energy.

this implies that in an exothermic reaction, the products will have a lower energy
than reactants. The heat content of the system is lower after an exothermic process,
since heat is released by the system to the surroundings.
 To show that enthalpy is an extensive property, meaning the value of ∆H
is dependent on the amount of reactants consumed, let us consider the combustion
of acetone, C3H6O (molar mass = 58 g /mole).

C3H6O(l) + 4 O2(g) 3 CO2(g). + 3 H2O(g) ∆H=-1790kJ

The thermochemical equation shows that burning 1 mole of acetone in

the presence of 4 moles of oxygen gas releases 1790 kJ of heat. This information can
be considered as a stoichiometric relation:
1 mole C3H6O = 1790 kJ
2 moles C3H6O = 2 (1790) kJ

Since 1 mole C3H6O has a mass of 58 g, the following stoichiometric relationship can
be used:
Since 1 mole C3H6O = 58 g C3H6O
Therefore, 58 g C3H6O x 1790 kJ

Sample Problem:
Calculate the amount of heat released during the combustion of:
1. 0.30 mol of C3H6O 2. 100 g of C3H6O
1. Given:
0.30 mole of C3H6O
1 mole of C3H6O releases 1790 kJ

Required:
heat released by 0.30 mole of C3H6O

Solution:
Using the stoichiometric relation, 1 mol C3H6O = 1790 kJ
heat = (0.30 mol C3H6O x -1790 kJ) / 1 mol C3H6O
= -537 kJ (The negative sign indicates that heat is released by the
system and the process is exothermic.)
Answer:
heat released = -537 kJ

2. Given:
100 g C3H6O
1 mol C3H6O = 58 g C3H6O
1 mol C3H6O releases 1790 kJ

Required:
heat released by 100 g C3H6O

Solution:
heat = 100 g C3H6O x (1 mol C3H6O / 58 g C3H6O) x (-1790 kJ / 1 mol C3H6O)
= - 3086 kJ (The negative sign indicates that heat is released and the
process is exothermic.)

Answer:
heat released = -3086 kJ
 What’s More

Write the letter of the correct answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. The property which denotes the heat change at constant pressure is _____.
A. enthalpy B. radiation C. thermochemistry D. work

2. __________ the difference between enthalpies of products and enthalpies of

reactant.
A. System enthalpy C. Enthalpy of the reaction
B. Enthalpy of reaction D. Enthalpy of the surroundings

3. _________ shows the enthalpy changes as well as the mass relationships.

A. Internal energy C. Thermochemical equation
B. Thermal energy D. Work

4. Sodium acetate dissolves readily in water according to the following equation:

Na2C2H3O2(s) Na2C2H3O2(aq) ∆H = -17.3 kJ

This process _____ temperature of the water.

A. decreases C. stays the same
B. increases D. no change in the

For numbers 5-6:

Upon decomposition of baking soda carbon dioxide released, which causes a
cake to rise while baking. The reaction is as follows:

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O (l) ∆H = 129 kJ

5. Since the enthalpy of the reaction is positive, the reactions is _____ .
A. endothermic C. either A or B
B. exothermic D. cannot be determined

6. ________ kilojoules of heat is required to decompose 2.5 mol NaHCO3.

A. 105 kJ B. 136 kJ C. 161 kJ D. 192 kJ

For numbers 7-8, refer to the thermochemical reaction below:

SO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) SO3(g) ∆H = -99.1 kJ

7. If 100 g of SO2 is converted to SO3, the heat evolved is _______.

A. -155 kJ B. -125 kJ C. 125 kJ D. 155 kJ

8. If we know the enthalpy of the reaction like in number 7, we can say that the
reaction is _____.
A. endothermic C. either A or B
B. exothermic D. cannot be determined
For numbers 9-10, refer to the thermochemical reaction below:

P4(s) + 5 O2(g) P4O10(s) ∆H = -3013 kJ

9. If 3 moles of white phosphorus (P4) burn in air, the heat evolved is _______.
A. -9039 kJ B. - 6336 kJ C. 4129 kJ D. 7235 kJ

10. If the reaction is reversed, the process becomes _____.

A. endothermic C. either A or B
B. exothermic D. cannot be determined

Calorimetry; Standard
Lesson
3
Enthalpy of Reaction &
Formation
The aspect of thermodynamics that deals with the study of energy
transformation during chemical reactions is known as thermochemistry.

What Is It

Calorimetry

Calorimetry is concerned with the

measurement of heat changes or heat flow in a
chemical reaction. The device used to measure heat
changes is a calorimeter. When a system absorbs or
evolves heat, the temperature change.
Experimentally, temperature change observed serves
as basis for determining the amount of heat
transferred.

The temperature change depends on the

heat capacity of the materials used. Heat capacity,
C, is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 10 C,
while specific heat, c, is the amount of heat needed
to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by Figure 7. A calorimeter
10 C. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

The improvised calorimeter used in general chemistry laboratory, is

made of Styrofoam which is a very good insulator. Hence, there is very little heat flow
through the walls of the calorimeter into the surrounding air. It follows, therefore,
that the heat absorbed or evolved in the reaction is entirely transferred to the
aqueous solution within the calorimeter. The heat evolved is equal in magnitude to
the heat absorbed. The heat transferred is called the heat of reaction.
-q reaction = q solution
Assuming the solution is relatively dilute and can be regarded as predominantly
water, the amount of heat transferred is calculated using the following formula:

q = mc ∆t

where: q is the amount of heat absorbed or evolved in joule or calorie

c is the specific heat of water since the solution if fairly dilute
(c = 4.18 J/g0C or c = 1 cal /g0 C)
m is the mass of the solution in grams (essentially mass of water)
∆t is the change in temperature (tfinal - tinitial ) in 0 C

Molar heat of reaction, ∆H is calculated using the equation

∆H = q reaction / no. of moles, n

Take into account that n is the number of moles of the limiting reagent.

Sample Problems # 1.

A student mixes 20 mL of 0.1 M HCl and 20 mL of 0.1 M KOH in a

calorimeter. Upon complete mixing, the temperature of the resulting solution
changes from 280C to 32.50C. Calculate the molar heat of reaction or neutralization,
∆H. Assume loss of heat is negligible and total volume of solution is 40 mL, and since
the solution is predominantly water, the following values can be used (density is 1.0
g/mL and specific heat is 4.18 J / g0 C) in the computation.

Given:
temperature change, ∆t = 32.5 0C - 280C = 4.5 0C
volume of 0.1 M HCl = 20 mL
volume of 0.1 M KOH = 20 mL
total volume = 40 mL
density of water = 1.0 g / mL
specific heat of water = specific heat of solution = 4.18 J /g0C

Required:
molar heat of reaction, ∆H

Solution:
Change volume of solution to mass using the formula:
mass = density x volume
mass of solution = 1.0 g/mL x 40 mL = 40 g
From the observed temperature, the reaction is exothermic, so amount of heat,
q, has a negative sign. Substitute the given values in the following
formula:
q = -(mc∆t)
= -(40 g x 4.18 J/g0C x 4.50C)
= -752 J

To calculate the molar heat of reaction, ∆H, get first the number of moles of the
limiting reagent. However, for this particular reaction, the amounts used are the
same, hence, the number of moles of either one can be used.
 no. of mol HCl = MHCl. x VHCl
= 0.1 M x 0.02 L
= 0.002 mol
Therefore,
∆H = -752 J / 0.002 mol
= -376,000 J / mol. or -376 kJ /mol
Answer:
∆H = -376 kJ/mol

Sample Problem # 2

A student dissolves 5.0 g NaOH in 100 mL of water in a calorimeter at

20.50C. As the NaOH dissolves, the temperature of the surrounding water rises to
31.00C. Determine the heat of solution of NaOH in J/g.

Given:
volume of water = 200 mL (density of water = 1 g/mL)
specific heat of water = 4.18 J/g0C
mass of NaOH = 5.0 g
temperature change, ∆t = (31.0-20.5) 0C = 10.50C

Required:
heat of solution of NaOH in J/g

Solution:
q NaOH = -q solution (NaOH releases heat to the surroundings)
= -(mc∆t)
= -(100 g x 4.18 J/g0C x 10.50C)
= -4389 J
∆H solution = -4389J /5.0 g = -877.8 J/g

Answer:
∆H solution = -877.8 J/g

Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction

One of the most important thermochemical data is the enthalpy of formation or

heat of formation, ∆Hf, which is defined as the enthalpy change when a substance
is formed from its constituent elements. Since the value of any enthalpy change
depends on the conditions of temperature and pressure as well as physical states, a
set of conditions called standard state is specified for this thermochemical data. The
standard state of a substance is its pure form at 1 atmosphere pressure and a
temperature of 250C or 298 K.

The standard enthalpy of formation, ∆Hf, is the change in enthalpy for a reaction
that forms 1 mole of a compound from its stable elements at their standard states.
the superscript 0 indicates the standard state conditions. If an element exists in more
than one form at standard conditions, the most stable form of the element is used in
formation reactions. For example, the most stable form of oxygen is O 2, not O3 nor
O. By definition, the enthalpy of formation of the most stable form of an element at
1 atm and 250C is zero. Therefore, ∆Hf values for Al(s), O2(g), Br2(l), and the standard
states of other stable elements are equal to zero.
Standard Enthalpy of Reaction

Enthalpies of formation can be used to calculate standard enthalpy of a reaction.

The standard enthalpy of a reaction, ∆H0, is the enthalpy change when all the
reactants and products are in their standard states. The standard enthalpy change
of a given reaction is equal to the sum of standard enthalpies of formation of the
products minus the sum of the enthalpies of formation of the reactants, as shown in
the following mathematical expression:

∆H0 = ∑n∆Hf0 product - ∑ n∆Hf0 reactants

where n represents the stoichiometric coefficients of the products and reactants in

the thermochemical equation or number of moles, and the symbol ∑ means
summation.

Elements in their standard states that are involved in the reaction are usually
omitted since their heats of formations are equal to zero. Let us consider the following
reaction to illustrate this.

Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) Fe(s) + Al2O3(s)

Applying the formula to get the standard enthalpy change:

∆H0 = ∑n∆Hf0 Al2O3(s) - ∑ n∆Hf0 Fe2O3(s)

Note that elements Al(s) and Fe(s) are not included

Sample Problem:

Given the standard enthalpies of formation for the following:

Compounds ∆H0 f
C6H12(l) -151.9 kJ /mol
CO2(g) -393.5 kJ / mol
H2O(l) - 285.8 kJ / mol
Calculate ∆H0 for the combination of hexane as shown in the following equation.
C6H12(l) + 9 O2(g) 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)
Solution:
∆H0 = ∑n∆Hf0 product - ∑ n∆Hf0 reactants
= [ 6∆Hf0 CO2 + 6 ∆Hf0H2O] - [∆Hf0 C6H12]
= [6(-393.5) + 6(-285.8)] - [-151.9]
= -3923.9 kJ

Since the standard enthalpy of formation of oxygen is zero, it was not included in the
calculation.

Hess's Law

There are reactions wherein the direct measurement of enthalpy change is not
possible. There are also compounds that cannot be formed from their elements
because the reaction is either very slow or there are side reactions that result in
products other than what is desired. Hess's Law is a very convenient way to obtain
∆H values for reactions that are difficult to carry out in a calorimeter. It provides an
indirect method of determining heat of reaction using as basis related chemical
reactions with previously determined values of ∆Hf0. Let us consider for example, the
formation of carbon dioxide. It is very difficult to control the oxidation of solid carbon,
graphite to produce pure CO. Whereas, for related reactions such as oxidation of
carbon to CO2 and oxidation of CO to CO2, ∆Hf0 are both easily measured.

ROUTE 1
(one step)

REACTANTS, X & Y PRODUCT, XY

Intermediates
ROUTE 2 (2 or more
steps)
Figure 8. Overall enthalpy change is the same regardless of the path taken, whether single step or a series of steps,
for particular reaction.

According to Germain Hess, a Russian chemist, the enthalpy change is the same
whether a reaction takes place in one step or a series of steps. For a chemical reaction
that takes place using different pathways, overall enthalpy change is the same
regardless of the route, so long as initial and final conditions are the same.

Hess's law states that ∆H of a reaction carried out in a series of steps is

equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps. A
thermochemical equation can be expressed as the sum of two or more equations,

overall equation = equation 1 + equation 2 + ...

and, ∆H for the overall equation is the sum of the ∆H for the individual equations:
∆H = ∆H1 + ∆H2. + ...

Sample Problem:

Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation, ∆H f0 for methane gas, CH4 of

methane is determined indirectly by using the following set of reactions whose ∆H 0
values have been accurately determined and applying Hess's law:
1) C(graphite) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H0 = -393.5 kJ
2) H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) H2O(l) ∆H0 = -285.8 kJ
3) CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) ∆H0 = -890.4 kJ

Strategy

In applying Hess's law, equations can be rearranged so that the desired reactants
and products will appear in the overall reaction. If the equation is reversed, the sign
of ∆H0 must also be reversed. If the equations are multiplied by a factor to obtain the
desired coefficients, the ∆H0 values should also be multiplied by the same number.

Hence, to calculate the standard enthalpy of the given reaction do the following
steps:

a. Write equation (1) as is.

b. Multiply reaction (2) by two including the value of ∆H 0.
c. Rewrite reaction (3) in the reverse direction and change the sign of ∆H 0 , ∆H0 from
- to +.
d. Add the equation algebraically. Substances that appear on opposite sides of the
equation may be cancelled.

Solution:
1) C (graphite) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H0 = -393.5 kJ
2) 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) ∆H0 = 2 (-285.8 kJ)
3) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) CH4(g) + 2O2 ∆H0 = + 890.4 kJ

Overall equation: C (graphite) + 2H2(g) CH4(g) ∆H0 = - 74.7 kJ

What’s More
Written the letter of the correct answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. An apparatus used to measure heat changes is __________.
A. anemometer B. barometer C. calorimeter D. thermometer

2. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance
by one degree Celsius is _____.
A. heat capacity C. specific heat
B. internal energy D. none of the above

3. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given quantity of a

substance by one degree Celsius is called _______.
A. heat capacity C. specific heat
B. internal energy D. none of the above

4. The equation for calculating the heat changes is given by __________.

A. Q = -mc∆H B. Q = mc∆T C. Q = C∆T D. either B or C

5. Hess's law, followed as the indirect method to determine standard enthalpy of

reaction, states that _____.
A. when reactants are converted into products, the change is enthalpy in one step
is less than those carried out in series of steps
B. when reactants are converted into products, the change is enthalpy in one step
is greater than those carried out in series of steps
C. when reactants are converted into products, the change in enthalpy is the
same whether the reaction takes place in one step or series of steps
D. statements A, B, and C are not correct

6. The standard enthalpy of formation of any element in its most stable form is equal
to _____.
A. 0 B. 1 kJ C. 100 kJ D. 1000 kJ

7. Graphite and diamond are allotropes of carbon. _____ has ∆H0 = 0.

A. diamond C. either A or B
B. graphite D. none of the two

8. A 500 g of water was heated from 100C to 400C. The amount of heat absorbed by
the water is ______.
A. -62.7 kJ B. -8.5 kJ C. 8.5 KJ D. 62.7 kJ
9. A copper bar weighing 345.6 g was heated from 50.50 C to 1000C. The amount of
heat absorbed by the copper bar is ________. (Specific heat of Cu = 0.385 J/g-0C)
A. 2479 J B. 5720 J C. 6653 J D. 9157 J

10. Two moles of aluminum was heated from 450C to 930C. The amount of heat
absorbed by aluminum is ________. (Specific heat of Al = 0.90 J/g-K)
A. 1333 J B. 2333 J C. 3333 J D. 4333 J

What I Have Learned

Fill in the blanks by supplying the correct term. Write them on a separate sheet of
paper.

Changes in matter are usually accompanied by (1) _____ and (2) _____ of energy.
In an (3) _____ process, energy is absorbed, while in an (4) _____, energy is evolved.
(5) _____ breaking generally requires energy while its formation releases energy. The
(6) _____ is a well-defined part of the universe under study while (7) ______ refers to
everything outside it. (8) _____ system is one wherein exchange of matter and energy
can take place, while in a (9) _____ system, only energy change is allowed. In (10)
_____ system, no exchange of matter and energy occur.

(11) _____ is the study of energy and its transformation. Energy system and the
surroundings may be in the form of (12) _____ and (13) _____. In thermodynamics,
energy is defined as the (14) _____ or (15) _____.

(16) _____ is the heat transferred between the system and surroundings at
constant pressure. The change in enthalpy is equal to the differences between the
enthalpy of the (17) _____ and (18) _____.

(19) _____ is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with the study of energy
transformation during chemical reactions. Measurement of heat transferred between
the system and the surroundings or heat flow in a chemical reaction is the concern
of (20) _____. The (21) _____ is the change in enthalpy for the reaction that forms one
mole of a compound from its stable elements and their standard states. For reactions
where determination of energy changes is difficult to measure directly, (22) _____ can
be applied. It states that ∆H of a reaction carried out in a series of steps is equal
to the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps.

What I Can Do

Answer the following tasks. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Cite at least three processes or reactions that require energy.

2. Find the ∆E,

A. when 175 J of work is done on a system that evolves 50 J of heat to the
surroundings.
B. when a gas absorbs 28 kJ of heat and has 13 kJ of work done on it.
 3. Given the following reactions that occur at constant pressure and temperature.
A. 2 Cl(g) Cl2 (g) ∆H =-243.4 kJ
Which has a higher enthalpy, 2Cl (g) or Cl2(g)? _____________.

B. 3 O2(g) 2 O3 (g) ∆H = + 284.6 kJ

Which has a higher enthalpy, 3 O2(g) or 2 O3(g)? _____________.

4. Water, compared to other substances, has one of the highest specific heat
values. What is the advantage of this fact for the human body?

5. Calculate the enthalpy change for the following chemical reaction:

CS2(l) + 3 O2 (g) CO2(g) + 2 SO2 (g)

Given: C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) ∆H = -393.5 kJ

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) ∆H = -296.8 kJ
C(s) + 2 S(s) CS2 (l) ∆H = + 87.9 kJ

Assessment

Write the letter of the correct answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. An example of exothermic reaction is ________.

A. Condensing steam C. Melting of ice
B. Evaporating alcohol D. A, B, and C are all endothermic

2. Baking of cookies is _____.

A. endothermic C. either A or B
B. exothermic D. cannot be determined

3. ____________ is a type of system where there is an exchange of mass and energy.

A. Closed type C. Open system
B. Isolated system D. Surroundings

4. _____ is an exothermic change.

A. drying of clothes C. frying of chicken
B. explosion of dynamite D. melting of butter

5. Once a hot flat iron is unplugged and starts to cool, the heat flows ______.
A. somewhere in the system
B. in the iron is done by the flat iron
C. from the surroundings to the flat iron
D. from the flat iron to the surroundings

6. The equation for calculating the heat changes is given by _____.

A. Q = -mc∆H B. Q = mc∆T C.Q= -C∆T D. either B or C

7. Heat flows from_____.

A. hot to cold C. either A or B
B. cold to hot D. cannot be determined
8. Living plants produce glucose during photosynthesis according to the equation:

6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l) C6H12O6(s) + + 6 O2(g)

The equation is ___________ if the value of ∆H0 is __________.

A. endothermic, positive C. exothermic, negative

B. endothermic, negative D. exothermic, positive

9. A mole of ice becomes liquid as it absorbs 6.01 kJ of energy. This reaction is

_____.
A. endothermic B. exothermic C. either A or B D. cannot be determined

10. At 1 atm and 25 0C, the molecular oxygen, O2, and ozone, O3 ________.
A. have ∆H0f = 0 C. are more stable
B. have ∆H0f > 0 D. are less stable

11. If the amount of heat (q) is positive, the reaction is _____.

A. endothermic C. either A or B
B. exothermic D. cannot be determined

12. ________ is absorbed when a 100 g sample of water was heated from 100 C to
400 C.
A. -12.5 kJ B. -8.5 kJ C. 8.5 kJ D. 12.5 kJ

13. A copper bar, weighing 345.6 g was heated from 50.5 0 C to 100.50 C. The
amount of heat absorbed by the copper bar is _________.
A. 2479 J B. 5720 J C. 6653 J D. 9157 J

14. Two moles of aluminum was heated from 450 C to 930 C. The amount of heat
absorbed by aluminum _______.
A. 1333 J B. 2333 J C. 3333 J D. 4333 J

15. The amount of heat (q) produced is ____________ when 29 J of work is done on a
system and its internal energy increases by 96 J.
A. - 115 J B. -67 J C. 67 J D. 115 J
 Answer Key

WHAT'S IN

1. energy 6. exothermic change 11. heat of reaction

2. work 7. endothermic change 12. enthalpy
3. kinetic energy 8. heat capacity 13. thermodynamics
4. potential energy 9. specific heat 14. system
5. heat energy 10. calorimetry 15. surroundings

WHAT'S NEW

4-6 any acceptable answers

WHAT IS IT

1. The capacity to do work or to transfer heat

2. Students for example have energy for they can do activities because they have energy.

3. Yes. From potential energy to kinetic energy.

What’s More (Lesson 1) What’s More (Lesson 2) What’s More (Lesson 3)

1. A 1. A 1. D
2. A 2. C 2. C
3. A 3. C 3. A
4. B 4. B 4. D
5. A 5. A 5. C
6. B 6. C 6. A
7. D 7. A 7. B
8. B 8. B 8. D
9. A 9. A 9. C
10. C 10. A 10. B

References:
Bureau of Secondary Education,
1) absorption Department
9. closed system of Education17. .products
Project EASE -Chemistry
Modules .
2) evolutionPasig City Metro Manila
10. isolated system 18. reactants
3. endothermic 11. First Law of Thermodynamics 19. Thermochemistry
CHED Teaching Guide in General Chemistry 2
4. exothermic 12) heat 20. calorimetry
5. bond 13) work
Department of Education, Bureau of Learning Resources ∆H0f , standard enthalpy
21.(DepEd-BLR) .Pasig of
City,
6. system 14) to do work formation
Philippines
7. surroundings 15. to transfer heat 22. Hess's law
Department
8. open systemof Education . 16.
Science
enthalpyand Technology III Chemistry. Quezon City,
Philippines: Vibal Publishing House, Inc. 2009
Hagad, Hilda Ropelos. Chemistry. Quezon City, Philippines: Phoenix Publishing
House, Inc. 2003
Magno , Marcelita Coronel. Basic Chemistry for Senior High School. Mandaluyong
City, Philippines: Anvil Publishing , Inc.
Mapa, Amelia and Trinidad Fidelino. Science and Technolgy III -Chemistry.
Metro Manila.Cebu: SD Publications, Inc.1999

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