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CentraLine by Honeywell Training

How to...Understanding the Basics

of Building Controls
UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls
HVAC - Heating/Ventilation/Air/Conditioning

Why do we need HVAC ?

Hygiene (Operating Theatres)
Safety
Comfort
Economy
Productivity

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

HVAC System Symbols

Cooling Battery Filter

Heating Battery
Valves

Pump Fan

Damper
Humidifier

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HVAC System Symbols

HEAT ONLY TRAVELS ONE WAY- FROM HOT TO COLD

A heater battery is a device that is in the air stream that

adds heat to the air as it is warmer than the air
(usually hot water heating coils with fins but can
be electric heaters). The hot water comes from a boiler

A cooling battery is a device that is in the air stream

that removes heat from the air as it is cooler than the
air (usually cold water coils with fins.
The cooling water comes from a chillier.

A damper is a device that directs or mixes air where it

is required to go, or close off air when the air handling
unit is not running

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HVAC System Symbols

A filter is a device that removes dirt particles from

the air ( usually fitted in the fresh air intake )

A humidifier is a device which adds moisture

to the air (usually by steam injection).

A fan is a device that moves the conditioned air

around the building

A valve is a device that mixes water to achieve the

required temperature going to the heater or
cooler batteries or direct water flow

A pump is a device that moves the hot/cold water

around the hydraulic ( water) systems.

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Fresh Air System

Heater battery

Air filter Supply air fan

Control valve
Fresh air damper

Simple fresh air system with heating only it would have a separate
extract system. This is the type of system you would expect to find
supplying a operating theatre, a kitchen or a toilet to prevent smells
or polution.
A filter is fitted to protect heater battery from dirt particles
A damper is fitted to stop freezing air damaging the heater battery
when unit is not running

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Mixed Air System
Mixing dampers

Extract air fan

Air filter Supply air fan

Cooling Heating
Battery Battery

A mixed air system is the most common AHU found. The dampers
mix the fresh and return air to air gain free heating when outside air
is cold. Free cooling can be gained if the return air is cooler than the
outside air and cooling is required.
A minimum fresh air is required to keep CO² levels down the normal
amount required is 10% of the volume of air. During the preheat or
off cycles the dampers will go to the full recirculation condition.
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Heat Recovery System (Hydraulic)

Air filter

Extract air fan

Run around pump

Air filter Supply air fan

In this system the extract air heat is collected in the extract

battery. The water is pumped to the fresh air battery and the
heat is given up. In this way air pollution is avoided i.e.
swimming pool
UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls
Heat Recovery System (Mechanical)

Fresh air Air from space

Mixing
box

Extract air Air to space

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

 Fan Coil Unit

Tempered
fresh air

Air to
space

Air from space

Fan coil units are sited on the floors normally in the ceiling void. A
percentage of tempered fresh air (normally 10%) is fed to each
FCU. from a central AHU. The rest of the return air comes from
the space. The temperature control is local and sometimes one
controller does up to four FCU

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Typical full Air Handling Unit

Mixing dampers Extract

fan RH T

Humidifier T
T F

Supply
fan

Preheater Cooler Reheater

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CONTROL THEORY

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

Control Terminology

Deviation
Differential
If this is sustained it is Offset

4 5 6
3 5 7

Control Point Setpoint

Load
Disturbance
UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls
Control Terminology

Setpoint
The value desired, set on the controller
Control Point
The value of the controlled condition that is actually maintained by the
system
Offset
The sustained difference between the control point and the setpoint
Deviation
Any difference between the control point and the setpoint
Differential
The difference between the two controlled conditions which cause the
correcting element in a two-position control system to operate.

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Open Loop Control

Heater
Heating valve
Controller

Space
Outside temp

Heat loss

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Open Loop Control

The system shown the valve is adjusted when the outside air temp
changes. The output of the heater is adjusted without the necessity for a
change in room temp

Open loop control

Reduces deviation.
Control is incomplete since the controlled area condition is not allowed for.

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Closed Loop Control

Heater
Heating valve
Controller

Room sensor

Heat loss

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Closed Loop Control

Detecting, Control unit

Error signal or deviation
measuring (contains differential
Element unit
(space sensor) set point)

Correcting Signal

Correcting Motor,
Element Actuator
Process
(valve, or
(space)
Humidifier) voltage

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Closed Loop Control

The detecting element detects the controlled condition which is

measured by the measuring element. The differential unit receives the
controlled condition signal, a desired value signal, and generates an
error signal equal to the difference. The controller processes a
correction signal. The motor or actuator converts the correction signal
into displacement which is used to position the correcting element.
The effect of the correcting element the controlled condition is
continuously feedback to the controller.
Closed loop control
attempts to counteract all disturbances
must have deviation before it can generate a correction

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Closed Loop Control

An analogy of open and ‘closed loop control’ is if you were driving

along the road and you keep your foot on the accelerator
without moving it. Then when you go up and down hills the
speed of the car will change (temperature)
OPEN LOOP CONTROL
If you alter your foot to maintain a steady speed observing the
actual change (temperature)
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL

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 Two Position Control

Setpoint Output off/on

Controller Heater

Switching Differential
Off
Temp Setpoint
On

Heater On
Off On Off On

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Two Position Control

This type of control is not any good for tight setpoints

It inherently has a cycle.
Cheap as only a thermostat is needed
Used in simple systems.

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Floating Control

Output
Setpoint
Controller Heater

Dead Band

Temp Close
Setpoint
Open
Valve

Open Stop Close Stop Open

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Floating Control

This type of control more stable than two position but still has a
dead band
It is less likely to cycle than two position but depends on the
valve actuator. If it moves too fast two position cycling will result.
If it moves too slow control will be poor.

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Proportional Control

Setpoint

When there is no load setpoint is maintained

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Proportional Control

Flow 5 Litres/sec

Setpoint

Load 10 Litres/sec

As a load is applied the control point is drifting away from the setpoint.
With sustained load setpoint can no longer be maintained.

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Proportional Control

Flow 10 Litres/sec
Setpoint

Offset
Control point

Load 10 Litres/sec

When the proportional output matches the load a control point is

maintained, the sustained difference is called the offset.

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Proportional Control

The output is directly proportional to the input. Can be called P

only control.
Throttling range is the change in the controlled substance to
cause the output to travel from 0% to 100% of output.
This control is more responsive than floating & two position
control because the valve moves as soon as the temperature
changes.
This control can still result in a offset with a load increase

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

 Proportional Control

Output
Setpoint
Controller Heater

Throttling Range
Offset
Temp
Setpoint
Control point

Valve

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Throttling Range

Throttling range (TR) is the change in the controlled substance

to cause the output to travel from 0% to 100% of output.
If TR is too wide the result is a large offset and slow response to
changes.
If TR is too narrow the result is cycling and an unstable control
system which waste' s energy.

TR
100%

Valve

0% Temperature

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Output Action

The action decides the direction of the output.

Direct action (DA) - The valve will open as the temperature
increases.
Reverse action (RA) - The valve will close as the temperature
increases

Direct Action Reverse Action

TR TR
100% 100%

Valve Valve

0% Temp 0% Temp
SP SP

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P+I Control

Flow 5 Litres/sec

Setpoint
Control Point

Load 10 Litres/sec

Remember the P only scenario above the valve has opened

proportionally to the load. An offset is beginning to appear. This is
where P+I (Proportional plus Integral) improves on P only control

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

P+I Control

Integral action Flow 15 Litres/sec P+I

7 Litres/sec

Setpoint

Load 10 Litres/sec

Integral action starts to open the valve in addition to the proportional

effect.
UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls
P+I Control

Integral action
8 Litres/sec Flow 12 Litres/sec

Setpoint

Load 10 Litres/sec

As the level rises the proportional amount reduces but the integral
amount still increases but at a slower rate.
UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls
P+I Control

Integral action
10 Litres/sec Flow 10 Litres/sec Only Integral left

Setpoint & control point

Load 10 Litres/sec

As the level rises to setpoint the proportional amount reduces to zero.

The integral amount remains but stops increasing.
No Offset is the ideal result as above.
UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls
P+I Control

Integral Action is used to eliminate offset.

Integral output is added to the proportional output, every control
cycle a little more is added until setpoint is achieved.
The amount added is relative to the offset, TR and reset time.
Too small a reset time will result in system short cycling and
wasted energy
A large a reset time will not adversly effect the control but could
take a long time to eliminate offset.

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

 P+I Control
Output
Setpoint
Controller Heater

Throttling Range

Temp
Setpoint

P+I

I
UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls
PID Control

Derivative control is used in conjunction with P+I control

This control predicts that the control loop will overshoot and
compensates before it happens.
This control can only be used when the rate of temperature
change is fixed.So it can rarely be used in AHU applications.
Is best suited to single valve applications

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PID Control

Throttling Range
Predicted PI over shot
Setpoint

PID

I
UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls
PID Control

PID control is very difficult to set-up so do not use it unless it is

necessary !
If the derivative time is too large the plant will overshot and PI
control will take control
If the derivative time is too short the plant will over compensate,
become unstable, cycle wasting energy and control will probably
be worse than PI control.

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

Step Controllers

A step controller is used when the output is required in stages

i.e. a set of boilers or chiller stages.
The step controller uses a normal control output and changes it
into steps

Analogue control Step control

TR TR
100% 100%

Valve Valve

0% 0%
Stages 1 2 3 4

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Step Controllers

The switching differential stops stages cycling off and on too

quickly.
Some step controllers also have a minimum on time to stop
stages clicking in and out

Switching
Differential

Stages Stage On

Stage Off

SP

TR
Temperature

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Winter Compensation

This assumes that the main load in a heating system is the outside air.
This is a way of getting the required setpoint for a radiator system.
When the outside air temperature is low the flow setpoint is high.
When the outside air temperature is high the flow setpoint is low.
By changing the setpoint energy is saved and areas do not get over
heated.

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Winter Compensation

Output
Flow
Setpoint
Controller
Flow

Compensation
Flow SP

OAT
OAT

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Winter Compensation
90 °C

80 °C Maximum SP

70 °C
Setpoint
60 °C
Flow setpoint

50 °C

40 °C
Start
30 °C
Setpoint
20 °C

10 °C Compensation Start Point

-5 °C 0 °C 5 °C 10 °C 15 °C 20 °C 25 °C

Outside air temperature

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Summer Compensation

When the outside air temperature increases the compensated

setpoint is increased.
When the outside air temperature decreases the compensated
setpoint is decreased.
This saves over cooling a building reducing energy and reduces the
risk of thermal shock.
Usually used on AHU setpoints

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Summer Compensation

25 °C Maximum SP

24 °C
AHU Setpoint

23 °C

22 °C

21 °C Start Setpoint
Compensation Start Point
19 °C
10 °C 15 °C 20 °C 25 °C 30 °C 35 °C 40 °C
Outside air temperature

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Compensation Authority

Authority= Change in setpoint x 100

Change in compensation input

So if the OAT moves 0 °C to 20 °C for a change in setpoint of 80 °C to

20 °C (Winter) then

Authority= 80-20 x 100 so Authority= 300%

20-0

If the OAT moves 20 Deg to 35Deg for a change in

setpoint of 20Deg to 26Deg (Summer) then

Authority = 26-20 x 100 so Authority = 27%

35-20

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Sequencing

Temp
Control Setpoint

Cooling Dampers Heating

Often it is necessary to sequence dampers and valves using one input.

One Input section, one control section are used and three output sections.
This uses one SP, TR & Reset Time.
Each output section has % of TR and Output Action

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Sequencing

Reverse Action Direct Action Direct Action

100% Heating Dampers Cooling Heating
Action = RA
%TR=33.3%
Outputs
Cal =-33

Dampers
Setpoint Temperature Action = DA
0%
%TR=33.3%
% of TR % of TR % of TR
Cal = 0
Throttling Range
Cooling
-50% 0% 50% Action = DA
Correction Signal XC %TR= 33.3%
Heating Output Calibration Point= -33% Cal = +33
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Sequencing

RH T

100% open
open 0% 20% 100% 0% 100%

closed closed
0% 33%Output signal 66% 100%
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Different Control Terms

Different makes and models of control systems may not use

Throttling Range the alternatives are as below:

Proportional Band (PB) – Used mainly pneumatic controls

PB=TR/Span of the sensor
On Excel 5000 Range of products PB=TR
Gain – used main on Trend, Johnson, Tridium etc..
Gain=100/TR

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Plant Tuning - the Basics

Each plant has a different temperature characteristic even two identical

plant will probably need different PI settings.
Use PI where ever possible as it usually gives better control than P only
Most engineers use trial and error technique to set-up plants

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Throttling Range

If the throttling range is to small it will cause the plant to cycle.

If the throttling range is to big the plant will not respond to load
changes causing large offset.
If you are using P only control the larger the throttling range the
larger the offset

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Ziegler-Nichols tuning technique

This system was first published in 1942 by

J.G.Ziegler and N.B.Nichols.
This is technique is the most common used in industrial controls
today.
Before you can start setting up the plant you must disable the
reset action (integral action) in most systems this is done by
setting the reset time to zero.

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Ziegler-Nichols tuning technique

Set the throttling range (TR) until there is no system cycle.

Decrease the TR by a small amount until the system cycles.
Adjust until the cycle is sustained, if amplitude is increasing increase TR,
if amplitude is decreasing decrease TR.
Make a note of the TR call it Ultimate Throttling Range (UTR).
Make a note of the cycle period peek to peek call it Ultimate Period (UP)

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Ziegler-Nichols tuning technique

Temperature
Time of one cycle
(UP)

UTR

System sustained cycle

Time
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Ziegler-Nichols tuning technique

For P only control:

TR=UTR x 2

For PI control:

TR=UTR x 2.2
Reset Time=UP x 0.8

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

VALVES

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

Valves

Valves may all look the same but there are many different valve
types and uses
Two Port valves stop flow
Three port valves either mix or divert liquid

Two Port Valve Three Port Valve

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Valve Parts

GLAND NUT STEM BUTON

STEM
PACKING FOLLOWER

BONNET

PACKINGS DISC AND

DISC HOLDER

SEAT RING
PACKING SPRING
(REMOVABLE)

PLUG
BODY

SEAT
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Valve Parts

Body - the valve casting

Bonnet - the part that screws to the top of the valve body and contains
packings spring etc.
Disc - the part of the valve that contacts the valves seat to stop flow
Plug - the part that varies the flow through the valve.
Seat - stationary part of the valve that has a raised lip that the disc
closes off against
Stem - shaft that runs through the valve which via the stem button
connects to the actuator.
Packing parts - stop the valve leaking through the stem

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Two Port Valves

Single Seated Valve Double Seated Valve

Suitable for tight shut off This valve will always require
but close of ratings are reduced less power to close than the single
with large valves because water seated valve.
pressure can lift valve plug and let Not suitable for tight close off as
liquid by one seat will close before the other
due to valve or stem heat expansion

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Three Port Valves

A AB A AB

B B

Mixing Valve Diverting Valve

Liquid flow in ports A and B Liquid flow in port AB
Port AB is the mixed liquid The Liquid is diverted to port A or B
The stem varies the mixture the stem varies the diverted amounts
to each port.

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Positioning Valves

Mixing Valve Diverting Valve

AB A AB A

B B

The mixing valve is placed in The diverting valve is placed in

the return leg of pipe work to the flow leg of pipe work to
work correctly. work correctly.
When port B is closed full flow When port B is closed the flow
is across the heating coil. is across the heating coil.
When post A is closed the full When port A is closed the flow
is sent back by passing the is sent back by passing the
heating coil. heating coil.

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Valve Sizing

It is important that a Control Valve is accurately sized and correctly

selected to match the process and application.

An undersized Valve will not achieve sufficient throughput of

heating or cooling and an oversized Valve will give ineffective control.

Two position or on/off service is not as critical as modulating

applications and are usually made line size with the main
considerations being the additional resistance put into the circuit and
the close off capabilities.

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Valve Sizing

Information required to select valve correctly:

Medium Water
Cold/Hot
Medium/Low pressure
If heating circuit line size is normally OK
2/3/4 port
Flanged/Compression/Flat faced connection
System pressure (If 2 port valve)
Circuit pressure drop (Kpa)
Flow rate (Litres Per Second)

Medium Steam

Inlet pressure/KG per hour

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Valve Sizing

Every valve has a capacity index (Kv)

To choose a valve you need to work out the required Kv
The equation is

ρ
KV = Q x 3.6
∆ P x 10

Where:
Q = the require flow of fluid in kg/s
ρ = Specific gravity of the fluid (water=1000 kg/m³)
∆ P = Pressure drop in kPa.

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

AIR PROPERTIES

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

Air Properties

What are the Properties of Air ?

Temperature
Pressure
Humidity (Water Content)
Flow
Cleanliness (Particulate)
Chemical Content

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Temperature

How do we measure temperature ?

Liquid/Gas in sealed container (Thermometer)
Solid expansion (bimetallic strip)
Electrical resistance (Thermistor)

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Humidity

What is Humidity ?
Vaporized water molecules
How can we measure humidity ?
Slinging Hygrometer (Sling)
Electronic device (Electro-chemical reaction)
Hair

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Types of Heat !

Ice is heated from -10 ºC to 110 ºC

110ºC

100ºC

50 ºC

Heat Source

0ºC

-10ºC
Time
Sensible Heat
Latent Heat

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Types of heat !

Latent heat –
Heat that changes liquid to vapour or vapour to liquid without
change in temperature or pressure of the moisture.

Sensible heat –
Heat that changes the temperature of the air without changing the
moisture content.

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Evaporative Cooling

This is where a liquid evaporates and leaves the surface colder because
of latent heat.
Lick the back of you hand - its gets colder ?
The water is evaporating and taking heat away
Now blow on your hand - your hand get even colder ?
The evaporation is increased with increased air movement, this is called
forced evaporation.

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Heat Transfer

Radiation
This is heat radiating form the hot surface
the electric bar fire gives off radiant heat
Convection
This is where the air is heated and the warm air rises above the cold air and
causes air movement.
Conduction
Is the transfer of heat between substances of differing temperatures.

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

Distance Velocity Lag

This can be defined as a pure time delay

This type of lag occurs whenever there is a flow of material or fluid as
shown below.

Valve
Open
Hot

A B Lag

Cold Temp

The magnitude of the lag depends on the

velocity of the water and the distance.
Time
This is the worst type of lag as the
correction will always be after the change
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Transfer Lag

Where capacitance and resistance are associated in the loop a lag results called
transfer lag. Consider the tank of water below.

Tank Head
Tank Level

Outlet Flow
Time
When the outlet is opened the pressure is high and the level drops rapidly but as
the level drops the pressure is reduced and the flow slows
The water in the tank = capacitance
The pipe work + water level = resistance

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Transfer Lag

Consider a room when the heating is switched off

Heater off Heater off

0 ºC 0 ºC
20 ºC 10 ºC

Heat Loss
Heat Loss
20ºC 8 Hours later

The rate of heat transfer depends on the

10ºC difference between hot & cold
Heat Content = capacitance
Walls + Heat difference = resistance
0 ºC
Time
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Transfer Lag

Although lags should be kept to a minimum they can have a desirable

stabilising effect, it reduces the effect of disturbances, is easier to
control the temperature in a bath than the temperature of a shower. The
effect of a disturbance on a bath is relatively small because the bath has
a large capacity.

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Psychometry

Psychometry is the science relating to the properties of moist air.

this requires the use of a Psychometric chart.
This science is important if we wish to control temperature &
humidity.
To use the chart you need two of the following readings:- Dry Bulb
Temp, Wet Bulb Temp, Humidity, Moisture Content

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

Psychometry

Dry Bulb - This is ambient temperature as read on a thermometer

Wet Bulb - This the temperature as read on a sling.
Humidity - Percentage saturation of moisture in the air.
Moisture Content - The actual moisture in the air in kg/kg

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Psychometry

Humidity is effected by change in temperature as air holds more water

the hotter it becomes and Humidity is measured in percentage of
saturation
Moisture content is reduced when temperature drops below dew point,
the air becomes saturated and drops water.
Specific heat is the sum of latent heat and sensible heat measured in
KJ/Kg dry air.

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Psychometric Charts

Using the chart with a dry bulb of 21ºC

and a wet bulb of 15ºC
Calculate the following:-
Relative Humidity
Dew point
Moisture Content
Specific Enthalpy
Specific Volume

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Psychometric Charts

15ºC Wet Bulb

21ºC Dry Bulb

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Psychometric Charts

51%RH

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Psychometric Charts

10.8ºC Dew Point

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Psychometric Charts

0.0082 kg/kg Moisture Content

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Psychometric Charts

0.844 m³/kg Specific Volume

UK ECC Products HVAC Training How to….Understanding Basic Building Controls

Psychometric Charts

Pivot a ruler around the original point until

both scales read the same value.

41 kj/kg Specific Enthalpy

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