Dr.

PVR Karanth, SDMCET

Unit-IV SEMICONDUCTOR
INTRODUCTION
Depending upon the ability to conduct electricity all materials are classified as
conductors, insulators & semiconductors.
Conductor is a material that will support a generous flow of charge when a voltage source
applied across its terminals. In these materials conduction band and valence bands are
overlapping each other. Hence resistivity value is only about 10-6ohm-cm.
Example: Copper, Aluminium etc.
Insulator is a material that offers very low level of conductivity when a voltage is applied. In
these materials conduction band and valence bands are far away from each other. The magnitude
of forbidden energy band gap is more than 4 eV. Thus the resistivity is about 1012ohm-cm.
Example: Mica.

Semiconductor: It is a material that has a conductivity level somewhere between insulator and a
conductor. In these materials conduction band and valence bands are separated by forbidden
energy band gap of less than 4eV.
For example Silicon (atomic no=14) has an energy gap of 1.1eV, Germanium (atomic no=32)
has an energy gap of 0.67eV etc.
Resistance of semiconducting materials decreases with increase in temperature, thus
semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Because of strongest nature
of covalent bonds, valence electrons in semiconductors cannot out of covalent bonds without
receiving the external energy. At absolute zero temperature, no free electrons are available in
conduction band and hence semiconductors behave as insulators. But, as the temperature
increases more and more covalent bonds will be broken and electrons will be freed and
conductivity increases with increase in temperature. In other words, more and more electrons are
transferred to conduction band by creating vacancy in the valence band with temperature. These
positively charged vacancies are known as ‘holes’, which are also charge carriers, which travel in
opposite direction of electron.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors can be classified on different criteria.
Criteria I) Based on the purity (composition):
On this basis, semiconductors are broadly classified as
(1) Intrinsic Semiconductor and (2) Extrinsic Semiconductor
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Intrinsic Semiconductor
Pure semiconductors are known as intrinsic semiconductors. For example silicon,
germanium (IV group compounds), GaAs, InSb (III–V compound), SiC(IV- V Compound) etc.
At absolute zero temperature, in an intrinsic semiconductor valence band is completely filled and
the conduction band (CB), which is separated by a distance Eg (Energy gap) from the valence
band (VB), is completely empty. Hence at OK, it behaves as an insulator. But as the temperature
increases, more & more covalent bonds will be broken by absorbing thermal energy. Hence
electrons of VB get excited to CB. The excitation of electrons from VB to CB leaves an equal
number of vacancies in the valence band called as ‘Holes’. Whenever there is an electron (n-
electron concentration) in the conduction and there is a simultaneous generation of hole (p- hole
concentration) in the valence band. Thus for intrinsic semiconductors the number of conduction
electrons is equal to the number of holes.
So mathematically, n = p=ni. Where ni is no of charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductor known
as intrinsic concentration.
Electrical conductivity is caused by electrons in CB and the holes in VB. Thus both electrons and
holes act charge carriers.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
The electrical conductivity of pure semiconductor is very less. To improve the
conductivity, a small % of trivalent or pentavalent atoms are added. This process is called doping
and results the impure Semiconductor called as Extrinsic Semiconductor. The % of dopant is
only about 1 part in 108 semiconductor atoms. Size of dopant atom is approximately same as
lattice atoms and hence crystal structure does not change. The properties of impure
Semiconductor depend on the type of impurity introduced into the host material.
There are 2 types of Extrinsic Semiconductors. Namely
(1) n- type Semiconductor (2) p- type Semiconductor
n- Type Semiconductor:
When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with pentavalent atoms like Arsenic (Z =33),
Phosphorous (Z=15), Antimony (Z=51), the resulting impure semiconductor is called as n-type
semiconductor.
In the process of doping only four of five valence electrons of the impurity atoms are used in
forming the covalent bonds with host semiconductor atoms (say Si), leaving one electron weekly
bound to its parent atom. A very small amount of energy Ed is required to free the 5th electron
from the impurity atom. In other words this 5th electron can easily be excited into the conduction
band by supplying a small amount of energy. Since pentavalent atoms donate excess of electron
carrier, they are called donor impurities. The energy levels of these 5th electrons of donor
atoms, occupy the position just below the conduction band. These levels are at a distance Ed

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bellow the conduction band. These new discrete additional energy levels are called as donor
levels (Ed).
Since this energy is small, at room temperature most of the electrons in these levels excited to
conduction band leaving positively ionized donor atoms on the donor level.
Since the conduction in n –type semiconductor is predominantly due to electrons in the CB, they
are called majority charge carriers and holes in VB are called minority charge carries. Therefore
n > p.
p- Type semiconductor
When a pure semiconductor is doped with trivalent impurity atoms like boron (Z=5), the
resulting semiconductor is called as p-type semiconductor.
In the process of doping only three covalent bonds can be filled and the vacancy that exists in the
4th bond constitutes a hole without making an electron free. However if energy Ea is supplied to
the system, these holes can accept electrons from VB of the parent atoms. The transfer of an
electron from the parent atom leaves a hole in the valence band which causes a break in one of
the neighboring bonds of the parent atom.
Since every trivalent atom accepts electron, these trivalent impurities are called acceptor
impurity.
When acceptor impurity is doped to the intrinsic semiconductor, the additional discrete energy
levels are introduced just above the valence band in the forbidden gap, which is called
Acceptor Level (Ea). At OK, all these levels are empty (vacant) but as the temperature increases,
electrons from neighboring atoms fill the vacancy, there by leaving holes in the VB.
Since the conduction in p –type semiconductor is predominantly due to holes in the VB, they are
called majority charge carriers and electrons in CB are called minority charge carries. Hence
p > n.
Note: 1) The direction of hole movement (hole current) is opposite to electron motion ie it is in
the direction of conventional current.
2) The fundamental difference between conductors and semiconductors is that, flow of
current in conductor is by electrons only but in semiconductor it is by holes as well as by
electrons.
3) For semiconductors, n p=ni2, is known as ‘Law of mass action’.
3) As we know that, momentum, p=h/λ= {h/2π}{2π/λ}=ħ k.
4) E-k diagrams: These are the graphical representation of energy (E) of charge carriers
with their momentum (p) or propagation vector (k).
Since, Energy E= p2/2m, energy of charge carriers varies parabolically with momentum‘p’(or k).

Criteria II) Based on the E-k diagrams (or type of energy gap):
On this basis, semiconductors are classified as
(i) Direct bandgap semiconductor and (ii) Indirect bandgap semiconductors

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Direct bandgap semiconductor Indirect bandgap semiconductor

1. E-k diagrams:

2. The minimum of conduction band(Ec) and The minimum of conduction band and
maximum of valence band (Ev) occur at maximum of Valence band occur at different
same value of k values of k.
3 Election Transition between Valence band Momentum changes during electron
and Conduction band occurs without change transition between valence band and
in momentum conduction band
4 Electron-hole recombination probability is Electron-hole recombination probability is
much higher much lower
5 Energy released during the recombination is Energy released is in the form of heat
in the form of light
6 These semiconductors are used in various These are not suitable for light emitting
electronic devices including optoelectronic applications, however these are used in solar
devices such as LED, Laser. cells, diodes, transistors, IC, etc
7 Examples: GalliumArsenide [GaAs], Examples: Silicon (Si),
Zinc Oxide (ZnO], Gallium Nitride (GaN). Germanium (Ge)

FERMI LEVEL IN SEMICONDUCTOR

In semiconductors, the Fermi level is defined as the reference level about which any
electronic transitions take place.
Fermi level in Intrinsic semiconductor:
In intrinsic semiconductors, the electronic transitions are always in between valence band
and conduction band. Therefore the position of the Fermi level is at the centre of the energy gap
and it is independent of temperature.

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EC + EV
Eg
For intrinsic semiconductor it can be shown that, Fermi energy E F = =
2 2
Where EC is the energy of bottom of conduction band and EV is the energy of top of valence
band.

Fermi level in Extrinsic semiconductor

For extrinsic semiconductor, depending on whether it is n-type or p-type semiconductor
the position of Fermi level is located.
Fermi level in n-type semiconductor:
For an n-type semiconductor, due to the presence of pentavalent impurity atoms, a donor level is
created just below the conduction band. The electron from the donor level can jump very easily
to the conduction band. Thus at low temperatures, Fermi level lies between the donor level and
E + Ed
conduction band. At very low temperatures, it can be shown that Fermi energy, E F = C .
2

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 Dr.PVR Karanth, SDMCET

But as the temperature increases, electronic transitions start in between valence band and
conduction band. Therefore the position of the Fermi level shifts towards centre of the energy
E g EC + EV
gap. Thus the Fermi energy becomes E F = =
2 2

Fermi level in p-type semiconductor:

For p-type semiconductor, due to the presence of trivalent impurity, an acceptor level is
created just above the valence band. At very temperatures, electrons can jump very easily from
valence band to acceptor level. Therefore the Fermi level lies between valence band and the
E + Ea
accetor level. It can be shown that, at very low temperature, Fermi energy E F = V ie at
2
low temperatures, EF lies midway between EV and Ea.

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 Dr.PVR Karanth, SDMCET

But as the temperature increases, electronic transitions start in between valence band and
conduction band. Therefore the position of the Fermi level shifts towards centre of the energy
E g EC + EV
gap. Thus the Fermi energy becomes E F = =
2 2

Electrical Conductivity in Semiconductors:

In Semiconductors there are 2 types of charge carriers viz. electrons and holes. Hence
electrical conductivity in Semiconductors is decided by electron mobility ‘µe’ in conduction band
as well as hole mobility ‘µh’ in valence band.
Let us consider a semiconductor slab connected to external electric field E, in which
electrons and holes are drifting in opposite direction as shown in figure.

O
O

E
We know that, mobility of charge carriers is defined as the average drift velocity per unit electric
field.
vd v vh
i.e. µ =  e = e and h =
E E E
ve=µeE and vh= µh E -------- (1)
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 Dr.PVR Karanth, SDMCET

Current J nevd A
Also, the current density J = = =
Area of cros sec tions A A

J = n e vd
=>
Hence the current density for electron Je= n e ve
where ‘n’ is electron concentration
Therefore from equation (1) Je= neµeE ------------ (2)
But according to Ohm’s Law J=  E ------------ (3)
On comparing equations (2) and (3) Electrical conductivity due to electrons
 e= neµe ------------ (4)

The current density for holes Jh = p e vh

where ‘p’ is hole concentration
Therefore Jh= p e µh E
Electrical conductivity due to holes  h= peµh ---------- (5)
Since the electrons and holes have opposite charges, the current due to both electrons & holes in
the same direction and hence conductivities are additive.
Therefore the total electrical conductivity  =  e+  h= neµe+ peµh

 = e[n µe + p µh]

Note: For intrinsic semiconductors n = p = ni

Intrinsic Electrical conductivity  i = ni e[µe+µh]

Hall Effect
If a metal or a semiconductor carrying a current ‘I’ is placed in a transverse magnetic
field ‘B’, a potential difference (voltage) ‘VH’ is developed in the direction perpendicular to
both the magnetic field and current. This is phenomenon is known as “Hall effect”. This effect
was discovered by E.H Hall in the year 1879.
Experimental demonstration:
Let us consider a sample of n-type semiconductor of thickness ‘t’ and height ‘h’. Let ‘I’ be the
current flowing along positive X- direction and hence electrons are drifting along negative X-
direction. A magnetic field ‘B’ is then applied along the Z-direction as shown in the diagram.
This magnetic field causes electrons to experience a transverse Lorentz force, and hence
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electrons accumulate on the lower face of the semiconductor. Thus potential difference (known
as Hall voltage) VH is developed between upper and lower face of the semiconductors.

➢ For n-type semiconductors the Hall voltage developed is negative and can be proved as
𝐼𝐵 1 𝐼𝐵
𝑉𝐻 = − = (− )
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑛𝑒 𝑡
1
Where Hall Coefficient, 𝑅𝐻 = −
𝑛𝑒
➢ For p-type semiconductors the Hall voltage developed is positive and is given by
𝐼𝐵 1 𝐼𝐵
𝑉𝐻 = =( )
𝑝𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒 𝑡
1
Where Hall Coefficient, 𝑅𝐻 =
𝑝𝑒

In the Hall effect experiment, hall voltage VH is measured for a known current I, magnetic field
B for a semiconductor of thickness ‘t’. Thus carrier concentration (n or p) can be determined.
Significance of Hall Effect experiment
1. We can determine type of semiconductor sample
2. We can determine majority change carrier concentration
3. We can determine electrical parameters of the semiconductors such as mobility, carrier
concentration, and conductivity.

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 Dr.PVR Karanth, SDMCET

Numerical Examples:
1) A p-type semiconductor has a Hall coefficient of 4.56 X10-7 m3/Vs. The conductivity
of semiconductor is found to be 1.25x106/ohm-m. Determine the carrier
concentration and hole mobility at room temperature.
Solution:
Given: Hall coefficient RH = 4.56 X10-7 m3/Vs, σh= 1.25x106/ohm-m, p=?, μh=?
1
We know that, for p- type semiconductor, Hall Coefficient, 𝑅𝐻 =
𝑝𝑒
1 1
𝑝= =
𝑅𝐻 𝑒 4.56 X10−7 X 1.6 X10−19

p= 𝟏. 𝟑𝟕 𝐗𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 /m3
Also, we know that,  h= peµh
Therefore hole mobility, µh={  h / pe}= {1.25x106/1.37 X1025 𝑋1.6 X10−19}
µh= 0.57 m2/Vs

2) In a pure germanium, intrinsic carrier concentration is 2.5x 1019/m3, electron mobility is

0.39 m2/Vs and hole mobility is 0.19 m2/Vs. Determine the conductivity of germanium.
Solution:
Given: ni= 2.5x 1019/m3, μe=0.39 m2/Vs, μh=0.19 m2/Vs, σi=?
We know that Intrinsic conductivity,  i = ni e[µe+µh]

=2.5x 1019 x 1.6x10-19[0.39+0.19]

 i = 2.32/ohm-m

Model Questions
1) Classify the semiconductors based on the composition (purity). (10 Marks)
2) What are E-k diagrams. Classify the semiconductors based on the E-k diagrams (type of
band gap). (10 Marks)
3) Distinguish between direct and indirect band gap semiconductors with the help of E-k
diagrams. (10 Marks)
4) Classify the semiconductors and describe the location of Fermi level in these
semiconductors. (10 Marks)
5) Obtain the expression for electrical conductivity in semiconductors. (5 Marks)
6) Describe the Hall Effect experiment to characterize the semiconducting samples. Mention
its significance. (10 Marks).
7) An n-type semiconductor has a Hall coefficient of 2.45 X10-7 m3/Vs. The conductivity of
semiconductor is found to be 3.25x106/ohm-m. Determine the carrier concentration and
electron mobility at room temperature. (5 Marks)

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