ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
HUMAN ANATOMY
Anatomy (Greek anatomē, "dissection")
 It is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structural organization of
organisms and their parts.
 Anatomy provides the map and the tools for the study of the function of organs in the
body.
TYPES OF ANATOMY
1. Macroscopic Anatomy or Gross Anatomy
2. Microscopic Anatomy
PHYSIOLOGY
 Physiology comes from Ancient Greek “physis”, meaning “nature or origin” and “logia
or logus”, meaning “study of”
 Physiology is the scientific study of the functions and mechanisms which work within a
living system.
 The focus of physiology is on how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and
biomolecules carry out the chemical and physical functions that exist in a living system.
WHAT IS ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY?
ANATOMY It is the study of body structures and relationships among body parts.
PHYSIOLOGY It is the study of body function, or how body works.
APPLYING ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY IN MEDICAL SCIENCE
CARDIOLOGY Concerns with heart and its diseases CARDIOLOGIST
DERMATOLOGY Concerns with skin disorders DERMATOLOGIST
HEMATOLOGY Concerns with blood and blood disorders HEMATOLOGIST
NEUROLOGY Concerns with nervous system and its disorders NEUROLOGIST
PEDIATRICS Concerns with children’s diseases PEDIATRICIAN
THE CELL
  The structural and functional unit of all living organism.
 Living things are made up of one or more cells - Unicellular - Multicellular
 Cells can be seen or unseen - Macroscopic – Microscopic
 37 Trillion Cells
MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELL
 Cell Membrane
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm

PARTS OF THE CELL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

CELL MEMBRANE
 Composed of phospholipids bilayer embedded with proteins and carbohydrates
 It is semipermeable
IMPORTANT ROLES OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
 Facilitate the entry and exit of different substances in the cell.
HOW DO YOU DESCRIBE THE APPEARANCE OF THE CELL MEMBRANE?
 Fluid • Various functional macromolecules embedded in the phospholipid matrix of the
cell membrane can move about the surface of the cell.
 Mosaic • Due to its mixed composition of lipids, cholesterol, carbohydrates and proteins
that paves the surface of the matrix just like individual tiles.
HOW DO YOU DESCRIBE THE CELL MEMBRANE’S PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER?
AMPHIPATHIC - It has hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends.
Hydrophilic heads Hydrophobic ends
- has affinity with water - made of fatty acids
- made of Phosphate group - not attracted to water
PHOSPHOLIPID MOVEMENTS
 Rotation
 Lateral Diffusion
 Transverse Diffusion
COMPONENTS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
 Phospholipids
  Proteins
 Carbohydrates
 Cholesterol
CHOLESTEROL
 Found in between the Phospholipids
 Acts as fluidity buffer
During warm temperature- it makes the movement of phospholipids limited, making it less
fluid. During low temperature- it prevents the close packing of the phospholipids thus
increasing their fluidity.
IMPORTANT
 Phospholipids and Cholesterol are important in maintaining the fluidity of the cell.
Failure of these two to function may have detrimental effects to the cell.

PROTEINS
 Peripheral Proteins - found only on the surface of the cell membrane
 Integral Proteins - those that cross the bilayer

2 TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
 Passive - does not requires energy
 Active - requires energy
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
 Simple Diffusion
 Facilitated Diffusion
 Osmosis
Simple Diffusion
 the movement of substances from high concentration to low concentration across the lipid
bilayer without the aid of an intermediary such as an integral membrane protein.
Facilitated Diffusion
 is the process of spontaneous passive transport of molecules or ions across a cell's
membrane via specific transmembrane integral proteins
Transport Proteins
 Carrier Proteins
 Channel Proteins
Carrier Proteins
 Change their shape to transfer the molecules - Its enclosure prevents the hydrophilic or
charged molecules to interact with non-polar part of the cell membrane
Channel Proteins
 Create a hydrophilic path through the bilayer.
THE BODY SYSTEMS
Integumentary System consists of:
 Hair
 Skin
 Nails
 Glands

 COVERS AND PROTECTS THE BODY

 SWEAT GLANDS HELP CONTROL BODY TEMPERATURE; AS BARRIER, SKIN
HELPS MAINTAIN THE STEADY STATE.
Skeletal System
 SUPPORTS BODY
 PROTECTS,
 MUSCLES ATTACHED TO BONES;
 PROVIDES CALCIUM STORAGE;
 BLOOD CELL FORMATION
Muscular System
 Moves parts of the skeleton; locomotion
 Pumps blood
 Aids movement of internal materials
Nervous System
 RECEIVES STIMULI FROM INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
 CONDUCTS IMPULSES
 INTEGRATES ACTIVITIES OF OTHER SYSTEM.
WHY WOULD ALL THE SYSTEMS IN THE BODY NEED TO WORK TOGETHER?
 All of your body systems have to work together to keep you healthy. Working together,
these systems maintain internal stability and balance, otherwise known as homeostasis.
Disease in one body system can disrupt homeostasis and cause trouble in other body
systems.
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
BIOMOLECULES They are also called macromolecules or organic molecules. These
biomolecules serve as fuel for the metabolism or organisms. Certain processes in your body may
not function properly if you are deficient of certain biomolecules.
 Carbon
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen
 Phosphorus
 Sulfur
 Hydrogen
4 TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES
 Proteins
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Nucleic Acids
PROTEINS
 Proteins are the final products in the central dogma of molecular biology.
 They are called the building blocks of life because of their diverse function.
Functions of proteins:
 Structural support (Collagen)
 Transporting molecules (Hemoglobin)
 Acts as enzymes
 Passageway of molecules and substances in and out the cells.

✓ Two amino acids bond together is called dipeptide

✓ A long chain of amino acid is called polypeptide

The importance of proteins in an organism is diverse. They play a role as:

✓ Antibodies ✓ Enzymes ✓ Hormones

✓ Other substances involved with digestion, respiration, reproduction, and even normal vision.
 Plants are capable of producing amino acids for themselves. They convert nitrates that
are found in the soil to amino acid groups that bond with the products of photosynthesis
later on.
 Animals on the other hand cannot make amino acids for themselves.

The amino acid requirements of humans are classified into 3 groups:

 essential amino acids - cannot be produced by our bodies
  nonessential amino acids - can be produced by our bodies
 conditional amino acids - not vital but may become urgent during health crisis or stress
ENZYMES
 molecules that help speed up the process in a chemical reaction
 proteins that act as catalyst in metabolism
 they speed up a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy, that is the amount
needed for reaction to occur
 control and regulation of metabolic pathways are powered by enzymes
METABOLISM
 Metabolism is a series of chemical reactions in the body that converts the food into
energy.
2 TYPES: Anabolism Catabolism
STRUCTURE OF ENZYME
 apoenzyme- protein - are called proenzyme when it is inactive.
-not attached to any substance
-enzyme is in its original form
 cofactor- non-protein - It is the non-protein component which carries out chemical
reactions.
TYPES OF COFACTOR
 Metal Ion Activator
 Coenzymes
 Prosthetic Cofactor

METAL ION ACTIVATOR

 These metals are dietary minerals that are part of our daily nutritional requirements.
 Without these, some of the body's reaction may not proceed.
 They bind to apoenzyme temporarily
COENZYMES
 Like metal ion activators, they bind to apoenzyme temporarily.
 They are organic molecule that come from the vitamins that we take in everyday.
 They are loosely bound organic cofactor
PROSTHETIC COFACTORS
 Can either be metal ions or organic molecules
 The only difference is that they bind to apoenzymes permanently.
 They are tightly bound organic cofactor
HOLOENZYME
 When the apoenzymes and cofactors are bound, they form an enzyme complex called
HOLOENZYME.
 The holoenzyme now becomes active and ready for usage.

COFACTOR
 Most cofactors can be derived from vitamins and minerals.
 It is important, therefore, to ensure that the basic nutritional needs are met daily for
efficient bodily functions.
ACTIVATION ENERGY
 the amount of energy required to stimulate a reaction
 presence of energy is vital in causing reaction to these molecules
ENZYME SUBSTATE COMPLEX
 Substrates are reactants in an enzymatic reaction
 The substrate combines with an enzyme to form an enzyme substrate complex:
E + S -----> ES Complex
 Only molecular substrates that have the perfect fit can bind to the active sites.
 It has a lock-and-key relationship.
 After the reaction is completed, the product is released.
 Then the active site goes back to its original conditional condition.
SITES OF ENZYME SYNTHESIS
 Enzymes are synthesized by ribosomes which are attached to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
 Information for the synthesis of enzyme is carried by DNA.
 Amino acids are bonded together to form specific enzyme according to the DNA’s codes
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF ENZYME CATALYZED REACTIONS
 Temperature
 pH
 Substrate concentration
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
 Raising the temperature increases the rate of enzyme catalyzed reaction by increasing
energy of reacting molecules.
 Enzymes work maximum over a particular temperature known as optimum temperature.
  Enzymes for humans generally exhibit stability temperature up to35-45 ᵒC.
 However sometimes heat energy can also increase kinetic energy to a point that exceed
the energy barrier which results in denaturing of enzymes.
EFFECT OF PH
 Rate of almost all enzymes catalyzed reactions depends on pH
 Most enzymes exhibit optimal activity at pH value between 5 and 9
 High or low pH value than optimum value will cause ionization of enzyme which result
in denaturation of enzyme
INHIBITION
 Inhibitors are any substance that can diminish the velocity of an enzyme catalyzed
reaction.
 When the enzyme is inhibited, it is not capable of binding to any substrate.
COMPETITIVE INHIBITION
 Inhibitor does not compete with substrate instead it binds to another site known as
allosteric site.
 Drugs to treat cases of poisoning by methanol or ethylene Glycol
IRREVESIBLE INHIBITION
 The catalytic activity of enzyme is completely lost.
 It can only be restored only by synthesizing molecules.
CARBOHYDRATES “hydrated carbon”
 Carbohydrates are believed to be the most abundant of all organic compounds.
 Carbohydrates includes simple and complex sugars and is a well – known source of
energy.
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
 Monosaccharides
 Disaccharides
 Polysaccharides
MONOSACCHARIDES
 Monosaccharides provide immediate energy to the organism that takes them
 Because monosaccharides are simple sugars, they are smaller than the other types of
carbohydrates.
 Their size allows them to be absorbed immediately through the digestive tract all the way
to the blood streams.
 Sugary foods and fructose-rich fruits are the best source of energy for people who are
drained or tired.
DISACCHARIDES
 They are composed of 2 monosaccharides joined together through a process called
condensation reaction.
 In the process of condensation reaction, dehydration synthesis takes place.
 In dehydration synthesis, the water is extracted upon combining the two molecules
 The result of condensation reaction is the formation of glycosidic bond, a type of
covalent bond that links carbohydrate molecule to another molecule.
POLYSACCHARIDES
 They are composed of a least 3 monosaccharides
 They are not sweet.
 They do not from crystals when water molecules are removed.
 The actual structure of certain tissues or cellular parts may depend on the
polysaccharide’s molecular structure which is either branched or linear.
Branched polysaccharide – water soluble
Linear polysaccharide- forms a rigid structure and non-water soluble.
 Most polysaccharides are used for energy storage
1. Starch
2. Glycogen