1

TO THE

Welcome Maritime Vanguard to the new method of

navigating General Physics 2!

As we embody the new learning system of the Maritime

Education, we give you the modified and adjusted course in
learning physics to ensure that you will not be left behind in
terms of learning. We understand that as a future seafarer you
need to be equipped with the basics of navigation for a safe
sailing. This course will train and
prepare you to be an efficient deck officer in the future through the activities designed especially
for the Pre-baccalaureate Maritime Specialization students.

The content of this course will provide you exciting learning experience as you navigate the
ocean of Physics. The prepared activities will help you understand and apply basic concepts of
physics in the context of maritime education. A deck officer should fully understand how the
interaction of matter and energy summarizes the nature of the water and machinery that directly
affect the sailing of the vessel. Moreover, application of Science in the Maritime Industry is a
fundamental basis for ensuring safety, excellent working performance and decision making of the
officers and master of the vessel. This learning will be achieved through developing skills in critical
thinking and problem solving.

Furthermore, in this course you will be tasked to solve problems related to naval
concepts, for example density, law of buoyancy, hydrostatic pressure, etc. Be ready for a fun- filled
learning experience ahead!

2
 WHAT TO
The following are expected while you are working with this course:

1. perform problem solving activities that will help you enhance your higher order thinking
skills;
2. be engaged with the contextualized concept of physics to the maritime education for your
mastery of the course;
3. a performance task per quarter will be required from you, details will be discussed further by
your instructor.

HOW TO USE THE

The course consists of three (3) and for each chapter you must answer the pre-test and the chapter
test. Take the following guide for an organized learning process:

1. You are not required to attend class on-campus for this online course. The Blackboard (mrooms)
will be the major online platform to be used in delivering the course. Your instructor may also
hold class sessions via other distance virtual classes such as interactive video conferencing and
online chat through Facebook Messenger and Zoom for online discussions regarding the course.
2. You are expected to answer the activities and assessment posted for every chapter following
the suggested time frame.
3. "Announcements" area of the course will be used for posting weekly reminders and updates
regarding the lesson.
4. Some parts of the course are restricted with prerequisites. Always read and follow instructions
and perform the required tasks properly.
5. If you wish to communicate with the course instructor for your concerns, use the chat feature of
this platform or facebook messenger. It is recommended that you check your blackboard
(mrooms)messages, messenger, and email account regularly.
6. Submissions of your activities, quizzes and required outputs will be done online through this
course or through your instructor's blackboard (mrooms) account or official e-mail

3
 address. Your instructor's contact information is present at the end of this introduction page.
7. As a student of JBLFMU-Arevalo and a Maritime Vanguard you are expected to uphold the
institution's core values specifically to recognize and practice academic and intellectual integrity.
Some of the examples of academic dishonesty which are against the standards are plagiarism,
cheating, unauthorized collaboration, and multiple submission.
8. Your overall performance in this course will be graded using the criteria: Written work-25%;
Performance Task-45%; Quarter Exam- 30%
9. This course utilizes the 4A Model to make your learning meaningful. Please take note of the
following icons as they constantly appear throughout the module. They prompt you of your
training activities:

You will make relation to the topic and make meaningful connections between the intended
learning outcomes of the course and their own personal goals.

This step involves productive activities that motivate you to

ACTIVATE become engaged with the learning process.

You will receive information in multisensory ways that are not

overwhelming. The teacher facilitates multiple avenues for
ACQUIRE
information processing, such as seeing, hearing, reflecting,
writing, discussing, brainstorming, participating, teaching, reporting, drawing
mind-mapping, and others, in a well-integrated manner through online and modular approach. The
teacher does not just tell the information; instead, he/she provides ways by which you can grasp it. The
information is usually divided into structured “chunks” to prevent information overload and provided
step-by-step solution to the sample problems.

You will apply what you have learned and or participate in an active review of the new information
they have received. Also, you are encouraged to do analysis
through higher order thinking prompts. This part will introduce
extensions or generalizations of concepts.

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You will be assessed with the newly acquired knowledge, can be in a form of formative evaluation
which are supplemented with a diverse question bank
for written work and exercises.

COMPILED BY:

Charmaine S. Nemiz
[email protected] 09463214725

Queenzie June C. Salaver

[email protected] 09661825148

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page

I. Hydrostatics
Lesson 1: Specific Gravity 8
Lesson 2: Hydrostatic Pressure--------------------------------14
Lesson 3: Law of Buoyancy 20
Chapter Test

II. Hydrodynamics
Lesson 4: Fluid Flow 28
Lesson 5: Bernoulli’s Theorem--------------------------------33
Lesson 6: Torricelli’s Theorem--------------------------------37
Chapter Test

III. Electrostatics
Lesson 7: Electric Forces and Coulomb’s Law------------41
Lesson 8: Electric Field, Electric Flux and Gauss---------47
Lesson 9: Electric Potential----------------------------------54
Lesson 10: Capacitors 62
Chapter Test
References 69
6
 CHAPTER 1

HYDROSTATICS
Content Standard:

At the end of the chapter, the learners must have:

a. related density, specific gravity, mass, and volume to each other
b. know the relation of pressure to area and force
c. related pressure, fluid density and depth
d. applied the concept of buoyancy and Archimedes’ principle

INTRODUCTION

This relatively short chapter deals with the pressure under the surface of an
incompressible fluid, which in practice means a liquid, which, compared with a gas, is nearly, if
not quite, incompressible. It offers physical explanations for many phenomena of everyday life,
such as why atmospheric pressure changes with altitude, why wood and oil float on water, and
why the surface of still water is always level. And have you ever wondered how huge marine
vessels float on water? This fascinating phenomenon can be explained by the physics of fluids
which will be discussed in Archimedes’ principle and the equilibrium of floating bodies.

7
 Lesson 1

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, you must have:

a. defined hydrostatic density

b. differentiated mass from weight density
c. solved problems regarding mass and weight density and specific gravity

ACQUIRE
WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW!

Fluids refers to gases and liquids which flows easily. Liquidsare characterized by the ease
with which they flow, and it assumes the shape of the container in which they are placed. Because of
their ability to flow, fluids can exert buoyant forces, multiply forces in a hydraulic system which allows
ships to float.

In analyzing the motion of fluids, we need to define the following quantities:

Density is an intensive property of a material and it varies with the temperature and pressure of
the substance. If you know an object’s density you can quickly predict whether it will sink or float.

Which ball will sink in the water? Which ball will float in the water?

8
 When they are completely underwater, both balls have the same buoyant force because they
displace the same volume of water. However, the steel ball has more weight since it has a higher
density.

A hot-air balloon floats because the air inside is less dense than the air
outside.
The balloon example illustrates an important relationship, known as
Charles’s law, discovered by Jacques Charles in 1787.

Hydrostatic density is divided into two types:

 Mass Density (p)

The physical property of substance defined as mass per unit volume. Two substances can have
the same volume but can be of different masses.

m
𝑝ࠀ
V
where:p=mass density m

= mass

V = volume

9
 Volume and mass of the substance in terms of its density is derived as follows:
m
Vࠀ
𝑝mࠀ

𝑝V
D
𝑝ࠀ g

TABLE 1: UNITS OF MASS DENSITY (p)

System Mass (m) Volume (V) Mass Density (m/V)

SI or mks kg m3 kg/ m3
cgs g cm3 g/cm3
Fps/English slugs ft3 slugs/ft3

 Weight Density (D)

The specific weight of a substance. It is the weight per unit volume of substance.
W
𝐷ࠀ V
𝐷ࠀ

where: D= weight density W

= weight

V = volume

recall: W ࠀ mg and also V ࠀ m, then D ࠀ W ࠀ mg

𝑝 V m/𝑝

∴Dࠀ𝑝g

where: p= mass density

g = acceleration due to gravity

10
 TABLE 1: UNITS OF WEIGHT DENSITY (D)

System Weight (W) Volume (V) Weight Density (W/V)

SI or mks N m3 N/ m3
cgs dynes cm3 dyne/cm3
Fps/English lb. ft3 lb./ft3

 Specific Gravity (sp.gr. /SG)

It is the relative density (pr) of a substance and is defined as the ratio of its density to that of
some standard substance. The standard is usually water at 4°C (39.2°F) for liquids, while for gases
that is usually air.

ࠀ
sp.gr 𝑝r □ P 𝑃 or sp.gr 𝑝r (H20)
(H20)

Equations for mass density and weight density of substance are derived as follows:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠i𝑡𝑦 𝑝 ࠀ 𝑠𝑝.𝑔 𝑃 𝐻20 𝑤𝑒i𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠i𝑡𝑦 𝐷 ࠀ (𝑠𝑝.𝑔𝑟) (𝐻20)

System Mass Density of water (p) Weight -density of water (D)

SI or mks PH20 = 1,000 kg/m3 DH20 = 9,800 N/m3

cgs = 1g/cm3 = 980 dynes/cm3
Fps/English = 1.95 slugs/ft3 = 62.4 lb./ft3

Mass Density of salt water Weight-density of salt water

SI or mks P(salt H20) = 1,025 kg/m3 D(salt H20) = 10045 N/m3
cgs = 1.025 g/cm3 = 10004.5 dyne/cm3
Fps/English = 2 slugs/ft3 = 64.3 lb./ft3

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 Specific Gravity (Relative Density), sp.gr or pr Standard Atmospheric Pressure
(Patm)
sp.gr. (H20) = 1.0 Patm = 1.013 x 105 Pa or N/m2
sp.gr (salt H20) = 1.025 = 14. 7 lb./in2 or psi

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by Earth’s atmosphere to the bottom of the
atmosphere where you live in.

Sample problems:

1. The specific gravity of iron is 7.8. Find its density in

(a) gm/cm3,
(b) kg/m3,
(c) slugs/ft3 and
(d) find its weight-density (lb./ft3).

Solution:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠i𝑡𝑦ࠀ ࠀ 𝑠𝑝.𝑔 𝑃 𝐻20

a. 𝑝 7.8 ࠀ (1g/cm3) b.) 𝑝 7.8 ࠀ (1000kg/m3 𝑐.) 𝑝 1.95()7.8( ࠀslugs/ft3

𝑝 7.8 ࠀ g
cm3 𝑝 7800 ࠀ kg m3 𝑝 15.13 ࠀ

weight-density: 𝐷 ࠀ 𝑠𝑝. 𝐷 𝐻20

d.) 𝐷 7.8 ࠀ (͸2.4 𝑙
f𝑡3 𝐷 48 ࠀ͸.72 𝑙𝑏/f𝑡3

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2. Find the specific gravity of gasoline if 51 g occupies 75cm3.

Solution: Solving first for the mass density of gasoline

m 51g
𝑝 ࠀ V ࠀ 75cm3

𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙i𝑛𝑒 0 ࠀ.͸8 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

And then solving for the specific gravity of a gasoline we have,

𝑠𝑝.𝑔𝑟. 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙i𝑛𝑒 ࠀ 𝑝 0.͸8𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

ࠀ 1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
(𝐻20)
𝑠𝑝.𝑔(𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙i𝑛𝑒) 0 ࠀ.͸8

13
 Lesson 2

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, you must have:

d. defined hydrostatic pressure

e. evaluated the hydrostatic pressure loading acting on a body that is immersed in a
liquid
f. solved problems regarding hydrostatic pressurE

ACQUIRE
THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW!

Hydrostatic, also known as fluid static encompasses the study of the conditions under which
fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium while fluiddynamicsrefers to the study of fluids in motion.

It offers physical explanations for many phenomena of everyday life, such as why atmospheric
pressure changes with altitude, why wood and oil float on water, and why the surface of still water is
always level.

Hydrostatic Pressure

When a fluid is confined in a container, the fluid exerts a

force on every part of the surface of the container that the
surface touches. In fluids at rest, the force on the walls of the
container is always perpendicular to the containing surface.
The perpendicular force is also described as the normalforce.
The normal force per unit area is called presure.

14
 Pressure acts on a scalar quantity, since the direction of
the force resulting from the pressure is determined by the
orientation of the surface. It is known as force per unit area.
Note that this force F (or component of force) is
perpendicular to the surface area A.

F
Pࠀ
A

where: P = pressure acts between the fluid and a container F =

force due to the weight of a fluid

A = cross sectional area of a container perpendicular to the force

Note: The pressure of fluids has a uniform density pthat varies with depth. Note that the greater the
depth of the fluid, the more pressure there is.

TABLE 3: UNITS OF PRESSURE

System Force (F) Area (A) Pressure (P)

SI or mks N m2 N/ m2

cgs dynes cm2 dynes/cm2

Fps/English lb. ft2 lb./ ft2

Other units of Pressure:

Atmosphere- the pressure equal to that exerted by the air under standard condition.

cmofMercury- the pressure equal to that exerted by a column of mercury one centimeter
high.

15
 Some Conversion Factors Involving Pressure

1 atm = 1.013 x 10 5 Pa = 14.7 lb./in 2

1 cm Hg = 1,333.16 Pa

1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1.450 x 10 -4
lb./in2

1 lb./in2 = (psi) = 144 lb./ft2 = 6.895 x 103 Pa

1 dyne/cm2 = 1 x10 -1
Pa

1 lb./ft2 = 47.88 Pa

The concept of pressure is useful in relation to properties of liquids and gases. The force exerted by
a liquid on a plane surface immersed in the liquid is always normal to the surface and is given by the
product of the average pressure and the area of the surface.

FࠀPA

PRESSURE DUE TO THE WEIGHT OF A LIQUID

Hydrostatic pressure refers to the normal force per unit area due to a fluid. The total force
downward at the bottom of the container is equal to the total weight of the liquid above it.

Properties of Pressure in a Fluid

1. The force a fluid exerts on the walls of its container (and vice versa), always act
perpendicular to the walls.
2. An external pressure exerted on a fluid is transmitted uniformly throughout the volume of the
fluid.
3. The pressure on a small surface in a fluid is the same regardless of the orientation of the
surface.

16
 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ࠀ
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒i𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜f 𝑙i𝑞𝑢i𝑑 W
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴ࠀ

When total volume of liquids is V = A h and weight of liquid is W = VD, and weight density is D =
p g, then pressure is:

V𝐷 Ah
Pࠀ ࠀ
A A

Pࠀh

Pࠀh𝑝g

where: h = height of the liquid

D= weight density of liquid

p= mass density of liquid

g = acceleration due to gravity

A pressure is exerted on the bottom of a container because, the force acting on the bottom of the
container due to the weight of the liquid spreads over the bottom surface of the container. The pressure
is exerted by the liquid not only on the bottom of the vessel. The vertical walls of the vessel will also
experience the pressure. Apart from this, there are many more characteristics of pressure due to liquids
(hydrostatic pressure).

17
 Application of Hydrostatics

Example1:

A cylindrical tank with a cross-sectional area of 4ft2 contains water 12ft high. Find:

a) the pressure at the bottom of the tank, and

b) the total force acting on the bottom of the container.

Given: h = 12 ft Required: P =?

A = 4 ft2 F =?

DH20= 62. 4 lb./ft3

Solution:

𝑎.) P ࠀ h𝐷H20 𝑏.) F ࠀ P A

□ 12 ft (͸2.4 lb./ft3 ࠀ (8 .7488lb./ft2)(4ft2)

P 8 .748 ࠀ lb./ft2 F 2 .2995 ࠀ lb

Example2:

Oil of specific gravity is 0.8 is poured into a glass tube such that the vertical height of the oil is
25 cm. Find the pressure due to this column of oil.

Given:
sp.gr.oil 0.8 ࠀ Required: P =?
h 25 ࠀcm
𝑝𝐻20 1 ࠀ𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
𝑔 980 ࠀ cm/s2

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 Solution:
Poil ࠀ (sp. gr. oil)(𝑝H20) Pࠀ𝑝gh
□ (0.8)(1g/cm3) □ 25cm (0.8 g/cm3)(980 cm/s2)
𝑃 19 ࠀ, ͸00 dynes /cm2

Example3:

What is the pressure at the bottom of a cylindrical tank filled to a depth of 30ft? if the radius of
the cylindrical tank is 12 ft, what is the total force on the bottom of the tank?

Answer:

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 Lesson 3

LAW OF BUOYANCY
At the end of the lesson you must have:

g. explained the concept of buoyancy and Archimedes principle

h. solved problems regarding law of buoyancy

ACQUIRE THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW!

There are many kinds of boats. Sometimes boat travel can be very dangerous, especially if the
boats are being used for a different purpose than what they were designed for or if they are overloaded
with too much weight. Just like for example, large cargo ships floating at sea, or even social issue such
as refugees trying to escape on an overloaded boat, these instances will make you wonder why some
objects float while others sink? To help you understand this phenomenon, it is important that we
understand the science behind buoyancy.

Buoyancy is a force which refers to a measure of the upward force a fluid exerts on an object that
is submerged. The water in the pool exerts an upward force that acts in a direction opposite to the
boy’s weight.
20
 Volume and Buoyancy

The strength of the buoyant force on an object in water depends on the volume of the object that
is underwater. As you keep pushing downward on the ball, the buoyant force gets stronger and
stronger. Which ball has more volume underwater?

Weight and Buoyancy

Weight is a force, like any other pushing or pulling force, and is

caused by Earth’s gravity. Weight is the downward force of gravity
acting on mass.

What is the rock’s weight? What is the rock’s mass?

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE: LAW OF BUOYANCY

Some objects float in a liquid and that the apparent weights of

objects appear smaller when immersed in a liquid. This suggest
that the liquid is exerting an upward force or buoyant force on
objects immersed in it.

Boats come in many different shapes and sizes. Larger boats are
generally referred to as ships. The main feature of a successful boat
design is the ability to stay afloat in water. The
physical force that keeps boats and other objects floating in fluids is called buoyancy.

21
 A rowboat is used to travel on a river.
A trimaran is a boat with three hulls.

A submarine breaches the surface of the ocean. A tugboat is pulling a flat-bottomed cargo barge.

The same concept is applied with a Buoywhich is a floating

structure or device that can have many purposes. It can be anchored
(stationary) or allowed to drift with ocean currents.

How is it possible that ships can float, even though the material they are made of is denser
than water? It is because of the principle of flotation which states that a floating object displaces a
weight of liquid equal to its own weight.

22
 Fig. 1: Submarine Unlike a ship, a submarine (Fig. 1) can control its buoyancy, thus
allowing it to sink and surface at will. To control its buoyancy, a
submarine has ballast tanks (Fig. 2) and auxiliary, or trim tanks, that
can be alternately filled with water or air. When the submarine is on the
surface, the ballast tanks are filled with air and the submarine’s overall
density is less than that of the surrounding water. As the submarine
dives, the ballast tanks are flooded with
water and the air in the ballast tanks is vented from the submarine until its overall density is greater
than the surrounding water and the submarine begins to sink.

Buoyant force is the force of a liquid acting

straight upward at the center of buoyancy (CB) of the
Fig. 2: Ballast tank
submerged part of an object. Fig.2 shows the center of
buoyancy as a yellow dot. As with the center of gravity,
the center of buoyancy is at the geometric center of the
submerged part of an object
of uniform density. The center of buoyancy shifts as downward force is exerted on the ship. The ship
floats at a level where the density of the submerged portion is less than the density of the water it
displaces.

Ship stability is determined by the balance between the

forces of gravity and buoyancy. For a vessel in a calm harbor,
the two forces of gravity and buoyancy are in a line and are
balanced, as shown in Fig. 3 A. A stable ship rights itself when
tilted. In Fig.3 B, the ship is stable. The center of buoyancy of
the tilted ship is shifted to the right because the area
Fig 2
submerged has been shifted. The
opposing forces acting at the CB and CG will twist the ship back to an upright position. An unstable ship
will not right itself; it will continue to fall over because the buoyant and gravitational forces act on
the ship to keep it moving in the direction of the tilt (Fig.3 C and D).

23
 Fig 3: The forces of buoyancy and gravity
affect the stable and unstable ships. (A) A
stable ship in calm water with its center
gravity (CG) and center of buoyancy (CB)
positions marked. (B) Unstable ship with
unevenly distributed density cannot tilt itself
back upright. (C) A ship with a weighted hull
(uneven density) in calm water. (D) An
unstable ship with the weighted hull (uneven
density) that cannot right itself from a tilted
position.

The concept of hydrostatics and stability can be deemed as one of the most important areas of
focus in ship design and operation, not only to ensure the safety of the ship, cargo, crew and
passengers, but also to enable proper conditions for completion of all the processes on a ship.

In the LawofBuoyancy, Archimedes principle states that:

“Abodyorsod
ilm
i mersen
i aq
ilud
i isubjectedtoanupward forceorsibuoyedupbyaforceequatlotheweg
ihtoftheq
ilud
i thatidsipalces”.

Buoyant Force ࠀ Weight of Displaced Liquid recallࠀ

WTOTAL ࠀ BF ࠀ Wfluid ࠀ V 𝐷 WࠀV𝐷 VࠀhA 𝐷 ࠀ 𝑝g B F

ࠀ WTOTAL ࠀ h A 𝐷 ࠀ V 𝑝 g ࠀ h A 𝑝 g ࠀhA

□𝑝gV

Wࠀ𝑝ghA
24
 The apparent weight of an object immersed in liquid is its true weight minus the buoyant force. If
the weight of the object is less than the buoyant force, the object will rise because of the unbalanced
force. It will then float in such a way that the total weight of the object is just equal to the weight of the
liquid that it displaces. The object will be partly in the liquid and partly above the liquid.

Example1:

A rectangular barge 6ft wide and 10 ft long floats in sea water. A load of 3000 lb. is placed on the
barge. How many inches deeper will the barge sink?

Given: W 3,000 ࠀlb. Requiredࠀh ࠀ ?

A ࠀ ͸ft x 10ft ࠀ ͸0 ft2

𝐷sea water ࠀ ͸4.3 lb./ft3

Solution:

Wobject □ Wdisplace fluid □

h A 𝐷sw or hࠀ W
A
𝐷sw

3,000𝑙𝑏.
ℎࠀ
͸0f𝑡2 (͸4.3 𝑙𝑏./f𝑡3 )

h 0.8 ࠀ ft

h 0.8 ࠀ ft x 12 in/ft

h 9 ࠀ.͸ inches

25
Example2:

A rectangular barge 45 ft long and 7 ft wide has a mass of 600 slugs. Find the draft of the barge in
seawater.

Given:

mbarge ࠀ ͸00 slugs Requiredࠀh ࠀ ?

W ࠀ mg

W ࠀ ͸00slugs (32.2 ft/s2 W ࠀ

19,320lb.

Dsea water ࠀ ͸4.3 lb./ft3

Solution: Solving for the area of rectangular barge,

A ࠀ l w 45 ࠀft 7ft 315 ࠀ ft2

Solving for the draft of the barge in seawater (h),

Wobject ࠀ Wdisplaced fluid or Wbarge ࠀ h A 𝐷sea water

hࠀ W ࠀ 19, 320 lb.

A Dsea water 315 ft2 (͸4.3 lb./ft3

h 0.954 ࠀ ft

26
 CHAPTER 2

HYDRODYNAMIC
Content Standard:

At the end of the chapter, the learners must have:

a. explained the limitations of and the assumptions underlying Bernoulli’s principle and the
continuity equation;
b. solved problems involving fluids.

INTRODUCTION

Hydrodynamics has been successful in providing a good description of the bulk

dynamics in ultra- relativistic heavy ion collision where in it studies how energy and forces
interact with fluids, including gases and liquids. Specifically, it looks at the ways different forces
affect the movement of the liquid. Mathematical equations presented on the latter part attempts
to rate of water flow through a pipe, which is a laminar, or uninterrupted flow. This is very
useful information for building structures that attempt to control or divert water flow in a
controlled manner.
27
 Lesson 4

FLUID FLOW
At the end of the lesson, you must have:

a. defined fluid flow under hydrostatic

b. explained the idea behind rate of flow
c. applied concepts of rate of flow and equation of continuity

ACQUIRE
THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW!

A smooth flow of fluid is called laminar flow. All fluids are assumed in this treatment to exhibit
streamline or laminar flow. Streamlineorlamina
flowis the motion of a fluid in which every particle in the fluid
follows the same path past a particular point as that followed
by previous particles.

A fluid which is characterized by irregular and chaotic flow is what we call turbulent flow.

Example: cloud of cigarette smoke or at the foot of the waterfalls. It develops at a high speed
and there are obstructions or sharp bends in a path
of the fluids.
28
Assumptions for Fluid Flow:

 All fluids move with streamline flow.

 The fluids are incompressible.
 There is no internal friction.

Only the fundamental aspects of fluid flow will be considered in this area, dealing with
incompressible fluids and those without friction. In streamlined flow, every particle of the fluid passing a
particular point follows the same path.

The rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe or channel is usually measured as the volume that
passes a certain cross section per unit time. If the average speed of the liquid in the pipe is v, each part
of the stream travels the distance v t in the time t is v t multiplied by cross-sectional area A, or v t
A. The rate of flow Q of liquid through the pipe is:

V vtA
Qࠀ tࠀ t

QࠀvA

where: Q = rate of flow or discharged flow v =

speed of the liquid flow

A = cross sectional area of a pipe

The rate of flow is the product of the liquid speed and the cross-sectional area of the pipe.

Figure 1: Rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe with uniform cross-sectional area.

29
 TABLE 1: UNITS OF RATE OF FLOW (Q)

System Volume (V) Time (t) Rate of flow (Q)

SI or mks m3 S m3/s

cgs cm3 S cm3/s

Fps/English ft3 S ft3/s

Equation of Continuity

When an incompressible (constant-density) fluid fills the pipe and flows through it, and that the
cross-sectional area of the pipe A1, at one point and A2 in another point, the liquid flow through A1
must equal the flow through A2 to keep it constant.

When a liquid flow through a pipe of varying cross-section, the speed also varies. Where the
diameter is smaller, the speed of the liquid must be greater to keep the rate of flow constant. When the
liquid enters the region where the diameter is bigger, its speed is reduced.

For a steady flow, the liquid speed is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the
pipe.

Figure 2: Rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe varying cross-sectional area.

30
 In figure 2, reducing the cross-sectional area of the pipe increases the fluid speed. For example,
as the pipe size varies, the speed of the liquid also varies to keep the rate of flow constant.

For a rate of flow at any point of a pipe varying cross-sectional area it follows that the
equation is:

Q1 ࠀ A1V1 , Q2 ࠀ A2V2, Q3 ࠀ A3V3

For Q ࠀ constant Q ࠀ Q1 ࠀ Q2 ࠀ Q3 , therefore A1V1

ࠀ A2V2 ࠀ A3V3

Example1:

Oil flows through a pipe 8 cm in diameter at an average velocity of 4m/s. what is the flow Q in
m3/s?

Given: v 4 ࠀ m/s Required: Q =?

d 8 ࠀcm 0.08 ࠀ m

Solution: Solving first for the cross-sectional of the pipe we have,

𝜋𝑑2 𝜋 (0.08𝑚)2
𝐴ࠀ 4 ࠀ 4

Solving for the rate of flow of oil through a pipe we have,

Q ࠀ v A 4 ࠀ m/s (5.03 x 10−3m2)

Q 02 .0 ࠀ m3/s

31
Example2:

It is measured that 250 cm3 of fluid flows out of a tube whose inner diameter is 7mm in a time
interval of 41 s. what is the average velocity of the fluid in the tube?
3
Given: V 250 ࠀ cm3x (1m)
Requiredࠀv ࠀ ?
(100cm)3

v 2.50 ࠀ x 10−4m3 t ࠀ

41 s

d 7 ࠀ mm 0.007 ࠀ m

Solution:

Solving first for the rate of flow of a fluid we have,

−4m3
Qࠀ V 2.5 ࠀ x 10 ࠀ ͸.098 x 10−͸m3/ s
t 41 s

And solving for the velocity of a fluid flow we have,

vࠀ Q ࠀ Q ͸.098 x 10 −͸ m3/s
A ࠀ
π d2 π(0.007 m)2
4 4

v 0.158 ࠀ m/s

32
 Lesson 5

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
At the end of the lesson you must have:

d. defined Bernoulli’s Theorem

e. solved sample problems involving Bernoulli’s equation

ACQUIRE
THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW!

The preceding description of the steady flow of a liquid can be put in more definite form by an
application of the principle of conservation of energy to the incompressible liquid flowing between the
two planes at points 1 and 2 of figure 1.

Figure 1: Liquid flow in a tube

In any time t, the volume V that flows through point 1 is the same as that which flows through
point 2. Since the pressure is different at two ends, work is done on the liquid. The work done is equal
to the change in energy (both potential and kinetic) and this equation gives:
33
 P2
P1 V12 + h + v22 v12𝑝 v22𝑝
+ ࠀ
𝑝g 2g 𝑝g 2 or P1 + h1𝑝 g + ࠀ P2 + h2𝑝 g +
2g 2 2

This equation is known as the Bernoulli’s equation. And therefore, Bernoulli’s Theorem states that:

“Atanytwopon
i tsao
l ngastreamn
ilen
i and
i eaflud
in
i steadyo
flw,thesumofthepresure,thepotena
tielnergy peruntivou
lme,andthekn
ietcienergyperuntviou
lmehave thesamevau
le.”

Although Bernoulli’s theorem is rigorously correct only for incompressible, non-viscous liquids, it
is often applied to ordinary liquids with sufficient accuracy for many engineering purposes.

VENTURI TUBE

Figure 2: Venturi Tube

The Venturi tube (Fig 2.) consists of a constriction or throat inserted in a pipeline and, having
been properly designed, it tapers at inlet and outlet to avoid turbulence. Bernoulli’s equation, applied
to a wide and to the constricted portions of the pipe, becomes:

1 1 1
𝑝 (v 2 − v 2)
P1 + 𝑝v12 ࠀ P2 𝑝 v22 or P2 ࠀ P1
2 2 2 1 2

+ +

34
 From the equation of continuity, the speed v 2 is greater than the speed v1 and hence the
pressure P2 in the throat is less than the pressure P 1. Thus, a net force to the right acts to accelerate

the fluid as it enters the throat, and a net force to the left decelerates as it leaves. The pressures P1 and
P2 can be measured by attaching vertical tubes as shown in the diagram. From knowledge of these
pressures and of the cross-sectional areas A1 and A2, the velocities and the mass rate of flow can be
computed. When used for this purpose, the device is called Venturi meter (Figure 3). This concept is
used in some gasoline engines, where gasoline is sprayed from a nozzle or an injector into a low-
pressure region produce in a Venturi throat.

Figure 3: Venturi meter

Example1:

Water flows at the rate of 300 ft 3/min through an inclined pipe. At point 1, where the diameter
is 2 in, the pressure is 5 lb./in2. What is the pressure at point 2, where the diameter is
6.0 in and the center of the pipe is 2.0 ft lower at point 1?

Given:
3
/ min
Q 300 ࠀ ft 5.0 ࠀ ft3 / s Requiredࠀ P ࠀ ?
2
͸0 s/ min

(12 in)2
P1 15 ࠀlb./in2 x 21
1ft ࠀ
2 ͸0 lb./ft2
35
 d1 12 ࠀ in 1 ࠀ ft

d2 ࠀ ͸ in ࠀ o.5 ft

elevation head difference, h1 − h2 2 ࠀ ft

Solution: Solving first for the velocities v1 and v2 we have:

v ࠀ QA ࠀ
Q 5 ft3 □ ͸.37 ft/s
/s ࠀ
i 1 2
1 π (1ft)2
π4
4

𝑣2 ࠀ 𝐴2 ࠀ 5 f𝑡3/ 𝑠
(0.5 f𝑡)24
ࠀ
24. 4͸ f𝑡/𝑠
𝜋
ࠀ
2
4

For water Dh20 = 62. 4 lb./ft3, and therefore ph20 = 1. 95 slugs/ft3. Solving for the pressure at
point 2 using Bernoulli’s equation, we have,
v 2𝑝 v 2𝑝
P + h 𝑝g+ 1ࠀ P + h 𝑝g+ 2 or P
1 1 2 2
2 2
𝑝2
□ P1 + 𝑝 g h1 − h2 + (v12 − v22)
2

P2 21 ࠀ͸0 lb./ft2 + 1.95 slugs/ft3 ft

32.2 2ft + 1.95 slugs/ft3 (͸.37 ft/s)2 − (25. 4͸ ft/s)2
s2 2
lb. lb lb P ࠀ
21͸0 + 125. 58 − 592. 444
2 ft2 ft2 ft2

P2 1 ࠀ͸93. 13͸ lb
ft 2

lb.
P2 758 .11 ࠀ in2
36
 Lesson 6

TORRICELLI’S THEOREM
At the end of the lesson, you must have:

Explained the concept of Torricelli’s Theorem

Solved problems involving Torricelli’s equation

ACQUIRE
THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW!

In many situations the speed, pressure, or height of the liquid is constant. Thus, when the liquid
column is stationary in a tank, Torricelli had a theorem on the velocity of overflow from the orifice or
opening shown in fig 1.

The speed with which a liquid escape from a vessel through an orifice is given by Torricelli’s
Theorem as follows:

When a liquid is emerging from an opening in a tank, the liquid pressure at the opening equals
the atmospheric pressure at the top of the top (P1 = P2). If the opening is small compared to the
cross section of the tank, the liquid level will fall slowly enough for the liquid speed at the top of the
tank to be assumed to be zero. When the speed of the liquid as it leaves the opening is v and the
difference in height between the top of the liquid and the opening is h, Torricelli’s Theorem is expressed
in the equation below:
37
 P1 ࠀ P2

1𝑝 v2 ࠀ 𝑝 g h v ࠀ 2gh
2

2P
Also, v ࠀ 𝑝

Figure 1: Liquid flows out from the orifice of the tank.

The speed with which the liquid comes out is the same as the speed of a body falling from rest
from a height h. The rate at which the liquid flows trough the opening may be found if its area A is
known. The volume of liquid per unit time Q is :

Flow from the orificeࠀ Q ࠀ v A ࠀA 2gh

;Q ࠀ A 2gh

Example1:

Find the flow in liter per second of a non-viscous liquid through an opening 0.5 cm2 in area and
2. 5 m below the level of the liquid in an open tank.

Given:

A 0.5 ࠀ cm2 RequiredࠀQ ࠀ ? h

2.5 ࠀ m 250 ࠀ cm

g 980 ࠀ cm/s2

38
Solution:

2980 cm (250 cm)

QࠀA 2 g h 0.5 ࠀ cm2 s2
3
Q 350 ࠀ cm x 1L
s 1000 cm3

Q 0.350 ࠀ L/s

Example2:

A tank containing water has an orifice of area of 8 cm 2 in one vertical side, 3m below the free
surface level in the tank. Find (a) the speed of discharged, assuing that there is no wasted energy, and
(b) the rate of flow at the orifice.

Given:

Aorifice 8 ࠀ m2 Requiredࠀv ࠀ ? h

3 ࠀm

g 980 ࠀ cm/s2

Solution:

(a) Solving for the speed of discharge of water at the orifice we have,

vࠀ 2 (980 cm )(300 cm)

2 g hࠀ s2

v 7 ࠀ͸͸.81 cm/s

(b) Solving for the rate of flow of water we have,

QࠀvA

cm
Q 7 ࠀ͸͸.81 (8
s
cm2)

Q ࠀ ͸134.5 cm3/s

39
 CHAPTER 3

ELECTROSTATICS
Content Standard:

At the end of the chapter, the learners must have:

a. explained the role of electric transfer in electrostatistic
b. calculated the net electric force on a point charge; and
c. described the electric field.

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we examine the properties of electric charge. A moving electric charge
gives rise to separate phenomenon, called magnetism, which is covered in later chapters. Here
we look at charged objects that are not moving, hence the term electrostatics. All objects have
charge since charge particles make up atoms and molecules. We often do not notice the effects
that hold atoms together and that keep objects separate even when they are in contact, are all
electric in nature.
40
 LESSON 7

ELECTRIC FORCES AND COULOMBS LAW

At the end of the lesson you must have:

a. explained electric charge; and

b. described the Coulomb’s law

ACQUIRE
THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW!

The discovery of electricity was accredited to the Greeks around 2500 years ago. The Greeks
found that after amber is rubbed with a piece of animal fur, the amber can attract small pieces of dust.
The Greek word for amber, “electron” is the origin of the term’s electricity and electron. The long
history of scientific work on electricity is very interesting, but we will skip most of the details and
simply state a few key facts that may already be familiar to you.

 There are two types of electric charge, called positive and negative. The subatomic
particle called a proton has a positive charge, and an electron has a negative charge.
 Chargecomesinquantizedunits. All protons carry the same amount of charge +e, and all
electrons carry a charge –e. We will discuss how the charge is measured and the unit of electric
charge below.
 Like charges repel each other; unlike charges atract. The electric force between
two objects is repulsive if the objects carry “like” charge, that is, if both are positively charged
or both are negatively charged. The electric force is attractive if the two objects carry “unlike”
charge. The expression “unlike charges” means that one charge is positive and the other is
negative. The term like and unlikethus refer to the sign of the charges, not to their
magnitude.
41
  Chargeisconserved. The total charges on an object is the sum of all the individual charges
(proton and electrons) carried by the object. The total charge can be positive, negative, or zero.
Charge can move from place to place, and from one object to another, but the total charge of
the universe does not change.

What is Electric Charge?

Charge is a fundamental property of matter: the amount of charge that is “on” or

“carried by” a particle determines how the particle reacts to electric and magnetic fields. In the
SI systems of units, charge is measured in coulombs © in honor of French physicist Charles de
Coulomb (1736-1806). The charge on a single electron is:

Electron charge = -e = - 1.60 x 10-19 C

And the charge carried by a single proton is

Proton charge = +e = + 1.60 x 10-19 C

We used the symbol:

e = to denote the magnitude of the charge on electron or proton. We will always take e to be
positive quantity (+ 1.60 x 10-19 C).

q or Q= to denote charge in general, such as the total charge on a bit of paper.

Electron forces and Coulomb’s law

Imagine that you travel to a distant star where you discover a new type of force acting between
particles. The force can be attractive or repulsive and is extremely large. In fact, the force between
two objects each having a mass of only 1 g is large enough to hold an entire planet in orbit around this
alien star! This force sounds very different from anything you have encountered before, but it already
exists on the Earth. It is the electric force between two charged objects.

Consider two charged objects that are so tiny that they can be modeled as point particles. If
the charges carried by the two objects are q 1 and q2 and they are separated by distance r, the electric
force between the objects can be written as:

42
 𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹ࠀ𝑘
𝑟2
Figure 1.1

This is called Coulomb’s law. The constant k has the value: K =

8.99 x 109 N∙ m2/C2

The mathematical form of Equation 1.1 is very similar to that of Newton’s law of gravitation, with
the constant k playing a role analogous to the gravitational constant G. Another way to write Coulomb’s
law is:

𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹ࠀ
4
𝜋s0𝑟2

Figure 1.2

Where s0is called the permittivity of free space, having the value:

−12
𝐶2
s0 8.55 ࠀ 𝑥
10 𝑁 · 𝑚2
The value of s0and k are related by:

1
=k
4 𝜋s0

Using Coulomb’s Law to Clean the Air

Coal burning power plants produce large amounts of potential pollution in the form of small
particles (soot). Modern smokestacks use devices called scrubbers to remove these particles from the
smoke they emit. Scrubbers use two-step process: electrons are first added to the soot particle, and an
electric force then pulls the particle out the smoke stream. In this example, we analyze the force on a
soot particle after electrons are added.
43
 Consider a soot particle of mass m soot = 1.0 nanogram (= 1.0 x 10-9 g = 1.0 x 10-12 kg), which
corresponds to a diameter of a few microns. Some number of electrons has been added to give the
particle a total charge qsoot.

Suppose the collector has a total charge qcollector= 1.0x 10-6C and is small enough to be treated as a
point charge at the rim of the smokestack. (a) If the separation between the collector and the soot
particle is r= 0.10 m, what is the value of q soot so that the electric force exerted on the particle is equal
to its weight? (b) How many electrons must be added to the soot particle?

Recognize the principle:

The collector charge is assumed to be a point particle so we can apply Coulomb’s law for two point
particles.

Illustrate the problem:

Identify the Relationship:

We want electric force on particle in Equation (1) to be equal in magnitude to the particle’s weight, so:

𝑘𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑜
𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 □
𝑟2

Solution:

(A)
Solving for the charge qsoot leads to

𝑚𝑔𝑟2
𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑡 ࠀ
�
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜

Inserting the give value of m and r, we find

𝑚𝑔𝑟2 1.0𝑥10−12𝑘𝑔
𝑚
(0.10𝑚2)
𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑡 ࠀ 𝑘𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 9𝑠 2
= 8.99𝑥109𝑁·𝑚2 −͸
𝐶2
(1.0𝑥10 𝐶)

𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑡1.1ࠀ 𝑥 10−17

44
(B)
The charge on a single electron has a magnitude e= 1.60 x 10-19C, so our value of q soot
corresponds to

𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑡 1.1𝑥
𝑁ࠀ ࠀ □ ͸9 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
10−17𝐶
𝑒 10−19𝐶
1.͸0 𝑥
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛

69 electrons is the number of extra electrons added to the soot particle.

What does it mean?

It is amazing that only this small number of electrons is needed for the scrubber to successfully
remove a soot particle from air. The total number of atoms in the particle is about 4 x 1014, so the
fraction of “unbalanced” electrons on the particle is only 69/ (4x1014)≈2x10-14!

Superposition Principle

Suppose two particles of charge q1 and 2q1 are separated by a distance L as shown in
figure .1.3. What is the force on a third charge q2placed midway between these two charges?

We can deal with the problem by first using Coulomb’s law to find the force exerted by charge q1
on q2 and then using Coulomb’s law a second time to calculate the force exerted by the charge 2q1 on
q2. The total force on q2is the sum of these two separate contributions, which is an example of the
principle of superposition.

From figure 1.3, the separation between q 1 and q2 is L/2. Writing Coulomb’s law of this pair
charges, we have:

𝐹 ࠀ 𝑘𝑞 𝑞
1 2 4𝑘𝑞1𝑞2
2
1
𝐿/2 ࠀ𝐿

Equation 1.1

Here a positive value corresponds to a repulsive force (since like charges repel), and in the
coordinate system in Figure 1.3 it corresponds to a force on q 2in the +x direction. Hence, F1, in
Equation 1.1 is the component of the force along the x axis, and the component along y is zero.

We can deal with the force from the charge 2q 1 in similar way. The separation of the charges is
again L/2, so, applying Coulomb’s law (Figure 1.2), we find:
45
 𝐹 ࠀ (2𝑞1)𝑞2 8𝑘𝑞 𝑞
1 2
ࠀ 2
2 𝐿/22 𝐿

Equation.1.2

From the geometry figure 1.3 we can see that this result is the x component of the force q2
because the electric force acts along the line that connects the two charges and here that line is along
the x direction. For this reason, the y component of the force on q2 is again zero. Equation
1.2
gives the magnitude of the force F2. If they are “like” charges (if q1 and q2 are both positive or
both negative so that the product q1q2 is positive), the force F2 is in the –x direction.

The total force on q2 is the sum of Equations 1.1 and 1.2, but we must account for the
direction (the sign) of each. Assuming all charges are of “like sign” the result is:

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 8𝑘𝑞1𝑞2 4 𝑘𝑞1𝑞2

+ ࠀ 1𝑞2
4𝑘𝑞 − −ࠀ 2
𝐿2 𝐿
𝐿2
The negative sign here tells us that if the product q1q2> 0 (consistent with our “like sign”
assumption), the force exerted on q2 is along the –x direction.
46
 LESSON 8

ELECTRIC FIELD, ELECTRIC FLUX AND GAUSS

At the end of the lesson you must have:

explained electric field

differentiated conductors from insulators

e. described the motion of charge; and

f. explained Gauss law

ACQUIRE

THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW!

Electric Field

Imagine a single isolated point charge, that is, a point charge very far from any other charges as
in figure 1.3A. The presence of this charge produces and electric field. The electric field is a vector and
is denoted by Ē.

Using a Test Charge to Measure Ē

Placing a charge at a particular point in space where the electric field is Ē (fid 1.4), it
experiences an electric force given by:

F=q Ē

The electric force is thus parallel to Ē (if q is positive) or antiparallel (if q is negative). The
charge q in figure 1.4 is called the test charge. We can use use a Coulomb’s law calculation of the force
to find the electric field in many situations. For example, let’s calculate the electric field a distance r
from the charge Q in figure 1.4. According to Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of the electric force exerted
on the test charge q is:
47
 𝐹 ࠀ 𝑘𝑄
𝑟2
Inserting this expression into our relation for the electric field gives:
𝑘𝑄𝑞
𝐹ࠀ ࠀ
𝑟 2

Which leads to:

𝑘
𝐸 ࠀ 2
𝑟

Conductors, Insulators, and the motion of Electric charge

Conductors are materials that permit electrons to flow freely from particle to particle. An object
made of a conducting material will permit charge to be transferred across the entire surface of the
object. If charge is transferred to the object at a given location, that charge is quickly distributed across
the entire surface of the object. If a charged conductor is touched to another object, the conductor can
even transfer its charge to that object.

The transfer of charge between objects occurs more readily if the second object is made of a
conducting material. Conductors allow for charge transfer through the free movement of electrons.

48
 Insulators are materials that impede the free flow of electrons from atom to atom and molecule
to molecule. If charge is transferred to an insulator at a given location, the excess charge will remain at
the initial location of charging. The particles of the insulator do not permit the free flow of electrons;
subsequently charge is seldom distributed evenly across the surface of an insulator.

Electron Movement

Predicting the direction that electrons would move within a conducting material is a simple
application of the two fundamental rules of charge interaction. Opposites attract and likes repel.
Suppose that some method is used to impart a negative charge to an object at a given location. At the
location where the charge is imparted, there is an excess of electrons. That is, the multitude of atoms in
that region possesses more electrons than protons. Of course, there are a few electrons that could be
thought of as being quite contented since there is an accompanying positively charged proton to
satisfy their attraction for an opposite. However, the so-called excess electrons have a repulsive
response to each other and would prefer more space.

Electrons, like human beings, wish to manipulate their surroundings to reduce repulsive effects.
Since these excess electrons are present in a conductor, there is little hindrance to their ability to
migrate to other parts of the object. And that is exactly what they do. To reduce the overall repulsive
effects within the object, there is a mass migration of excess electrons throughout the entire surface
of the object. Excess electrons migrate to distance themselves from their repulsive neighbors. In this
sense, it is said that excess negative charge distributes itself throughout the surface of the conductor.

But what happens if the conductor acquires an excess of positive charge? What if electrons are
removed from a conductor at a given location, giving the object an overall positive charge? If

protons cannot move, then how can the excess of positive charge distribute itself across
the
49
rather simple explanation that once again relies on the two fundamental rules of charge interaction.
Opposites attract and likes repel. Suppose that a conducting metal sphere is charged on its left side
and imparted an excess of positive charge A multitude of atoms in the region where the charging
occurs have lost one or more electrons and have an excess of protons. The imbalance of charge within
these atoms creates effects that can be thought of as disturbing the balance of charge within the
entire object. The presence of these excess protons in a given location draws electrons from other
atoms. Electrons in other parts of the object can be thought of as being quite contentedwith the balance
of charge that they are experiencing. Yet there will always be some electrons that will feel the attraction
for the excess protons some distance away. In the language of electrostatics, we simply assert that
opposites attract - the excess protons and both the neighboring and distant electrons attract each
other. The protons cannot do anything about this attraction since they are bound within the nucleus
of their own atoms. Yet, electrons are loosely bound within atoms; and being present in a conductor,
they are free to move. These electrons make the move for the excess protons, leaving their own
atoms with their own excess of positive charge. This electron migration happens across the entire
surface of the object, until the overall sum of repulsive effects between electrons across the whole
surface of the object are minimized.

How to charge object?

1. Charging an object by rubbing it

2. Charging by contact and by induction

3. Concept of Electrical “Ground”

Gauss Law

The electric flux (whenever electric field line pass through the surface electric flux is produced)
through an area is defined as the electric field multiplied by the area of the surface projected in a plane
perpendicular to the field. Gauss's Law is a general law applying to any closed surface. It is an
important tool since it permits the assessment of the amount of enclosed charge by mapping the field
on a surface outside the charge distribution. For geometries of sufficient symmetry, it simplifies the
calculation of the electric field. Simply, Gauss law is the total of the electric flux out of a closed surface
is equal to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity.

50
 Another way of visualizing this is to consider a probe of area A which can measure the electric
field perpendicular to that area. If it picks any closed surface and steps over that surface, measuring
the perpendicular field times its area, it will obtain a measure of the net electric charge within the
surface, no matter how that internal charge is configured.

Using Gauss’s Law to find E for a point charge

Let us first consider the familiar case of a single point charge. To apply Gauss’s law, we must
first choose the surface, called a Gaussian surface that will be used in flux calculation.

When E is perpendicular to a surface, the flux is equal to the magnitude of E multiplied by the
area of the surface. So, for the flux in figure 1.25 we have

ɸE= EAsphere

Where Asphere is the area of our spherical Gaussian surface. If the radius of this sphere is r, then Asphere=
4πr2E and the flux is

ɸE=4πr2E

According to Gauss’ law, this flux is proportional to the total charge contained within the surface. Using
equation 1.13, we have

ɸE=4πr2E= 𝑞
s0

We can now solve for E and find:

𝑞
𝐸ࠀ
4𝜋s0𝑟
2

51
 Electric field from spherical Charge

Consider the uniform spherical ball of charge in Figure 1.26A, with total charge Q and radius rb.
Find the electric field at points outside the ball.

Recognize the Principle:

We follow the procedure described in the “applying Gauss’s Law’ problem-solving strategy. The
key is to find a Gaussian surface that matches the symmetry of the charge distribution. (step 1 in the
strategy). The charge spherically distributed in Figure 1.26A, so the electric field must also have
spherical symmetry.

Sketch the problem:

Step 2 in the strategy: the spherical symmetry means that E must be directed radially pointing either
away from or toward the center of the ball of charge. If Q is positive, the field will be sketched in figure
1.26B

Identify the relationships:

Step 3: Choose a Gaussian surface. Because of the spherical symmetry, the magnitude of E will depend
only on distance from the center of the ball of charge. We therefore pick a spherical Gaussian surface
as sketched in Figure 1.26A. The electric field will have a constant magnitude at all points on this
surface, and e will be perpendicular to the surface this geometry is similar to what we had in Figure
1.25 when we applied Gauss’s law to the case of point charge.

Solution:

We next calculate the electric flux through our chosen Gaussian surface. The Gaussian surface is
a sphere of radius r, so its surface area is A sphere= 4πr2. Denoting the magnitude of the electric field on
the sphere by E and again noting that E is everywhere perpendicular to the surface, the electric flux is

ɸE= EAsphere=4πr2E

52
 Gauss’slaw relates this flux to the total charge contained within the spherical surface. We are
interested in locations outside the ball (r>r b), so the charge inside the Gaussian surface is the total
charge Q of the ball. We thus have:
𝑞
ɸE=4πr E=2

s0

Which leads to:

𝑞
𝐸ࠀ
4𝜋s0𝑟
2

Since 1/(4𝜋s0𝑟2)= k we can also write this r4esult as:

𝑘
𝐸 ࠀ 2
𝑟

What does it mean?

Our result for E is identical to the electric field of a point charge of magnitude Q at the origin. In
fact, the electric field from any spherical distribution of charge is the same as the field from a point
charge with the same total charge. Note that this result applies only outside the ball of charge.

53
 LESSON 9

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

At the end of the lesson you must have:

g. described what is potential energy; and

h. evaluate the potential at any point in a region containing point charges.

ACQUIRE
THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW!

Let's begin by reviewing the relationship between force and work Figure 2.1A shows a region of
space in which the electric field is constant, so È has the same magnitude and direction at all points.
A point charge q in this region experiences an electric force:

Felec= qE

If the charge g is positive, this force is parallel to É as shown in Figure 2.1A. Suppose this
charge moves a distance Ax, starting at point A and ending up at point B, and for simplicity we assume
this displacement is parallel to the electric force F de' The work done by the electric force on the charge
is

W= FΔ𝑥
54
 The electric force is conservative, so the work done on the charge is independent of the path it
takes to go from A to B. We can now define the electric potential energy, which we denote by PE... The
change in potential energy associated with a particular conservative force is equal to - W, where W is
the work done by that force. So, if the electric force does an amount of work W on a charged particle,
the change in electric potential energy is

Δ𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 ࠀ− W

Combining this equation with Equations 2.1 and 2.2, the change in electric potential energy
when the charged particle moves from A to B in Figure 2.1 A is

Δ𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 ࠀ− W ࠀ− 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐Δ𝑥 ࠀ− 𝑞𝐸Δ

Equation 2.4 gives the change in potential energy as the charge moves through a displacement
Ax, in a region where the electric field is parallel to the displacement. The change in potential energy
depends on the starting and ending locations but does not depend on the path taken. In Figure 2.1A,
the displacement is along a line, but the charge may move from A to B along many other paths
without affecting Δ𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒 . All conservative forces including the electric force have this property;
changes in the potential energy and the work done are independent of the path taken between two
points. In the simple example shown in Figure 2.1 A, the electric field is constant, but the same results
hold when E varies with position. In this more general case, the potential energy function will have a
different mathematical form than the one in Equation 2.4, but the electric force is still conservative.

Potential Energy Is Stored Energy

Electric potential energy is stored through the potential effect of the electric field on an electric
charge. This effect is illustrated in Figure 2.18, where the charge q is moved from point B to point A
by a force directed to the left; this force is exerted by an external "agent." which might be your hand.
The electric force on q is directed to the right (assuming g is positive), so the displacement is opposite
to the electric force.

55
 The work done by the electric field on the particle is thus negative, and according to Equations
2.3 and 2.4 the change in the electric potential energy is positive. In words, we have stored a positive
amount of energy in the system that is composed of the charge q and the electric field. That energy
came from the external agent (and the external force F..) that moved the charge from B to A. The
entire process can be reversed if we allow the charge to move from A back to B again (Fig. 2.1C).
Now the electric field does a positive amount of work on the particle because the electric force and the
particle's displacement are parallel and the change in the potential energy is negative (Eq. 2.4). Hence,
stored energy is taken out of the system, and this energy might show up as an increase in the kinetic
energy of the particle when it reaches B.

Potential Energy of Two Point Charges

Let us now consider the electric potential energy for the slightly more complicated case of two
charges q1 and q2 in Figure 2.2A. From Coulombs law, for two-point charges separated by a distance r,
the magnitude of the electric force exerted by q1 on q2 is:

𝐹 ࠀ 𝑘𝑞1𝑞2
𝑟2
If we now assume they are like charges (.e., both positive or both negative), the force is
repulsive. The solid curve sketched in Figure 2.2B shows how F varies as a function of the separation r.
If q2 is brought closer to q1, the electric force is directed opposite to the displacement (Fig. 2.2A), so the
work done by the electric field on q2 is negative. From our relation between work and potential energy

(Eq. 2.3), we know that the electric potential energy increases, so Δ𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 > 0. Mathematically, it can be
shown that this electric potential energy is given by:

𝑞1𝑞2
𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 □
𝑟

We can also write PEelec in terms of the permittivity of free space s0. From Chapter 1, k=
1/(4𝜋s0𝑟2); using this expression 2.6 leads to:

𝑞 𝑞
𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 □ 1 2
4𝜋s0𝑟2

We can use either Equation 2.6 or 2.7 to calculate PEelec for two-point charges:

A plot of PEelec is shown as the solid curve in figure 2.2C. if the charges are initially separated by
a distance r1 and then brought together to a final separation r p the change in the potential energy is:

56
 𝑘𝑞1𝑞2 𝑘𝑞1𝑞2
Δ𝑃𝐸
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 ࠀ Δ𝑃𝐸
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐,f − 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐,i
𝑃𝐸 = −
𝑟f 𝑟i

Only changes in potential energy are important, so we could add a constant value to PE in
Equation 2.6 without changing APE Conventional practice, however, is to use Equation 2.6 without any
added constant, so PE doc approaches zero when the two charges are very far apart zero in this limit
(.e., when r becomes infinitely large). The electric force also approaches the general behavior of the
electric potential energy for two like charges is shown as the solid curve in Figure 2.2C. In this case, PE
d. positive and becomes larger and larger as the charges are brought together On the other hand, if the
charges have opposite sign, the electric force attractive; that is, it is negative as plotted by the dashed
curve in Figure 2.28. The potential energy is then also negative (according to Eq. 2.0) and is shown by
the dashed curve in Figure 2.2C.

EXAMPLE 2.1 Potential Energy of a Hydrogen Atom

A very simple model of a hydrogen atom is sketched in Figure 2.3, which shows an electron
travelling in a circular orbit around a proton. If the distance between the electron and the proton is
r=n5.0x10-11 m, what is the electric potential energy of this atom?

RECOGNIZE THE PRINCIPLE

We can treat the electron and proton as two-point charges. We know their charges and the
separation is given, so we can calculate the potential energy using Equation 2.6.

IDENTIFY THE RELATIONSHIPS

The electric potential energy is given by Equation 26, with q1= +e (the proton) and q2= -e (the
electron0. We have:
This potential energy is negative because the electron and proton haveopposite charges. This
energy holds the atom together and is related toits ionization energy, the energy required to separate
an electron fromthe rest of the atom. In this case, it is the energy needed to move the electron an
infinite distance from the proton.

57
SOLUTION
Inserting the given value of r, we find ke?

(8.99 X 10' N.mº/C)(1.6 X 10-" C)?

5.0 x 10-11 m-4.6 X 10-1]

WHAT DOES IT MEAN?

Our calculation has considered only the potential energy of the electron,but a better calculation
of the ionization energy must also include theelectron's kinetic energy. Even so, let's compare our value
of PE dewith the measured ionization energy of hydrogen. It is conventional
to quote positive values for the ionization energy, so our estimate is4.6 X 10-1* J. The actual value for a
hydrogen atom is approximately2.2 x 10- ), so our simple calculation gives a value within about afactor
of two of the correct answer.
Electric Potential Energy and Superposition
Our result for the electric potential energy of two-point charges (Eq. 2.6)can be applied to other
situations by using the principle of superposition.For example, if we have a collection of point charges,
the total potentialenergy is the sum of the potential energies of each pair of charges.

EXAMPLE 2.2 Moving Charges Around

Consider two-point charges +4 and -4 separated by a distance 2r as shown in Figure 2.4. A third
particle of charge Q is taken from rest very far away by an external force and brought to rest at the
origin along the path shown in the figure. How much work is required to push or pull Q against the
electric forces from the other charges?

RECOGNIZE THE PRINCIPLE

Start with step 1 in our strategy for applying the principle of conservation of energy to problems
with electric potential energy. The charge Q moves in an electric field produced by the charges i these
three charges are the system. The initial and final velocities of are zero, so its kinetic energy is zero at
both the start and end. According to the principle of conservation of energy, the total work done on (the
work done by the electric forces plus the work done by the external agent) must be zero. The work
done by one is therefore the negative of the work done by the other. So, the work done on by the
external agent that moves it to the origin must equal Δ𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 the change in its electric potential energy.
58
 SKETCH THE PROBLEM
Step 2 in our strategy is the sketch in Figure 2.4, which shows one possible path the charge
might take to get to the origin.

IDENTIFY THE RELATIONSHIPS

Step 3: We use the result for the change in potential energy in Equation 2.8 twice, once for the
pair of charges +q and Q, and again for the pair -q and Q. The charge Q begins very far from the
others, so r is very large (infinite) in both cases, whereas the final location has T, - r for both pairs.

SOLUTION

Step 4: Solve for the change in electric potential energy:

∆𝑃𝐸 𝑘𝑞𝑄 𝑘𝑞𝑄 𝑘- 𝑘 -𝑞 𝑄

𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐
𝑟 ࠀ ࠀ + −
𝑟1 𝑟1
𝑟

The terms involving r are each zero because r 1 infinite, whereas the other two terms (involving
r) have opposite signs and cancel. Hence, Δ𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 = 0, and the work done by the external agent that
moves the charge to the origin is zero.

WHAT DOES IT MEAN?

The work required to move to a point midway between two particles of charge +q and -9 is zero
because the two particles have opposed charge, making their contributions to the total potential energy
cancel. Also note that Δ𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 is independent of the path taken by Q.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL: VOLTAGE

In lesson 6, we introduced the notion of a test charge in our definition of the electric field. We
can measure the electric field at a particular location in space by placing a test charge 4 at the location
of interest (Fig. 2.6) and then measuring the force on the test charge. The electric force is

59
related to the electric field by F = E, so we can deduce the field from the measured force using (Eq.
1.10).

𝐸ࠀ
𝑞

The value of this electric field does not depend on the test charge: the test charge merely gives
us a convenient way to measure the field. We now treat the electric potential energy in a similar
manner. We place a test charge q at a particular location and measure the potential energy of this
charge. We then define the electric potential V through the relation:

𝑃𝐸𝑒𝑙
𝑉ࠀ q

The electric potential is often referred to as simply the potential." The SI unit of potential is the
volt (V) in honor of Alessandro Volta, 1745-1827. According to Equation 2.10, the volt is related to
other SI units by units of electric potential: 1 V = 1 J/C = 1 N.m/C

The volt is widely employed in the measurement of many electrical quantities. In particular, the
electric field is usually measured in units of volts per meter. We thus have several different ways to
express the units of the electric field. The ones most commonly used are units of electric field: 1 V/m =
1 N/C

Equipotential surfaces (also called equipotential lines in the dimensional plots) are a very useful
way to visualize the electric field perpendicular to the direction of the electric field. This property follows
from the relationship between E and V. In Section 2.2, we showed that for a displacement along a
particular direction, the change in V is related in the component of the electric field in that direction. If
we consider a displacement along the x direction as in figure 2.15C, the component of the field along x
is:
□
Δ
𝐸𝑥 Δ𝑥

60
 By definition, Vis constant and AV = for motion parallel to an equipotential surface. From
Equation 2.22, the electric field component parallel to the surface is thus zero. Hence, E is always
perpendicular to an equipotential surface. Some equipotential surfaces in the neighborhood of a point
charge are shown in Figure 2.16. In this case, the electric field lines emanate radially outward from
the charge. The equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to È and are thus a series of concentric
spheres, with different spheres corresponding to different values of V.

EXAMPLE 2.6 Equipotential Surfaces around a Line of Charge

Consider a uniform line of positive charge as shown in Figure 2.17A. Make a plot showing some
of the equipotential surfaces.

RECOGNIZE THE PRINCIPLE

Equipotential surfaces and lines are always perpendicular to the electric field. So, we first determine
the direction of E and then find surfaces perpendicular to the field.

SKETCH THE PROBLEM

In lesson 6, we showed that the electric field produced by a line of charge emanates radially
outward from the line as sketched in Figure 2.17B.

IDENTIFY THE RELATIONSHIPS AND SOLVE

Equipotential surfaces must always be perpendicular to the electric field lines, so the
equipotential surfaces are cylinders centered on the line of charge as shown in parts C and D of Figure
2.17.

WHAT DOES IT MEAN?

Because equipotential surfaces are, by their definition, always perpendicular to Ē they are often
the same as or very similar to the Gaussian surfaces we would choose in applying Gauss's law.

61
 LESSON 10

CAPACITORS

At the end of the lesson you must have:

i. differentiate capacitance in series and parallel; and

j. calculate the capacitance in series and parallel.

ACQUIRE
THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW!

Several capacitors may be connected in a variety of applications. Multiple connections of

capacitors act like a single equivalent capacitor. The total capacitance of this equivalent single capacitor
depends both on the individual capacitors and how they are connected. There are two simple and
common types of connections, called series and paralel, for which we can easily calculate the total
capacitance. Certain more complicated connections can also be related to combinations of series and
parallel.

Capacitance in Series

Figure 1a shows a series connection of three capacitors with a voltage applied. As for any
capacitor, the capacitance of the combination is related to charge and voltage by C=QVC=QV.

Note in Figure 1 that opposite charges of magnitude Qflow to either side of the originally
uncharged combination of capacitors when the voltage V is applied. Conservation of charge requires
that equal-magnitude charges be created on the plates of the individual capacitors, since charge is only
being separated in these originally neutral devices. The result is that the combination resembles a
single capacitor with an effective plate separation greater than that of
62
the individual capacitors alone. (See Figure 1b.) Larger plate separation means smaller capacitance. It is
a general feature of series connections of capacitors that the total capacitance is less than any of the
individual capacitances.

Figure 1. (a) Capacitors connected in series. The magnitude of the charge on each plate is
Q. (b) An equivalent capacitor has a larger plate separation d. Series connection produce a total capacitance
that is less than that of any of the individual capacitors.

We can find an expression for the total capacitance by considering the voltage across the
individual capacitors shown in Figure 1. Solving C=QVC=QV for Vgives V=QCV=QC. The voltages
across the individual capacitors
arethusV1=QC1,V2=QC2, and V3=QC3V1=QC1,V2=QC2, and V3=QC3.

The total voltage is the sum of the individual voltages:

V= V1 + V2 +V3.

Now, calling the total capacitance CS for series capacitance, consider that

V=QCS=V1+V2+V3V=QCS=V1+V2+V3.

Entering the expressions for V1, V2, and V3, we get

QCS=QC1+QC2+QC3QCS=QC1+QC2+QC3.

Canceling the Qs, we obtain the equation for the total capacitance in series CS to be

1CS=1C1+1C2+1C3+…,1CS=1C1+1C2+1C3+…,

63
where “…” indicates that the expression is valid for any number of capacitors connected in series. An
expression of this form always results in a total capacitance CS that is less than any of the individual
capacitances C1, C2, …, as Example 1 illustrates.

Total Capacitance in Series, Cs

Total capacitance in series:

1CS=1C1+1C2+1C3+…1CS=1C1+1C2+1C3+…

Capacitors in Parallel

Figure 2a shows a parallel connection of three capacitors with a voltage applied. Here the total

capacitance is easier to find than in the series case. To find the equivalent total capacitance Cp, we
first note that the voltage across each capacitor is V, the same as that of the source, since they are
connected directly to it through a conductor. (Conductors are equipotential, and so the voltage across
the capacitors is the same as that across the voltage source.) Thus the capacitors have the same
charges on them as they would have if connected individually to the voltage source. The total charge
Qis the sum of the individual charges: Q= Q1 + Q2 + Q3.

64
 Figure 2. (a) Capacitors in parallel. Each is connected directly to the voltage source just as if it
were all alone, and so the total capacitance in parallel is just the sum of the individual capacitances. (b)
The equivalent capacitor has a larger plate area and can therefore hold more charge than the individual
capacitors.

Using the relationship Q= CV, we see that the total charge is Q= CpV, and the
individual charges are Q1 = C1V,Q2 = C2V,and Q3 = C3V. Entering these into the previous equation
gives

CpV= C1V+ C2V+ C3V.

Canceling Vfrom the equation, we obtain the equation for the total capacitance in parallel

Cp: Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + ….

Total capacitance in parallel is simply the sum of the individual capacitances. (Again the “…”
indicates the expression is valid for any number of capacitors connected in parallel.) So, for
example, if the capacitors in Example 1 were connected in parallel, their capacitance would be

Cp = 1.000 µF + 5.000 µF + 8.000 µF = 14.000 µF.

The equivalent capacitor for a parallel connection has an effectively larger plate area and,
thus, a larger capacitance, as illustrated in Figure 2b.

TOTAL CAPACITANCE IN PARALLEL, CP

Total capacitance in parallel Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + …

More complicated connections of capacitors can sometimes be combinations of series and

parallel. (See Figure 3.) To find the total capacitance of such combinations, we identify series and
parallel parts, compute their capacitances, and then find the total.

65
 Figure 3. (a) This circuit contains both series and parallel connections of capacitors. See
Example 2 for the calculation of the overall capacitance of the circuit. (b) C1 and C2 are in series; their
equivalent capacitance CS is less than either of them. (c) Note that CS is in parallel with C3. The total
capacitance is, thus, the sum of CS and C3.

EXAMPLE 1. WHAT IS THE SERIES

CAPACITANCE?

Find the total capacitance for three capacitors connected in series, given their individual
capacitances are 1.000, 5.000, and 8.000 µF.

Strategy

With the given information, the total capacitance can be found using the equation for capacitance in
series.

66
Solution

Entering the given capacitances into the expression

for 1CS1CS gives 1CS=1C1+1C2+1C31CS=1C1+1C2+1C3.1CS=11.000μF+15.000μF+18.000μF=1.
325μF1CS=11.000μF+15.000μF+18.000μF=1.325μF
Inverting to find CS yields CS=1.325μF=0.755μFCS=1.325μF=0.755μF.

Discussion

The total series capacitance Cs is less than the smallest individual capacitance, as promised. In
series connections of capacitors, the sum is less than the parts. In fact, it is less than any individual.
Note that it is sometimes possible, and more convenient, to solve an equation like the above by finding
the least common denominator, which in this case (showing only whole-number calculations) is 40.
Thus,

1CS=4040μF+840μF+540μF=5340μF1CS=4040μF+840μF+540μF=5340μF
so that

CS=40μF53=0.755μFCS=40μF53=0.755Μf

EXAMPLE 2. A MIXTURE OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CAPACITANCE

Find the total capacitance of the combination of capacitors shown in Figure 3.

Assume the capacitances in Figure 3 are known to three decimal places (C1 = 1.000 µF, C2 =
3.000 µF, and C3 = 8.000 µF), and round your answer to three decimal places.

Strategy

To find the total capacitance, we first identify which capacitors are in series and which are in
parallel. Capacitors C1 and C2 are in series. Their combination, labeled CS in the figure, is in
parallel with C3.

67
Solution

Since C1 and C2 are in series, their total capacitance is

givenby 1CS=1C1+1C2+1C31CS=1C1+1C2+1C3. Entering their values into the equation gives
1CS=1C1+1C2=11.000μF+15.000μF=1.200μF1CS=1C1+1C2=11.000μF+15.000μF=1.200μF.
Inverting gives CS = 0.833 µF.

This equivalent series capacitance is in parallel with the third capacitor; thus, the total is the sum
Ctot=CS+CS =0.833μF+8.000μF =8.833μFCtot=CS+CS =0.833μF+8.000μF =8.833μF

Discussion

This technique of analyzing the combinations of capacitors piece by piece until a total is obtained
can be applied to larger combinations of capacitors.

68
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Arevalo, Ryan Ph. D:

DIWASENIORHighSchoolSeries:GeneralPhysics1Module.Diwa Learning System Inc.,
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(maritimeinsight.com/guidelines/speed-of-a-ship-at-sea/

Baria, Gerawa, Gulmatico: WorktextinPhysics1:GeneralPhysics1.JBLFMU-Arevalo

Bauer, Westfall: GenealPhyscs2McgawHlEducaion.ti-rir Abiva Publishing House, Inc.

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Giordano. General Physics 2 Philippine Edition. Rex Bookstore, Inc. 2018

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ASimplifiedApproach.Maritime Insight.December 18, 2019.

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