Natural Resources Research, Vol. 30, No.

1, February 2021 ( 2020)

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-020-09744-x

Original Paper

Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling

for Reservoir Characterization of the Mangahewa Formation,
Pohokura Gas-Condensate Field, Taranaki Basin, New
Zealand

Md Aminul Islam,1 Mutiah Yunsi,1 S. M. Talha Qadri ,2,4 Mohamed Ragab Shalaby,1
and A. K. M. Eahsanul Haque3

Received 22 May 2020; accepted 1 September 2020

Published online: 14 September 2020

This study integrated three-dimensional (3D) structural and petrophysical models to

establish the reservoir characteristics of the Mangahewa Formation within the Pohokura
Gas-Condensate Field. The 3D structural model, in which 3 horizons and 51 faults were
interpreted, was developed using an algorithm for volume-based modeling. The complex
structural mechanism was observed as compressional and extensional stresses resulting in
steeply dipping normal and reverse faults. The fault throw was estimated to be up to 85 m,
and 33% of the faults had throws of less than 10 m. This explains the fault growth system as
small, younger faults have merged to develop larger faults. Well log analysis was used to
evaluate important petrophysical parameters such as effective porosity, net-to-gross ratio,
shale volume, and water and hydrocarbon saturation. After applying a cutoff, the estimated
values for effective porosity, net-to-gross ratio, shale volume, and water and hydrocarbon
saturation were 12–18%, 13–31%, 13–26%, 6–22%, and 78–94%, respectively. The esti-
mated values were then incorporated into the grid cells to design 3D petrophysical modeling
using the algorithm for sequential Gaussian simulation. The structural model indicated
effective trapping and the presence of a conduit mechanism for hydrocarbons. The well log
analysis identified significant effective porosities containing substantial hydrocarbon satu-
ration, whereas the petrophysical models showed very good dissemination of the petro-
physical parameters. From these models, which also incorporate the gas–water contact,
proposed drilling sites for future exploration and well development were proposed. The
results characterize the Mangahewa Formation as a good reservoir within the Pohokura Gas-
Condensate Field.
KEY WORDS: Pohokura Gas-Condensate Field, Reservoir characteristics, 3D modeling, Hydrocarbon
saturation.

1
Geosciences Program, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei INTRODUCTION
Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam.
2
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Fossil fuel usage increases due to improvements
Canada. in the standard of living and technological
3
Dimension Strata-Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan,
advancements, thus leading to the need to discover
Brunei Darussalam.
4
To whom correspondence should be addressed; e-mail: new fields (Adelu et al. 2019). In fact, hydrocarbon
[email protected] exploration is rapidly shifting into complex geolog-

371
1520-7439/21/0200-0371/0  2020 International Association for Mathematical Geosciences
372 Islam, Yunsi, Qadri, Shalaby and Haque

ical settings; thus, systematic procedures for conduct a reservoir characterization study of the
enhancing production are essential to meet the glo- Pohokura Gas-Condensate Field through 3D struc-
bal energy requirements (Osinowo et al. 2018). This tural and petrophysical modeling.
has triggered the integration of geological, geo- Studies conducted by Haque et al. (2016) and
physical, geostatistical, and petrophysical data sets Qadri et al. (2017) validated the application of vol-
for reservoir characterization, which is an essential ume-based modeling (VBM) for 3D structural
part of field development (Ma and Pointe 2011; modeling in the Maui and Kupe Fields, respectively,
Adelu et al. 2019; Seyyedattar et al. 2020). Reservoir within the Taranaki Basin. The studies by Jumat
characterization is a scheme that quantifies physical et al. (2018b), Dong et al. (2018) and Qadri et al.
and fluid properties of rock such as porosity, shale (2019a, b) used well log analysis to understand the
volume, and fluid saturation (Adelu et al. 2019). This petrophysical properties of reservoir formations.
scheme includes all the necessary information to Moreover, the studies conducted by Qadri et al.
classify a reservoir formation in terms of its ability to (2019b) used the sequential Gaussian simulation
store and produce hydrocarbons (Yu et al. 2011). (SGS) to develop 3D petrophysical models for the
This technique also involves understanding reservoir Farewell Formation (Kupe Field). The present study
architecture, external and internal geometry, and highlights the reservoir characteristics of the Man-
static distribution of properties such as porosity, net gahewa Formation within the Pohokura Gas-Con-
pay thickness, and shale volume (Johnston 2004). densate Field. This study used a VBM algorithm to
The development of a precise three-dimensional develop a 3D structural model and the SGS algo-
(3D) reservoir model can be influential in evaluating rithm to develop a 3D petrophysical model. The
hydrocarbon reserves as well as field development structural model helped identify how the distribu-
(Emujakporue 2017). A 3D structural model not tion of structural features contributes to the devel-
only improves the information related to structure opment of the trap and conduit mechanisms. The 3D
and delineation of fault frameworks, but it also structural model acted as the foundation for estab-
highlights hydrocarbon trapping mechanism in the lishing the 3D petrophysical model, which used
subsurface (Souche et al. 2013). Similarly, a 3D quantitative well log analysis to understand the
petrophysical model helps to investigate the spatial distribution of important petrophysical
parameters and spatial distribution of petrophysical parameters. Furthermore, the 3D petrophysical
properties (Ma and Pointe 2011; Ali et al. 2020). model helped highlight prospective sites for future
The Taranaki Basin is well known to contain exploration and field development.
the highest hydrocarbon reserves in New Zealand
(Higgs et al. 2012). Several scientists have utilized
multiple tools on different segments of reservoir GEOLOGICAL SETTING
characteristics of important hydrocarbon formations
in New Zealand (Griffin et al. 2015; Prieto and Ar- New Zealand is segmented into North and
cher 2015; Qadri et al. 2016, 2017, 2019b; Haque South Islands, separated by the 20-km-wide Cook
et al. 2016, 2018) and have mainly focused on the Strait (Campbell et al. 2012). The Taranaki Basin is
Taranaki Basin. Most of these studies were con- on North Island. It is famous for the first oil dis-
ducted on the basin scale (e.g., King and Thrasher covery and the largest hydrocarbon reserves in the
1996; Higgs et al. 2012; Ilg et al. 2012; Roncaglia country (Pillar and Wakefield 1984). Several sedi-
et al. 2013; Sarma et al. 2014; Qadri et al. 2016; In- mentary basins were formed due to rifting during the
fante-Paez and Marfurt 2017; AlHakeem 2018; Ju- middle to Late Cretaceous. The development of the
mat et al. 2018b; Franzel and Back 2019; Kutovaya Taranaki Basin initiated during the Late Cretaceous
et al. 2019), whereas very few researchers have ad- along with the opening of the Tasman Sea (King and
dressed field-scale reservoir characterization using a Thrasher 1996). The structural development of the
3D modeling scheme (e.g., Roncaglia et al. 2010; Taranaki Basin was influenced by a series of tectonic
Alotaby 2015; Haque et al. 2016, 2018; Higgs et al. episodes (Knox 1982). The three main stages of
2017; Qadri et al. 2017, 2019b; Mennan 2017). To the deformation within the Taranaki Basin were Late
best of our knowledge, no field-scale work has Cretaceous—Eocene rifting, Eocene to Recent
highlighted the reservoir characteristics of the compression, and Late Miocene to Recent exten-
Mangahewa Formation within the Pohokura Gas- sional episode (King and Thrasher 1996; Reilly et al.
Condensate Field. This provides a missing link to 2015).
Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling for Reservoir Characterization 373

The Pohokura is currently New ZealandÕs lar- Data Processing

gest gas-condensate field, located 4 km from the
northern coast of the Taranaki Peninsula (Fig. 1; The detailed workflow for developing the 3D
New Zealand Petroleum Basin 2014). The Pohokura structural and petrophysical models is shown in
Gas Field is a low-relief, N-S trending anticline sit- Figure 3. Before importing the seismic volume and
uated in the Northern Graben of the Eastern Mobile well data to the Schlumberger Petrel software (ver-
Platform (New Zealand Petroleum Basin 2014). The sion 2013.7), it was essential to match the coordinate
Pohokura Gas-Condensate Field is bounded by the systems provided in the well report to the coordinate
Taranaki Fault Zone (east) and the Cape Egmont reference system (CRS) incorporated in the Petrel
Fault Zone (west). It has undergone both compres- platform. For this reason, https://www.linz.govt.nz
sional and extensional stress regimes. Most of the was used to convert the coordinates mentioned in
drilling occurred in the northern parts of the Poho- the development reports of the studied wells. The
kura Field. The petroleum play of the study area was 3D seismic volumes and wireline log data were
a transgressive marginal marine sand in an inverted loaded into the Petrel software, whereas for the
anticline (Kalid and Hamzah 2014). The coal seams well-log-based petrophysical analysis, the Interac-
of the Rakopi Formation acted as the main sources tive Petrophysics (IP) software (version 4.2) was
of hydrocarbons (King and Thrasher 1996). The used. The datasets were quality checked (QC) and
Rakopi Formation (dominated by fluvial-to-mar- harmonized after loading.
ginal marine lithofacies) of the Pakawau Group was
the deepest stratigraphic unit widely distributed
within the Taranaki Basin, and it is a key hydro- Seismic Interpretation
carbon source for major oil and gas fields within the
basin (Jumat et al. 2018a). The Mangahewa For- Seismic interpretation included multiple steps
mation from the Eocene Epoch acted as the primary such as coordinate conversion, data loading, well
reservoir zone, and it is the thickest as well as the seismic tying, identifying and interpreting horizons
most prolific reservoir formation of the Kapuni and faults, velocity modeling, and completing time-
Group (Haque et al. 2018). The Mangahewa For- to-depth conversions. Seismic interpretation was
mation comprises interbedded sandstone, siltstone, performed for the Mangahewa Formation (reser-
mudstone, and coal (Palmer 1985). The Turi For- voir) and the Turi Formation (seal), whereas well
mation from the Paleocene to the Eocene acted as log analysis was conducted in the reservoir forma-
the top seal in the Pohokura Field. The Turi For- tion. Because well data were available in units of
mation is mainly composed of non-calcareous, dark depth, and the seismic section contained information
colored, micaceous, carbonaceous, marine mudstone in two-way time format, it was important to develop
extensively distributed throughout the Taranaki well-to-seismic ties. This step helped to interpret,
Basin (King and Thrasher 1996). Figure 2 shows the relate, and identify the horizon tops, which display
generalized stratigraphic succession of the study specific reflections in the 3D seismic data. The seis-
area. mic interpretation was performed using 2995 in-lines
and 1719 cross-lines within the 3D seismic cube to
map horizons and faults. Three horizons, namely the
DATA AND METHODS Turi Formation, Mangahewa top, and Mangahewa
bottom sand formations, were chosen within the
Data Gathering seismic volume. The Turi Formation acted as a top
seal, whereas the Mangahewa Formation acted as
The data used in this study comprised 3D seis- the sand body reservoir. Discontinuities in the seis-
mic volume and suite of wireline logs (gamma-ray, mic reflectors helped to map 51 faults that were
resistivity, neutron, density, and sonic logs) from the interpreted by the seismic volume attribute, Ôvari-
Pohokura-1, Pohokura-2, and Pohokura South-1B ance,Õ to enhance the resolution of high-angle and
wells. Other important date used in the study in- vertical-angle faults in the 3D seismic cube. To
cluded check shot data, deviation surveys, the for- convert the interpreted horizons and faults (in time
mation summary, and total vertical depth. domain) to depth domain, the velocity model was
established by integrating the estimated seismic
velocities, depth-imaged seismic data, and structural
374 Islam, Yunsi, Qadri, Shalaby and Haque

Figure 1. Location map showing Taranaki Basin (top left) and various oil and gas condensate fields. The blue highlighted zone
indicates the study area, i.e., Pohokura Gas Field (modified after New Zealand Petroleum Basins 2014). The yellow dot within the
Pohokura Field indicates the Pohokura-2 well, black dot Pohokura-1 well, and blue dot Pohokura South-1B well.
Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling for Reservoir Characterization 375

Figure 2. Generalized stratigraphic succession of the Taranaki Basin and Pohokura Gas Field at the extreme right corner (after
Jumat et al. 2018b).

information. The top seal and the reservoir zone conventional well logs were imported into IP soft-
were selected between 3100 and 4300 m after ware, and the potential reservoir units were selected.
velocity modeling. The interpreted seismic horizons The next step was to separate sand zones from shaly
were then merged into the horizon modeling stage. zones, which helps to estimate clay volume, porosity,
and water saturation percentage. The type of clay
was also identified by plotting the neutron porosity
Petrophysical Evaluation vs. density porosity log, which indicated dispersed
clay. The presence of dispersed clay can affect
The well-log-based (gamma-ray, resistivity, effective porosity values, and if not corrected, and
density, neutron, and sonic log) petrophysical anal- fluid saturation (water and hydrocarbon) estimates
ysis was conducted using IP software. Initially, the (Dong et al. 2018; Qadri et al. 2019a).
376 Islam, Yunsi, Qadri, Shalaby and Haque

Figure 3. Flowchart of integrated modeling work for the Pohokura Gas-Condensate Field.

Static Modeling properties. The VBM algorithm was used to develop

an efficient 3D structural model, whereas the SGS
Petrel software was used to develop 3D geo- was used to develop the 3D petrophysical model.
cellular models that mainly represent the reservoir The development of a 3D structural grid to create
package (seal and reservoir formation), structural stair-stepping of the fault was the next step to min-
features, and the distribution of petrophysical imize edge-squeezing along with the nodes of the
Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling for Reservoir Characterization 377

model skeleton. This skeleton is a mesh comprising a (Fig. 6). The study area is located between the
top, middle, and base grid. After sealing the fault Tarata Thrust Zone and the Taranaki Regional
connections with the horizons, 3D pillars along the Fault. Three cross sections, A–A¢, B–B¢, and C–C¢,
fault framework model were established following show the presence of en echelon thrust faults and
the law of superposition, and cross-cutting relation- associated monoclines resulting from the compres-
ships (Haque et al. 2016). The final step for gener- sive mechanism along the Taranaki Fault zone.
ating the 3D structural model was to incorporate all Cross section A–A¢ (Fig. 7) is sliced from the
the constraints from horizons and faults into the northernmost part of the study area and is indicative
volume-based model. The second modeling segment of a complex mechanism incorporating mostly re-
was the development of petrophysical or property verse faulting to the west. The eastern part of this
modeling based on the interpolation of results from cross section shows slight uplifting and is folded into
petrophysical evaluation. The 3D structural model a broad monocline within the hanging wall block.
acted as the base to develop the 3D petrophysical Compressional reactivation of a former listric fault
model. The output from the IP software was within the succession caused a ’concave action’
instrumental in designing the distribution of the resulting in the uplift of the eastern block in cross
petrophysical parameters through SGS using Petrel section A–A¢. Figure 7 shows the presence of non-
2013.7 software. The 3D petrophysical models for sealing faults with little-to-no displacement resulting
important petrophysical parameters, e.g., effective from the compressional phase and indicates juxta-
porosity, net-to-gross ratio, and water saturation, position of the hanging wall and footwall, thus
were also developed. showing a cross-flow between the units. Brown
(2003) explained that juxtaposition between the
reservoir and non-reservoir rock can develop the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION hydrocarbon trapping mechanism against the faults.
However, during the initial phase of normal fault
Fault Mechanism Analysis development, the faults were likely sealed due to
juxtaposition of the reservoir and non-reservoir rock
Fault mechanisms have significant importance and later converted to a conduit fault due to reverse
because they initiate sedimentary basin fills and faulting after compressional deformation. In the
develop hydrocarbon paths, traps, and seals, which case of the thick cap rock, the faults are still sealed
may result in evolving fractures and fault zones because of the shale–shale juxtaposition across the
(Aydin 2000). Complex polyphase tectonic episodes faults. Moreover, fractures in the fault zones at
have resulted in complicated structures within the reservoir scale also function as channels for fluid
Taranaki Basin (Knox 1982). Three episodes of flow. Fractures are not visible due to the seismic
deformation have been reported in the Taranaki resolution limit; however, in reality, fractures are
Basin by many researchers (e.g., Knox 1982; King integral parts of faulting.
and Thrasher 1996; Giba et al. 2010). However, this Cross section B–B¢ (Fig. 8) is different in terms
study analyzed two episodes of tectonic deformation of structural mechanism, as the extensional regime is
(the Late Cretaceous to Eocene rifting phase and more prominent to the west with some exceptions of
the Eocene to recent compressive phase) that af- reverse faulting to the east (Fig. 8b). The eastern
fected the reservoir package. Three reservoir hori- part of the slice has undergone more compression,
zons and 51 faults were interpreted and incorporated which resulted in uplift of the block with little-to-no
into the 3D structural model generated during this displacement within the layers. This section indi-
study (Fig. 4). The above-mentioned faults were cates the presence of sealing faults within the cap
interpreted using the seismic volume attribute, rock, but sand–sand juxtaposition at reservoir scale
Ôvariance cubeÕ (Fig. 5), which designated most of still conduits the reservoir. According to Nabawy
the faults as high-angle dip faults (dip angles ranging (2020), the tensional normal faults within the studied
between 15 and 89). The study area has N-S reservoir interval may have enhanced the porosity
elongated four-way dip closure with steep flank to and permeability as the pores comprised ‡ 10%.
the east. The structural uplift of the field structure However, the reservoir is still well confined owing to
gives the appearance of a dome-like feature. The the effective seal rock.
northern part of the Pohokura Gas Field has Cross section C–C¢ (Fig. 9) was selected from
undergone more faulting than the southern part the southern part of the study area adjacent to the
378 Islam, Yunsi, Qadri, Shalaby and Haque

Figure 4. Interpreted horizons within the reservoir package of the Pohokura gas condensate field. The figure also displays different
wells drilled in the study area.

monoclinal closure of the Pohokura Gas-Conden- angles, indicating that the highest percentage of
sate Field. This slice shows very few faults, and uplift faults in the three interpreted sections, A–A¢, B–B¢,
of the eastern section resulted in a half-graben, in and C–C¢, is observed between 61 and 90. The
contrast to the presence of conjugate faults in the relationship between fault throw and fault length is
western part of the slice. shown in Figure 11a, which indicates fault throws of
up to 85 m and fault lengths of up to 13,300 m. The
highest fault throws were achieved by only two
Fault Geometry Distribution faults with corresponding lengths of 4850 and
10,850 m. Figure 11b depicts an inverse relationship
This segment explains the trends of dip angles, between fault throw and fault frequency; it reveals
fault throws, fault lengths, and their interrelation- that almost 33% (17 out of 51) have throw values
ships. Fifty-one faults that penetrate the Mangahewa less than 10 m, and just 4% (2 out of 51) have throw
reservoir package have been interpreted. The rose values above 80 m. It is inferred that mostly younger
diagram in Figure 10a reveals that most of the but smaller faults were observed throughout the
interpreted faults are steeply dipping with prefer- analysis, and they merge to form larger faults, which
ential orientation of NW–SE. Figure 10b shows the explains the growth of the fault system.
relationship between fault frequency (%) and dip
Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling for Reservoir Characterization 379

Figure 5. Z-slice of variance cube showing locations of drilled wells and interpreted faults.

3D Structural Modeling sand formation bottom zone. The faulting mecha-

nism developed an ideal hydrocarbon trapping
The 3D structural model indicates the impact of mechanism. The interpreted surfaces and network of
tectonic episodes during Late Cretaceous to Recent. faults in the structural model of the Pohokura Field
Figure 12 shows the interpreted surfaces and the are in complete agreement with the regional struc-
fault network within the Pohokura Gas-Condensate tural dynamics. The 3D structural model also shows
Field. The 3D structural model (Fig. 13) of the field the gas–water contact at a depth (SSTVD) of
indicates the presence of a complex structural 3675 m, which can play a vital role in integrating the
mechanism, i.e., an extensional regime that domi- current well data with future drilling sites.
nated at the beginning, followed by a compressional
regime. This is verified by the presence of high-dip-
angle normal and reverse faults within the structural 3D Petrophysical Modeling
model. Figure 13 shows two zones in the 3D struc-
tural model, the Turi-Mangahewa Formation top The first step toward developing the 3D petro-
zone, and the Mangahewa Formation-Mangahewa physical model was to interpret quantitative well
380 Islam, Yunsi, Qadri, Shalaby and Haque

Figure 6. Structural map of Mangahewa reservoir surface with all selected faults on study area with the three wells (Pohokura-1,
Pohokura-1B, Pohokura-2).

logs. The well log data from Pohokura-1, Pohokura- log analysis was conducted at intervals 3521.0–
2, and Pohokura South-1B were used to estimate the 4218.2 m (697.2 m thick) for the Pohokura-1 well,
petrophysical parameters using IP. Figure 14 shows 3539.1–3817.0 m (277.9 m thick) for the Pohokura-2
the well correlation analyzed in this study. The well well, and 4787.0–5032.0 m (235 m thick) for the
Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling for Reservoir Characterization 381

Figure 7. Cross section A–A¢ in the southern part of the seismic cube: (a) un-interpreted seismic section. (b) Interpreted seismic
section. E and W indicate east and west, respectively.

Pohokura South-1B well. Gamma-ray, neutron 2019a, b). This means that the reservoir zone is
porosity, density, and a combination of these logs indicated by porosity values greater than 10%, and
were used to evaluate the petrophysical parameters shale volume and water saturation values less than
(Table 1). Effective porosity value was obtained or equal to 50% in pore spaces. The results derived
after applying a 10% cutoff, whereas 50% of cutoff from the well log analysis indicate that the net-to-
values were applied to calculate the shale volume gross ratio was 13–31%, effective porosity 12–18%,
and water saturation in this study (El-Din et al. 2013; shale volume 13–26%, and water saturation 6–22%,
Hakimi et al. 2017; Dong et al. 2018; Qadri et al. and hydrocarbon saturation 78–94%. Table 1 shows
382 Islam, Yunsi, Qadri, Shalaby and Haque

Figure 8. Cross section B–B¢ in the central part of the 3D seismic volume. (a) Un-interpreted seismic section. (b) Interpreted seismic
section. E and W represent east and west, respectively.

that based on hydrocarbon saturation, the Poho- Field: effective porosity, net-to-gross value, and
kura-2 well is the most prolific within the Pohokura water saturation. These models utilized the values
Field. derived from the quantitative petrophysical analysis
Three petrophysical models were developed to using IP software (Table 1). Property modeling was
understand the reservoir quality of the Mangahewa the subsequent action for scaling up forecasting after
Formation within the Pohokura Gas-Condensate the development of the geological model. During
Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling for Reservoir Characterization 383

Figure 9. Cross section cross-line (XL) of study area along C–C¢. (a) Un-interpreted cross section. (b) Interpreted cross section. East
and West are shown by E and W, respectively.

this process, grid cells were filled with values of Effective Porosity Model
effective porosity, net-to-gross ratio, and water sat-
uration. After incorporation of these values into the Figure 15 shows the spatial distribution of
model, Petrel software assumed the layer geometry effective porosity within the Mangahewa Formation,
grid cells to obey the assigned properties. which ranges from 0.05–0.34%. The 3D model
384 Islam, Yunsi, Qadri, Shalaby and Haque

Figure 10. (a) Rose diagram of fault azimuths of the Pohokura gas condensate field. (b) Histograms of fault dip angles in cross
sections A–A¢, B–B¢ and C–C¢ in the study area.

indicates the presence of highly porous zones in the Water Saturation Model
northern parts of the model, shown in yellow–red
color ranges, whereas the southern part of the model The 3D model of water saturation not only
indicates lower values of porosity in a blue–green indicates the presence of water-saturated zones, but
color scheme. It is important to mention that the it also helps identify hydrocarbon-saturated zones.
Pohokura-1, Pohukura-2, and Pohokura South-1B Lower water saturation zones highlight the hydro-
wells were drilled in the northern to central regions, carbon-saturated zones. Therefore, it is instrumental
which have effective porosity values between 0.20% to establish zones with lower water saturation. The
and 0.34%. The 3D effective porosity model sug- 3D water saturation model (Fig. 17) shows lower
gests good reservoir potential for the Mangahewa values at the drilled well sites and the northwestern
Formation. parts of the model. The southern part of the model
also indicates lower water saturation values. These
zones of low water saturation exhibit values ranging
Net-to-Gross Model between 10 and 30%, indicating hydrocarbon-pro-
lific zones. The 3D water saturation model is con-
The net-to-gross model (Fig. 16) validates the sistent with the effective porosity and net-to-gross
3D effective porosity model and shows good values models.
in the northernmost and northwestern parts of the
model. Moreover, the structural limb at the center of
the southwest part of the model also shows signifi- IMPLICATIONS OF 3D MODELING
cant net-to-gross values. The red to yellow colors ON FIELD DEVELOPMENT
reveal high net-to-gross values between 0.45 and
0.70. The regions located in the southernmost part of The 3D structural and petrophysical models
the model have lower net-to-gross values (indicated developed in this study not only focused on the
by a blue to green color scheme). spatial distribution of structural and petrophysical
features but also helped to visualize the unexplored
sites within the Pohokura Gas Field. Gas–water
Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling for Reservoir Characterization 385

Figure 11. (a) Fault throw vs fault length (distance along fault) within interpreted horizons of the Pohokura gas field. (b) Histogram
displaying relationship between fault throw (m) and fault frequency in the Pohokura Gas Field.
386 Islam, Yunsi, Qadri, Shalaby and Haque

Figure 12. Distribution of faults with the three interpreted horizons gauged within the study area.

contact can be seen surrounding the net-to-gross 3D models. This region is located in the central part
ratio, effective porosity, and water saturation models of the 3D model. Section D–D’ (Fig. 18) indicates
at a depth of 3675 m SSTVD (Figs. 15, 16, 17). Each the proposed zone for further drilling. The porosity
3D model reveals potential sites that can accom- values in this zone are between 25% and 32.5%, and
modate further drilling of new wells within the study water saturation in this zone is low (i.e., 25–35%)
area. The structural model shows good relief—a indicating hydrocarbon saturation of 65–75%. This
monocline feature away from the densely faulted zone also indicates significant values of net-to-gross
zones. Figure 18 clearly shows the region with less ratios of 35–45%. This prospective zone is expected
faulting and higher values of porosity, and indicates to enhance production from the Pohokura Gas
higher values of net-to-gross ratio and hydrocarbon Field.
saturation (low water saturation) in their respective
Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling for Reservoir Characterization 387

Figure 13. 3D Structural model for the reservoir package including two zones from Turi Formation to Mangahewa Top and the
Mangahewa Top to the Mangahewa Bottom Sand. The model also shows the wells encountered and the faults with multiple colors.

CONCLUSIONS 1. Structural complexities in the Pohokura Gas-

Condensate Field are due to the extensional
The integrated reservoir characterization and compressional regimes. Moreover, the
scheme applied to the Mangahewa Formation within northernmost area shows more deformation
the Pohokura Gas Field led to the following con- than the southern part of the structural
clusions: model.
388 Islam, Yunsi, Qadri, Shalaby and Haque

Figure 14. Well correlation established between the Pohokura-1, Pohokura-2 and Pohokura South-1B showing Mangahewa sand top
and bottom encountered at various depths.

Table 1. Estimated values of important petrophysical parameters derived from well log analysis of the Mangahewa Formation

Well name Thickness (m) N/G (%) Vsh (%) /e (%) SW (%) SH (%)

Top Bottom Gross Net reservoir Net pay

Pohokura-1 3251 4218.2 697.2 130 125.5 18.0 13.0 14 22 78

Pohokura-2 3539.1 3817.0 277.9 38.2 36.13 13.0 20.0 12 6.0 94
Pohokura South-1B 4787.0 5032.0 245.0 77.2 76.18 31.0 26.0 18 12 88

N/G is net-to-gross ratio, Vsh is volume of shale, /e is effective porosity, and SW and SH are water and hydrocarbon saturation, respectively

2. Most of the interpreted faults in the study 3. Fault throws of up to 85 m were observed,
area show moderate-to-high dip angles of but 33% of the faults indicate throws lower
61–90. than 10 m.
4. The study indicates that the fault network
has developed good trapping and conduit
Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling for Reservoir Characterization 389

Figure 15. 3D porosity model of the Pohokura Field indicating various high and low porosity zones, gas–water contact, locations of
drilled wells and interpreted faults.

mechanisms, which are essential for estab- log analysis of the Pohokura-1, Pohokura-2,
lishing a good reservoir feature. and Pohokura South-1B wells.
5. The petrophysical analysis evaluated impor- 6. Effective porosity values were 12–18% and
tant parameters such as effective porosity, net-to-gross values were 18–31%. Similarly,
shale volume, net-to-gross ratio, and water moderately low shale volume of 13–26%,
and hydrocarbon saturation, employing well low water saturation of 6–22%, and sub-
390 Islam, Yunsi, Qadri, Shalaby and Haque

Figure 16. 3D model of net/gross ratios for the Mangahewa Formation within the Pohokura Gas-Condensate Field. The figure also
incorporates gas–water contact and locations of drilled wells.
Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling for Reservoir Characterization 391

Figure 17. 3D Water saturation model for the Mangahewa Formation within the Pohokura Gas Condensate Field. The zones
showing low water saturation are regions of higher hydrocarbon saturation, and vice versa.
392 Islam, Yunsi, Qadri, Shalaby and Haque

Figure 18. Porosity distribution model indicating proposed zone for future drilling (along cross section D–D¢¢) and field
development. The model also shows the faulted regions within the 3D model.

stantial hydrocarbon saturation of 78–94% ties, namely effective porosity, net-to-gross

were observed in the well log analysis. ratio, and water saturation.
7. The 3D petrophysical models indicate very 8. The study indicates very good reservoir
good distribution of petrophysical proper- characteristics for the Mangahewa Forma-
tion.
Three-Dimensional Structural and Petrophysical Modeling for Reservoir Characterization 393

9. Based on the 3D petrophysical modeling Haque, A. K. M. E., Islam, M. A., & Shalaby, M. R. (2016).
Structural modeling of the Maui Gas Field, Taranaki Basin,
scheme, prospective sites for future drilling New Zealand. Petroleum Exploration Development, 43(6),
have been indicated for further exploration 883–892.
and field development. Haque, A. K. M. E., Islam, M. A., Shalaby, M. R., & Sadeque, J.
(2018). Integrated 3D facies modeling of the Mangahewa
Formation, Maui Gas Field, Taranaki Basin, New Zealand.
Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technol-
ogy, 8, 1017–1049.
Higgs, K. E., Crouch, E. M., & Raine, J. I. (2017). An interdis-
ciplinary approach to reservoir characterization: An example
from the early to middle Eocene Kaimiro Formation, Tar-
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