Solar PV System

Design Guide for

Beginners
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................2
ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS .....................................................................................5
BOOK OVERVIEW ..........................................................................................................6
Book Introduction ........................................................................................................... 6
Book Objectives ............................................................................................................... 6
Book Content ................................................................................................................... 6
Icons Used in the Units .................................................................................................... 7
UNIT 1: BASIC ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS ............................................................................8
1.1 Unit Introduction ....................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Learning Objectives ................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Definition of Terms .................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Electric Circuits ........................................................................................................ 11
1.5 Ohms Law ................................................................................................................ 14
1.6 Series and Parallel Circuits ...................................................................................... 16
1.7 Electrical Measuring Instruments............................................................................ 20
1.8 Unit Summary .......................................................................................................... 22
UNIT TWO: SOLAR PV MODULES .................................................................................23
2.1 Unit Introduction ..................................................................................................... 23
2.2 Learning Objectives ................................................................................................. 23
2.3 Definition of Terms .................................................................................................. 23
2.4 Operation of a Solar PV Cell .................................................................................... 27
2.5 Electrical Parameters of a PV Module ..................................................................... 31
2.6 Unit Summary .......................................................................................................... 34
UNIT 3: THE SOLAR BATTERY .......................................................................................35
3.1 Unit Introduction ..................................................................................................... 35
3.2 Learning Objectives ................................................................................................. 35
3.3 Definition of Battery Terms ..................................................................................... 35
3.4 Primary and Secondary Batteries ............................................................................ 41
3.5 Types of Batteries .................................................................................................... 43
3.6 Battery Components ............................................................................................... 46
3.7 Principles of Battery Operation (Electrochemical Reaction) ................................... 48
3.8 Battery Installation and Care ................................................................................... 50
3.9 Unit Summary .......................................................................................................... 53
3.10 References ............................................................................................................. 53
UNIT 4: CHARGE CONTROLLER.....................................................................................54

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 4.1 Unit Introduction ..................................................................................................... 54
4.2 Learning Objectives ................................................................................................. 54
4.3 Role of a Charge Controller ..................................................................................... 54
4.4 Types of Charge Controllers .................................................................................... 56
4.5 Connection Sequence of PV Module Batteries and Loads to Charge Controllers... 59
4.6 Charge Controller Specifications ............................................................................. 60
4.7 Unit Summary .......................................................................................................... 63
4.8 References ............................................................................................................... 63
UNIT 5: PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM SIZING .....................................................................64
5.1 Unit Introduction ..................................................................................................... 64
5.2 Learning Objectives ................................................................................................. 64
5.3 PV System Sizing and Its Importance ...................................................................... 64
5.4 Daily Energy Demand Audit for DC Loads ............................................................... 67
5.5 Estimation of a System Voltage ............................................................................... 72
5.6 The EZsolar Method (Easy Solar Method) ............................................................... 74
5.7 The System Design Table ......................................................................................... 79
5.8 Unit Summary .......................................................................................................... 88
5.9 References ............................................................................................................... 88
UNIT 6: SOLAR PV SYSTEM MAINTENANCE ..................................................................89
6.1 Unit Introduction ..................................................................................................... 89
6.2 Learning Objectives ................................................................................................. 89
6.3 What is Maintenance? ............................................................................................ 89
6.4 Solar PV System Maintenance Tasks ....................................................................... 89
6.5 Common Faults and Their Remedy ......................................................................... 92
6.6 Unit Summary .......................................................................................................... 94
ANSWERS TO LEARNING ACTIVITIES ............................................................................95

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Abbreviations & Acronyms

AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
DOD Depth of Discharge
EVA Ethyl Vinyl Acetate
KEREA Kenya Renewable Energy Association
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracker
NITA National Industrial Training Authority
PV Photovoltaic
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
RIAT Ramogi Institute of Advanced Technology
SEIAPI The Sustainable Energy Industry Association of the Pacific Islands
SHS Solar Home System
SOC State of Charge
STC Standard Test Conditions (STC).
VOC Open Circuit Voltage (VOC)
VRLA Valve Regulated Lead Acid

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Book Overview

Book Introduction
Welcome to the Solar PV System Design Guide for Beginners. Solar is an alternative
source of energy that uses light and energy from the sun. While photovoltaic refers to
the process of converting light from the sun into electricity. Globally, solar energy is
growing in popularity as a relatively cheap form of renewable energy.

The aim of this book is to equip you with skills on how to design and install home solar
systems. Solar PV systems have a vibrant market. Unfortunately, the sector does not
have enough trained and experienced practitioners who can design and install
systems. It is dominated by non-specialist technician who have no solar PV training. As
a result, most solar systems installed perform poorly and eventually fail, leading to the
widespread perception in the market that solar systems do not work. Therefore, the
goal of this book is to improve access to training and produce professional technicians
in Solar PV System.

This technician book is designed for practicing electricians who have basic skills in
electrical, mechanical or electronics field. The book lays emphasis on developing
practical and theoretical knowledge and skills in basic solar PV technology, products
and systems.

Book Objectives
Upon completion of this book you should be able to:

• Apply basic technical and performance standards of solar PV technology in

your work as a solar technician
• Provide services in sizing, installation, maintenance, trouble shooting and
repair of basic solar PV systems or solar home systems
• Demonstrate skills in the identification and marketing of high quality solar PV
products and systems
• Use the knowledge and skills you have acquired to pursue further technical
and business careers in the Solar energy industry.

Book Content
This book is divided into the following 6 units, all of which are designed to help you
achieve the objectives we have just stated. These are:

• Unit 1: Basic Electrical Concepts

• Unit 2: Solar PV Modules
• Unit 3: Solar Battery

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 • Unit 4: Charge Controllers for Solar PV Home Systems
• Unit 5: Photovoltaic System Sizing
• Unit 6: Maintenance of a Solar PV system

Icons Used in the Units

In the margins of the units you will find the following icons, which tell you what to do:

Read the learning objectives of the unit

Complete the Activity. Activities help you to process and apply what you are learning.

Take note of an important point

Read the Unit summary

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 UNIT 1:
Basic Electrical Concepts

1.1 Unit Introduction

Welcome to Unit 1 on Basic Electrical Concepts. Solar PV systems are electrical
systems. Indeed, the internal circuit of a solar PV system functions as a Direct Current
(DC) circuit. Therefore, basic knowledge of electrical concepts is essential if you are to
understand how solar PV systems work. Hence in this unit, we will start by defining
common electrical terms, such as, voltage, current, resistance, power and energy. You
will also learn about electrical circuits components and the different types of circuits.
Lastly, we shall discuss the difference between parallel and series connections and
how the Ohms Laws is applied in DC electrical circuits.

1.2 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

1. Define the following electrical terms:

• Electricity
• D.C quantity
• Voltage
• Current
• Resistance
• Power
• Energy
2. Describe the components of an electrical circuit and the different types of circuits
3. State the Ohms Law and apply it to determine current, resistance, power and
energy in DC circuits
4. Explain the difference between series and parallel electrical circuits

1.3 Definition of Terms

In this section, we will look at the definition of common electrical terms, such as
electricity, D.C. quantity and voltage source.

1.3.1 Electricity
Electricity is the continuous movement of a sea of electrons (stream of electrons) from
one point to another, through a conducting material such as a copper wire. An electric
circuit is like a pathway through which an electric current (stream of electrons) flows.
A circuit consists of a source, a conductor and a load (Resistance). See Figure.1.1 for an
illustration of a DC circuit.

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 Figure 1.1: A DC circuit

1.3.2 DC Quantity
A DC Quantity is that which has a constant magnitude or size and flows in one
direction, hence the term Direct Quantity.

A DC circuit consists of:

• DC Voltage source,
• Direct Current and
• Conductor (Resistance).

Before we look at each in detail, let’s use the analogy of a water tank to
describe the three parts of a DC current, namely: voltage, current and
resistance. Using this analogy,
• the charge is represented by the amount of water in the tank,
• the voltage is represented by the water pressure,
• the current is represented by water flow, and
• the resistance is represented by the friction of the hosepipe against
water moving through it.

Let’s now look at each of the three parts of a DC circuit in detail.

DC Voltage Source
A DC voltage source is that potential or pressure that pushes electricity in a
circuit in one direction. The direction of this electricity moves from a region of
high pressure (potential) to a region of low pressure (potential), similar to water
pressure building up in a hosepipe. The pressure causes the electrons to move
through the wire to the area of positive charge. This potential energy is called
DC Voltage. Its unit of measurement is the Volt usually abbreviated as “V”.

Direct Current
A current is defined as the flow of electrons through a conducting medium,
such as a copper wire. There are two types of currents in use today. The Direct
Current abbreviated DC, and the Alternating Current abbreviated AC. In a
Direct Current, electricity flows in one direction only and the voltage remains
constant. For example, batteries create a direct current because the electrons

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 always flow from the negative side to the positive side. In Alternating Current,
the flow of electrons constantly changes direction, sometimes going forward
and then going back. The voltage for AC also changes all the time. In this book,
we will concentrate more on the DC because, as we said in the introduction,
the internal circuit of a solar PV system functions as a DC circuit.

A current is denoted by the Symbol “I” and its unit of measurement is the
ampere (A). An electrical current can be compared to the flow of water
through a hosepipe.

Conductor (Resistance)
A conductor is a material that allows electrons to readily pass through with
little opposition or Resistance. In a non-conductor, atoms are arranged in a
way that causes them to resist the flow of electrons. The tendency to resist the
flow of electrons (Current) is called Resistance. It is usually denoted by the
symbol “R”. An ohm is the unit of measurement of resistance and it is denoted
by the symbol “Ω”

Power
Power is the rate of doing Work. Mathematically, it can be determined by
multiplying VOLTAGE (V) by the CURRENT (I). A unit of power is expressed in
Watts (W).

The mathematical formula of power is as follows:

Power = Voltage x Current (in watts)

P = V × I (W)

The Power triangle in Figure 1.2 can be used to determine one quantity given any two
as follows:

• Power (P) = V x I (Voltage x Current in watts)

• Voltage (V) = P/I (Power divided by Current)
• Current (I) = P/V (Power divided by Voltage)

Figure 1.2: The Power Triangle

1.3.3 Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Electrical energy is the product of electrical
Power (P) and Time (T) and it is measured in Joules. The formula for energy is as
follows:
E=P×T

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 Where P is Power and T is time in seconds, then
the units become Watt-Seconds, also known as JOULES.

You have now come to the end of this section on definition of terms. As a way of
reflecting on what you have read so far, answer the following questions.

ACTIVITY 1:
Definition of Terms (Allow about 20 minutes)

Q1. In one or two sentences define the following terms:

a) Resistance:

b) Voltage

c) Current

Q2. In the table below insert the accepted electrical symbols associated with the given
terms; the first one has been done for you.

Quantity Symbol Unit Quantity

Current I Amperes (A) Current
Voltage - - Voltage
Resistance - - Resistance

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. In the next
section, we will discuss the components and types of electric circuits.

1.4 Electric Circuits

An electric circuit is like a path, along which electrons from a current or voltage
source flow. In this section, you will learn about the components of an electric circuit
and how electricity flows to all the circuit components.

1.4.1 Electric Circuit Components

A simple electric circuit consists of the following four components:

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 1. A Source: this produces the electromotive force that causes the current to
flow in the circuit, an example is a battery.
2. A Load: this may be an electric bulb, pump, radio, fridge or any other
appliances that uses electricity to do some work.
3. A Control device: this may be a switch or a circuit breaker which is used for
switching the circuit on or off.
4. Conductors: these are used to connect the source to the loads, control
devices or to carry power from one point to another. For example, a
copper wire.

Figure 1.3 shows an illustration of a simple electric circuit.

Figure 1.3: A simple electric circuit

1.4.2 Types of Electric Circuits

There are three types of electric circuits, namely, closed, open and short
circuit. Let us look at each in turn.

Closed Circuit
This is a loop that allows an appliance to receive a current and remain
connected to the voltage source, as shown in the Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: A closed circuit current

Open Circuit
This is an incomplete electric circuit through which no current can flow. Figure
1.5 shows a diagram of an open circuit.

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 Figure 1.5: An open circuit current

Short Circuit
A short circuit usually offers an alternative path of very low resistance to the
source current. The low resistance of a short circuit path results in a very high
value of current. When the circuit has been short circuited, the current
through the load is Zero as all the current from the source flows back through
path AB. This current is referred to as Short Circuit current, ISC, see Figure 1.6
below.

Figure 1.6: A short circuit current

We hope you now understand the different components of a circuit and the various
types. Before you move on to the next section, complete the following activity to
revise what you have learnt.

Activity 2:
Electric Circuit (Allow about 30 minutes)

Q1. Using one simple sentence write the meaning of the following terms in the space
provided below each term.

Load

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Conductor

Source

Open circuit.

Closed circuit

Short circuit.

Compare your answers with those given at the end of this book. In the next section,
we will examine the Ohms law.

1.5 Ohms Law

The Ohms Law is the most fundamental law used in circuit analysis. It provides a
simple formula that describes the relationship between the voltage and the current.

The Ohms Law states that the voltage across a conducting material is directly
proportional to the current flowing through the material and is inversely proportional
to its resistance as long as the temperature remains constant.

Mathematically, it is expressed as follows:

V = K× I (1)

Where k is a constant of proportionality called resistance (R).

Therefore, the voltage (V) in volts is equal to the current (I) in amps, multiplied
by the resistance in ohms (Ω). This is expressed in the formula V = I x R.

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The triangle in Figure 1.7 illustrates this relationship.

Figure 1.7: The Ohms triangle

As you can see from the triangle, you can easily calculate any one parameter if you
have the other two using the following formulae:

• Voltage (V) = IxR

V
• Current (I) =
R
V
• Resistance (R) =
I

Using these formulae, try to calculate the voltage, current and resistance in the
following activity.

ACTIVITY 3:
Ohms Law (Allow about 90 minutes)

Q1. Using the Ohms law formulae, calculate the following:

a) In a circuit. If there is a resistance of 0.1Ω and current is 3A, what is the voltage?

b) In a circuit, if the Voltage is 12V and Resistance is 10Ω. What is the current?

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c) In a circuit. If there is a current of 1A and voltage of 12V. What is the power?

d) A 10- Volt lamp has a resistance of 50 ohms. Calculate the current that it takes, its
power rating in watts and the amount of Energy it consumes in 40 hours.

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. In the next
section, you will learn about two types of connections that are used to connect two or
more electrical components devices in a circuit.

1.6 Series and Parallel Circuits

The components of an electrical circuit can be connected in many different ways. In
this section, we shall discuss the two simplest connections known as series and
parallel connections.

1.6.1 Series Connection

A series connection is one whereby the current flows through each load in turn
without branching in between. Figure 1.8 below shows three loads connected
in a series connection.

Figure 1.8: Loads in a series connection

When three resistors R1, R2, and R3 are connected in a series connection, three things
happen:

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 1. The same current flows through all the resistors
2. The resistance (R) and current determines the voltage across each resistor
3. The total voltage across all resistors is the sum of the voltages across each
resistor.

Using the Ohm’s Law, this can be presented using the following formula:

V = V1 + V2 + V3
= (I × R1) + ( I × R2) + (I × R3)
= I × (R1 + R2 + R3)
R Total = R1 + R2 + R3
Hence, V = I × RTotal

This arrangement produces a maximum and minimum current in the circuit, which
leads to reduced voltages across each load, and subsequently, reduced power output.

Next, we will learn about a parallel connection.

1.6.2 Parallel Connection

Loads are said to be connected in parallel if a single charge passing through the
external circuit only passes through one load and not all the rest. Figure 1.9
below shows three loads connected in parallel.

Figure 1.9: A parallel connection

Each resistor (load) is connected across the supply (V), and has the potential difference
(Vs) across it. The following three observations can be made:

1. Vs = V1 =V2 =V3.
2. The supply current ITotal divides into I1, I2 , and I3.
And therefore, I Total = I1 + I2 + I3
3. 1/R Total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Using these observations, let’s now calculate the total resistance (RTotal) using the
figures in Example 1 below.

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EXAMPLE 1:
Let us assume in Figure 1.8 that, R1=2Ω, R2=3Ω and R3=4Ω. To calculate the total
resistance you use the following formula:

1/R total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Let’s now substitute R1, R2 and R3 with the figures given above as follows:
1/R total = 1/2 + 1/3 +1/4
1/R total = (6 + 4 + 3) / 12
1/R total = (13) / 12
Therefore RTotal = 12/13Ω

Similarly, we can calculate the total current if we substitute the values as shown in
Example 2 below.

EXAMPLE 2: Calculating the total current ITotal

Let’s assume that the values for the currents in Figure 1.9 are:

I1 = 6A; I2 = 4A; and I3 = 3A

The formula for calculating the total current is:

I total = I1 + I2 + I3

If we substitute the values I1 = 6A, I2 = 4A and I3 = 3A, then total current would be as
follows:

I total = 6A + 4A + 3A (where 6A, 4A and 3A are referred to as branch current)

I total = 13A (where 13A is the TOTAL or SOURCE Current)

Well, we hope you now understand the difference between a series and parallel
connection. As a way of reflecting on what you have just learnt, please answer the
questions in Activity 4.

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ACTIVITY 4:
Series and Parallel Connections (Allow 40 minutes)

Q1. Briefly explain the difference between a series and parallel connection in the
table provided below. The first one has been completed for you.

PARAMETERS SERIES PARALLEL

Total voltage is the Sum of Equal voltage across all
Voltage individual voltages resistors i.e.
V = V1 + V2 +.......... V1 = V2 = V3 etc

Current

Resistance

Q2. In a certain circuit three resistances R1, R2 and R3 are given as follows:
R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 3Ω and R3 = 5Ω. They are connected in series.

Calculate the following:

a) The total resistance

b) The current flowing in the circuit if the source voltage is 10 Volts.

Q3. A series connection has the following three resistors:

R1 = 2Ω; R2 = 4Ω and R3 = 6Ω.

a) Calculate the total resistance in the space provided below.

b) Suppose the connection is parallel, calculate the total resistance.

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book.

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Next, we will look at the instruments that Solar PV technicians use to measure
electrical currents.

1.7 Electrical Measuring Instruments

There are quite a number of instruments used for measuring electrical currents and
other parameters. In this section, we shall look at three instruments which are
commonly used by solar PV technicians. These are the:
• AC-DC clamp meter
• Irradiance meter or illuminance meter
• Infrared thermometer

1.7.1 AC-DC Clamp meter

This instrument measures the AC current, DC current, AC/DC voltage,
resistance and continuity. The AC-DC clamp meter measures the current easily
and without disconnecting any cables. Figure 1.10 shows a photograph of an
AC-DC clamp meter.

Figure 1.10: AC-DC clamp meter (Ongoma J., 2016)

1.7.2 Irradiance Meter or Illuminance Meter

The irradiance meter is used to measure irradiance. Irradiance is a measure of radiant
energy from the sun. Figure 1.11 shows a photograph of an irradiance meter.

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 Figure 1.11: Irradiance meter (Ongoma J., 2016)

1.7.3 Infrared Thermometer

The infrared thermometer is mainly used to monitor the temperature of PV
modules. Figure 1.12 below shows a photograph of an infrared thermometer.

Figure 1.12: Infrared Thermometer (Ongoma J., 2016)

To help you remember the instruments we have just discussed, please complete the
following activity.

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ACTIVITY 5:
Electrical Measuring Instruments (Allow 5 minutes)

1. Which instrument would you use to measure the following in a PV circuit?

a) Current _________________________________

b) Irradiance _______________________________

c) Temperature ____________________________

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. Ensure you study
the photograph of each instrument so that you are familiar with how each one looks
like.

Congratulations! You have now come to the end of this first unit. We hope you now
have a good understanding of basic electrical terms, concepts and instruments. Let us
now review what you have learnt.

1.8 Unit Summary

In this unit, you have learnt about electrical terms, laws and concepts that give you the
foundation you need to understand basic solar PV technology. We started by defining
various electrical terms, such as electricity, DC quantity and energy. Then we
discussed the components of an electric circuit and the different types of circuits. You
have also learnt about the Ohms law and the difference between series and parallel
connections. Lastly, we looked at the electrical instruments that solar technicians use
for measuring currents, irradiance and temperature.

In the next unit, you will learn about the components of solar PV modules and how
they generate power. But before you move on to Unit 2, review the learning
objectives at the beginning of this unit and ensure that you have achieved them all. If
there is any that you are not sure about, revise the relevant section(s) again.

1.9 References
1. Philippines Department of Energy (DOE) and JICA (2009). Manual for solar PV
training.

2. Ballwerk (2013). Solar home systems basic maintenance and repair training
workbook. 35/3011 Bern, Switzerland

3. Ongoma, J. (2016). RIAT photography. Kisumu, Kenya

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 UNIT TWO:

Solar PV Modules

2.1 Unit Introduction

Welcome to Unit 2 on Solar PV modules. In the last unit, you learnt about basic
electrical terms, laws and concepts. This unit deals with the power generating part of
a solar PV system. There are various forms of energy which we can use to suit our
needs. Sunlight is one such form of energy, which is converted into electricity. In solar
technology, this conversion is done by solar PV modules, which are also known as solar
panels.

In this unit, we will start by defining common terms associated with solar PV modules
and then go on to explain how a solar cell works. We will also look at the main
electrical parameters of a PV module and how to determine the number of solar cells
in a PV module. By the end of this module you should have a good understanding of
how electricity is generated from sunlight by use of a solar cell. Let’s start by looking at
our learning objectives for this unit.

2.2 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
1. Define the following terms associated with solar PV technology:
• Solar cell or Photovoltaic cell
• Solar module and array
2. Explain how a solar cell operates
3. Describe the main electrical parameters of a solar PV module.

2.3 Definition of Terms

A solar PV module converts light energy (sunlight) into electricity. It operates like a
power generating device. However, this device has a unique characteristic unlike other
power generating devices, in that, its output terminals can be short circuited (i.e.
connected together) without destroying it.

In this section, we shall define terms associated with solar PV modules, namely, solar
cell or photovoltaic cell, solar module and solar array.

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2.3.1 The Solar Cell
The solar cell is one of the smallest components in the entire solar PV system.
Solar PV cells are made from a combination of N-type semiconductor and P-
type semi-conductor materials. A solar cell converts light energy from sunlight
into electricity. The cell’s electrical characteristics (namely, current, voltage
and resistance) vary when exposed to light. Solar cells are the building blocks
of Photovoltaic (PV) modules, otherwise known as solar panels. Figure 2.1
shows a cross-section of a solar cell.

Figure 2.1: Cross-section of a solar cell in a solar PV module

Solar cells produce a Direct Current (DC) and so they are only used for DC
equipment. If an Alternating Current (AC) is needed for AC equipment, then
solar PV systems require additional components.

2.3.2 Solar PV Modules (Panels) and Arrays

When multiple solar cells are interconnected in a group, all facing in one
direction (series connection), they constitute what is known as a Solar
Photovoltaic (PV) panel or Solar Photovoltaic (PV) module. Figure 2.2 shows
36 solar cells interconnected in series, while Figure 2.3 shows a solar PV
module symbol which has solar cells interconnected in series.

Figure 2.2: A typical solar PV module with 36 cells connected in series.

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 Figure 2.3: Solar PV module symbol.

Photovoltaic module cells are encapsulated by a material called Ethyl Vinyl acetate
(EVA), which sits under a sheet of glass on the side of the module facing the sun. This
material allows light energy to pass through and at the same time protects the
semiconductor cells.

Solar cells can be connected in series or parallel. When they are connected in SERIES,
the voltage of each cell is taken individually and added to another one in order to
come up with the total voltage, also known as Open Circuit Voltage (Voc). For example,
if there are 3 cells each with a total voltage of 6, then the total voltage would be added
(6+6+6=18). Therefore, in series connection voltage increases.

Cells connected in PARALLEL yield a higher Charging current ( Isc or Imax). Unlike in
series where voltage increases, in parallel the current value increases. Therefore, the
current value of a parallel connection has the same voltage but a higher current.
However, if a shadow falls on the modules, it causes the cells to register less
illumination (Irradiance). Low irradiance leads to substantial power loss, which in turn
causes the modules to supply the battery with less energy.

Modules can also be interconnected either in SERIES or PARALLEL to create what is

referred to as an ARRAY. An array formation in series results in an improved system
voltage, while an array formation in a parallel connection results in a charging current.
Figure 2.4 and 2.5 shows a diagram of a solar PV array consisting of 4 solar PV modules
connected in series and 3 solar PV modules connected in parallel, respectively.

Figure 2.4: Solar PV array with 4 solar PV modules connected in series

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 Figure 2.5: Solar PV module with 3 solar PV modules connected in parallel

It is also worth noting that an array may consist of both a series and parallel
connection, which improves both the system voltage and charging current.
Figure 2.6 shows a diagram of a solar PV array with 6 solar PV modules
connected in series and parallel.

Figure 2.6: Solar PV module with 6 solar PV modules connected in series and parallel

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You have now come to the end of this section. As a way of reflecting on what you have
learnt, answer the questions in the following activity.

ACTIVITY 6:

Definition of Terms (Allow about 20 minutes)

Q1. Using one or two sentences define the following terms:

a) Solar cell

b) Solar PV module

c) Solar PV array

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. In the next
section, we will discuss how a solar PV cell operates.

2.4 Operation of a Solar PV Cell

In our definition of the solar cell, we mentioned that a solar PV cell is made of both P-
type and N-type semiconductor materials. In this section, we will describe the
properties of conductors, insulators and semiconductors. We will also look at the pn
junction and the different types of PV modules. It is important for you to understand
that a solar PV cell essentially operates as a pn junction.

2.4.1 Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators

In electrical terms, there are three types of materials grouped according to
their electrical properties. These are: conductors, semiconductors and
insulators. These materials have different chemical properties, which affect
the movement of electrons or holes responsible for the flow of an electric
current. An electron is a negatively charged particle of an atom, while a hole is
a positively charged particle of an atom (the atom being the smallest particle
of an element). The number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom are
called valence. The shell containing these electrons is called the valence shell.

Let’s discuss the three types of electrical material in turn.

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 1. Conductors
These are materials that easily transmit or pass electricity from one point to
another. These materials have atoms which have free moving electrons. Once
an external force (voltage) is applied, the “FREE ELECTRONS’’ move freely from
one atom to another up to the end of the material. As they do this, they carry
the electric current along with them. Examples of conductors are aluminium,
sodium, copper, etc.

2. Insulators
These are materials that DO NOT transmit electricity. These materials don’t
have any charge, that is, there is no free electron or free hole in their atoms.
So when a voltage is applied, there is no disturbance in the atomic structure
and no free movement of electrons or holes. Since charges are responsible for
the flow of an electric current, then in this case there is no conduction.
Examples of insulators are rubber, wood, paper, mica, etc.

3. Semiconductors
These are materials which are neither conductors nor insulators. The most
common semiconductor material is silicon. When the semiconducting
properties of a material occur naturally, the semiconductor becomes an
insulator. This happens because semiconductor atoms have 4 electrons in their
outer (valence) shell. The atoms combine together by sharing these electrons.
Thus, they gain their stability by having no free electron or hole, which makes
them act as insulators.

When semiconducting properties of a material are manufactured, then the

material can be made to behave like a conductor. The process of changing an
insulating material into a conductor is known as doping. During the process of
doping, a free electron or hole (conductor) is created by introducing a foreign
atom in the pure semiconductor crystal. There are two types of semiconductor
materials that are produced during this process, namely, the P-type and N-type
semiconductors.

• P type: this type results when 3 free electrons from a foreign atom are
paired up with 4 free electrons of the pure semiconductor. This process is
called covalent bonding. Since the foreign atom has one less electron, the
fourth electron in the pure semiconductor material lacks a partner and
that lack causes a HOLE. The resultant material is called a P- type
semiconductor. It has an excess of positively charged holes. When light
energy is applied on the cell, there is a movement of electrons towards the
HOLE.

Figures 2.7 show a diagram of P-type semiconductors.

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 Figure 2.7: P-type semiconductor

• N- type: during doping, the foreign atom introduced has 5 electrons in its
valence shell, while the pure semiconductor has 4. When the foreign
electrons combine with those in the pure semiconductor, only 4 electrons
pair up leaving 1 electron unpaired. Thus, there is an excess of electrons.
The fifth electron is FREE and when light energy is applied on the cell, the
free electron moves towards the HOLE constituting an electrical current.
See Figure 2.8 for an illustration of a N-type semiconductor.

Figure 2.8: N-type semiconductor.

One special property of a semiconductor is that it can regulate the amount of

electric current that flows in its circuit. As we saw in Figure 2.2, when the two types
(p and n) are combined, they form a p-n junction which assists in regulating the
electric current in a circuit.

We hope you now understand the difference between conductors, insulators and
semiconductors. Before you move on to the next section, complete the following
activity.

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Activity 7:
Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors (Allow 10 minutes)

Match the terms in Column A with the correct description in Column B by inserting the
Number of the correct term next to its description. The first one has been done for
you.

Column A Column B
1. Insulator Is neither a conductor nor insulator (3)
Results when 3 free electrons from the foreign atom
2. Conductor combine and pair up with the 3 of 4 free electrons of
the pure semiconductor
The impurity introduced during doping has 5 free
3. Semiconductor
electrons in its valence shell.
The materials easily transmit or pass electricity from
4. P-type semiconductor
one point to another
5. N-type semiconductor Materials that do not transmit electricity

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book.

2.4.2 The PN Junction

As we have just seen, a pn junction is formed by joining p-type and n-type
semiconductor materials together. At the point of contact, the p-type material
donates the holes and the n- type material donates the electrons. When the
holes (positively charged) combine with the electrons (negatively charged),
they neutralise each other and create an area that has no charge. This area is
called the depletion layer (it’s depleted of charges) and it blocks the
movement of electrons (or holes) across the junction. However, if we shine
sunlight on the material, a stream of energetic light particles known as
photons gives up their energy to the atoms in the material. The incoming
energy knocks electrons out of the lower p-type layer, causing them to jump
across the barrier to the n-type layer above and flow out around the circuit. As
more light shines on the material, the electrons continue to jump up and push
the current flow around the circuit.

A silicon made p-n junction requires a minimum voltage of 0.6 Volts to enable
electrons to crossover from the n- material to the p- material and “occupy’’
the holes. This layer maintains a voltage drop of 0.6V even if the external
voltage is increased.

Solar cells are described as photovoltaic irrespective of whether the source is

sunlight or an artificial light. Solar cells are used as photo detectors because
once they detect the presence of light they generate a current. When light is
detected and a current starts to flow, there is a voltage drop of 0.6V across the
junction because the solar cell is basically a p-n junction.

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2.4.3 Types of Solar PV Modules
Solar PV modules or panels are generally classified according to the cell
technology used to produce or manufacture them.

There are three types of PV modules:

• Amorphous silicon (a-Si) PV module: the term ‘amorphous’ literally means

shapeless. The silicon used to make amorphous silicon cells is not
structured or crystallised as in other types of PV modules. The solar cells
are made up of one or several layers of photovoltaic material deposited
onto a substrate. These panels are cheap and have an appealing look.
However, they are bigger in size and therefore require a lot of space.

• Monocrystalline silicon PV module: the solar cells used in this module are
made from uniform silicon lattice cut out of a single crystal. They have
high efficiency rates since they are made out of high-grade silicon. They
are also smaller than amorphous silicon panels and therefore do not
require a lot of space. However, they are the most expensive solar panels.

• Polycrystalline silicone PV module: the solar cells used in this module are
made from raw silicon, which is melted and poured into a square mould.
Once cooled, it is cut into perfectly square wafers. This process makes
these modules simpler and cheaper to produce than those in a
monocrystalline module. However, polycrystalline modules have lower
space efficiency. That is, you need to cover a wider surface to produce the
same electrical power that you would with solar panels made of
monocrystalline silicon.

Figure 2.9 shows the three types of PV modules.

Amorphous Polycrystalline Monocrystalline

Figure 2.9: Three types of PV modules

2.5 Electrical Parameters of a PV Module

The electrical parameters of a solar PV module tell us how efficiently the panel can
convert light into electricity. The rating of a panel depends on the following 5
parameters of a solar or photovoltaic cell:

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 • Short circuit current (ISC)
• Open Circuit Voltage (VOC)
• Current at Maximum Power (IPMAX)
• Maximum Power (PMAX)
• Module rating (Standard Test Conditions)

Let’s find out more about each parameter.

2.5.1 Short Circuit Current (ISC )

This measures the maximum current that can be delivered by a solar module.
It is measured when the terminals of the solar PV modules are connected
together without any other device or component (short circuited terminals).
This is unique in power generators (sources), since it’s usually not possible to
short-circuit output terminals without burning the fuses. However, the PV
module has the ability to withstand the strong current. This is a very important
parameter as it assists in the selection of current limiting resistors and
protective device ratings like fuses. The short circuit current is the highest
current that can be realised from the solar PV module. It is usually included on
the name plate of the PV module.

2.5.2 Open Circuit Voltage (VOC)

This measures the maximum voltage that can be delivered by a solar module,
or the sum voltage of all the cells in the module. This is the same as the voltage
drop across one cell multiplied by the number of cells in a module. In our
discussion on the pn junction, we said that a cell has a voltage drop of 0.6V.

Therefore, a 36 cell module would have a voltage drop of about 21.6V

calculated as follows:

Voltage drop per cell x Number of cells = Open circuit Voltage

0.6V x 36 cells = 21.6Volts

2.5.3 Current at Maximum Power (IPMAX)

This measures the current at maximum power. Modules are usually rated at
Watt peak (WP) maximum power). From our basic formula of power, we know
that power is a product of Voltage, (V) and current (I). Therefore,

Power = Current at Maximum Power x Voltage at maximum power

Pmax = Imax x Vmax in Watts-peak (Wp)

2.5.4 Maximum Power (PMAX)

This is the highest possible power output that a module can deliver for use. It
is usually the rated power and it’s measured in Watt- Peak (Wp). However, it is
not practical to achieve this power because of loses or because the conditions
under which the module operates are not ideal.

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2.5.5 Standard Test Conditions (STC)
This is an industry-wide standard that specifies the conditions under which a
solar PV module is tested. This standard creates uniform test conditions which
make it possible to compare different solar PV modules. The values indicated
on the name-plate of a PV module are usually achieved under the Standard
Test Conditions (STC). There are three standard test conditions which are used.
These are:
• Irradiance 1000W/m2: sunlight energy that hits every square meter of the
panel. However, in practice this value may be higher or lower depending
on weather conditions.
• Ambient or room temperature 250C.
• Air-Mass of 1.5

In general, the rated parameters are usually not the same as measured values because
of environmental issues, such as, weather conditions.

We hope you now understand the electrical parameters of a PV module. Before you
move on the next section answer the questions in the following activity.

Activity 8:
Electrical Parameters of a PV Module (Allow 10 minutes)

Q1. Which of the following describes the short circuit current parameter of a PV
module?
• The sum voltage of all the cells in the module
• The highest possible power output that a module can deliver for use
• A measure of the maximum current that can be delivered by a solar module
• Irradiance, room temperature and air mass

Q2. Which of the following describes the maximum power parameter of a PV module?
• Measures the maximum voltage that can be delivered by a solar module
• The highest possible power output that a module can deliver for use
• A measure of the maximum current that can be delivered by a solar module
• Irradiance, room temperature and air mass

Q3. How would you determine the number of cells in a module with an open circuit
voltage?

You have come to the end of our second unit on solar PV modules. Let us now review
what you have learnt.

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2.6 Unit Summary
In this unit you have covered the following main points:
• A Solar PV cell is made from a combination of N-type semiconductor and P-
type semi-conductor materials. It converts light energy from the sun into
electricity.
• A solar PV module is composed of several solar PV cells connected in series
while a solar PV array consists of several interconnected solar PV modules.
• A solar PV cell operates as a pn junction.
• There are five solar PV module parameters, which you can use to measure how
efficiently the panel can convert light into electricity. These are:
- Short circuit current (ISC)
- Open Circuit Voltage (VOC)
- Current at Maximum Power (IPMAX)
- Maximum Power (PMAX)
- Module rating (Standard Test Conditions)

Now go back to the objectives at the beginning of this unit and review them again.
Check if you have achieved all of them. If there is any you are not sure about, revise
the relevant section again. In the next Unit, you will learn about the solar battery
which stores the power that is generated by the solar PV module.

2.7 References
1. Hankins. M. (1995). Solar, Electric Systems for Africa, Revised edition.
Commonwealth Science, Melbourne: United Kingdom
2. JICA (2012). Solar PV Training of trainer’s book manual. Institute of energy and
environmental technology (IEET), Jomo Kenyatta university, Nairobi, Kenya.
3. Philippines Department of Energy (DOE) and JICA (2009). Manual for solar PV
training.

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 UNIT 3:

The Solar Battery

3.1 Unit Introduction

Welcome to unit 3 on the solar battery. In the last unit, you learnt about the
components and operation of solar PV modules. This unit starts by defining basic
terms associated with batteries and then goes on to discuss the difference between a
primary and secondary battery. We also look at the different types of batteries, how
they operate and how to install and maintain them. Let’s first review our objectives
for this unit.

3.2 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

1. Define the following battery terms:

• Capacity
• Cycle
• Cycle life
• State of Charge.
• Depth of Discharge.
• Maximum Charge Voltage.
• Minimum Disconnect Voltage.
2. Explain and illustrate the difference between a primary and secondary battery
3. Identify the various types of solar batteries
4. Explain how a battery operates
5. Explain the procedures for battery installation, care and maintenance.

3.3 Definition of Battery Terms

It is important to understand the meaning of terms that are associated with batteries.
But before we look at these terms, let’s first consider the most basic term, that is, the
battery itself.

3.3.1 What is a Battery?

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy and
stores it. In our daily life, we use batteries all the time to power our torches,

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 watches, calculators, or start our cars. Batteries provide us with a mobile
source of power. You can imagine how cumbersome life would be if everything
that needed electricity had to be connected to a power socket. Batteries are
made of more than one cell in series and are found in different sizes. They may
be as small as a shirt button or as big as the size of a whole room. This
variation in battery size enables us to use them to power small appliances like
a wrist watch or a large ship.

In solar PV systems, batteries are often used for storing the energy produced
by the PV array during the day and to supply it to electrical loads as needed
(during the night and periods of cloudy weather). Solar batteries allow for
energy from the solar panels to be stored for use later when it is required.

Figure 3.1 shows the symbol of a battery. The bigger lines represent positive
terminals of the cells connected in the battery while the smaller lines
represent the negative terminals. The dotted lines show a series of cells.

Figure 3.1: Battery symbol

Having defined the term ‘battery’, we can now proceed to look at other terms used in
connection with batteries. Knowledge of these terms will enable you to select the
most suitable battery for a particular installation as well as extend the life of a battery.
In addition, you will learn how to match a battery with a suitable charge controller,
that is, the component which offers protection to the battery according to the
manufacturer’s specifications shown on the battery’s name plate, see Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Battery showing manufacturer’s name plate

3.3.2 Capacity
Capacity is a measure of the amount of energy that can be stored in battery. It
is measured in ampere-hours (Ah). It represents the maximum amount of
energy that can be extracted from a battery under certain specified conditions,
such as, temperature, age and charging or discharging regimes of the battery.
Let’s look at each of the condition in turn.

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 • Temperature: batteries are made to operate at temperatures between
150C and 400C. Beyond this range of temperatures, the charge will be
insufficient.

• Age: ageing reduces battery capacity i.e., the older the battery gets,
the lower the energy it can hold.

• Charging and Discharging Regimes: charging refers to the process of

supplying energy to the battery, while discharging is the use of energy
from the battery. A cycle is the time interval that it takes to fully
charge or discharge a battery.

What is an Ampere and Ampere-hour?

An ampere or Amp is a unit of measurement for electricity. An ampere-hour is
a unit of measurement of a battery’s electrical storage capacity. It is the
number of hours that a battery can provide a current equal to the discharge
rate at the nominal voltage of the battery (designed battery voltage). An
Ampere-hour is derived by the following formula:

Ampere-hour = current x time in hours

Thus, one Amp hour is equal to a current of one Amp flowing for 1 hour.

The energy stored in a battery, also known as battery capacity, is measured in

either watt-hours or kilowatt-hours. The unit of Ampere-Hour (Ah) is
commonly used in connection with battery systems as the battery voltage
tends to vary throughout the charging or discharging cycle.

What is an Ampere-hour Rate?

Batteries also have a rate of charge and discharge called ampere-hour rate. An
ampere-hour rate sets the maximum current at which a battery can be
charged or discharged. A low rate of charge or discharge is good for a battery
while a high hourly-rate is dangerous. For example, let us assume that a solar
battery with a capacity of 50 ampere hours can supply a current for 10 hours.
To calculate the maximum current, we divide the battery capacity with the
number of hours as follows:

50 ampere hours
= 5 Amperes
1o hours
This means that a 50 Ampere hour battery will deliver a maximum current of
5Amps over a period of 10 hours. Above 5Amps, the battery would be
damaged because of consuming more than its capacity.

3.3.3 Cycle Life

A cycle life is the number of cycles a battery is expected to last before it comes
to the end of its life. The cycle life of a battery varies depending on the

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 condition that a battery is in. It is directly influenced by factors, such as,
temperature, movement, and how frequently the battery is used. For example,
lithium polymer batteries function best in moderate temperatures because
that is when the gel is at the optimum density to be fluid and still retain its
conductivity. However, if it is stored in high temperature, it becomes less
dense, swells up and reduces its conductivity and the ability to retains a
charge. The advertised cycle life of a battery only describes how the battery
will perform under ideal conditions. Unfortunately, many batteries rarely
operate under ideal conditions.

3.3.4 Charge Cycle

A charge cycle is the time interval a battery charges and discharges. The term
is typically used to specify a battery's expected life, as the number of charge
cycles affects the battery life more than the mere passage of time. For
example, a battery rated at 100Ah will deliver 5Amps over a 20 hours’ period
(5 x 20 = 100), but if it is discharged at 50Amps, it will discharge in 2 hours, that
is,
100
= 2hrs.
50

3.3.5 State of Charge (SOC)

Simply defined, the State of Charge (SOC) of a battery (or cell) refers to the
percentage of its total energy capacity that it still has available to discharge. It
expresses the present battery capacity as a percentage of maximum capacity.
We can loosely compare SOC to an automobile’s fuel tank in the sense that 0%
indicates an empty tank and 100% indicates a full tank.

How do we measure the State of Charge?

If the voltage across the terminals of the battery when no load is connected is
measured as 12.74V, then the corresponding state of charge will be 100%,
implying that the battery is fully charged. But if the measured voltage is
12.00V, then the corresponding state of charge will be 40%. Table 3.1 shows
the State of Charge provided by a battery manufacturer for 12V batteries

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 Table 3.1: State of Charge for 12V batteries

State of charge % Terminal voltage

100 12.74
90 12.62
80 12.50
70 12.36
60 12.25
50 12.13
40 12.00
30 11.87
20 11.75
10 11.64
0 11.51

3.3.6 Charge Voltage

This term refers to the voltage of a battery when it is charged to full capacity.
Charging schemes generally consist of a constant current charge until the
battery voltage reaches the charge voltage. After a battery reaches a constant
voltage it then slowly allows the charge current to taper until it is very small.
Using a voltmeter, if the measured terminal voltage of a battery is about
12.7V, then the battery is fully charged for a 12V battery.

If the voltage of the battery is overcharged, the battery becomes severely

damaged and has to be replaced. An overcharged battery could get hot and
even explode, thereby throwing battery acid everywhere and endangering
those within the vicinity of the explosion. A battery that is overcharged could
also swell and leak sulphuric acid, which can harm the skin when it comes into
contact with it. A charge controller should be included in a home solar PV
system to prevent battery overcharging.

3.3.7 Depth of Discharge (DOD)

DOD is a measure of how deeply a battery is discharged. When a battery is
100% full, the DOD is 0%. Ampere hours removed from a fully charged cell or
battery, are expressed as a percentage of the rated capacity. For example, if
25Ah is removed from a 100Ah battery, it's depth of discharge is 25% and the
battery is at a 75% state of charge.

In many types of batteries, the full energy stored cannot be withdrawn, or in

other words, the battery cannot be fully discharged without causing serious
and often irreparable damage to it. If discharging continues beyond the 25%
limit, it will have the following two detrimental effects:

• formation of hard sulphation (crystallized sulphate),

• plate buckling.

Let’s briefly examine each effect in turn.

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 Hard Sulphation
Sulphation is the chemical reaction between sulphuric acid and the lead plates
within a battery. This occurs as soon as a battery is discharged. Batteries kept
in a poor state of charge develop a build-up of lead sulphate crystals, which
permanently damages a battery. This is known as sulphation. To reduce
sulphation, it is important to recharge a battery and return it to a full state of
charge as soon as possible. If the lead sulphate crystals harden, a battery takes
longer to charge and can never obtain a state of charge of 100%.

Plate Buckling
Extreme over discharging leads to physical deformation of the grids that
contain the active material. This process is called "buckling" and it causes
active material to break away from the grid.

3.3.8. Maximum Charge Voltage

This is the voltage that a battery sustains when it is fully charged.

3.3.9. Minimum Disconnect Voltage

This is the lowest acceptable voltage.

We have come to the end of this section on battery terms. To review what you have
learnt, please complete the following activity.

ACTIVITY 9:
Battery Terms (Allow 10 minutes for this activity)

Q1. Draw a line to match the terms in Column 1 with their definition in Column 2. The
first one has been done for you.

Column 1 Column 2
Capacity Amount of energy the battery can store.
Cycle life Refers to when a battery is charged to full capacity.
State of charge Measure in percentage terms of how deeply a battery is
discharged.
Charge voltage The number times a battery can charged and discharged.
Charge cycle The percentage of a battery’s total energy capacity that is
still available to discharge
Depth of discharge Number of cycles a battery is expected to last before its
capacity drops to 80% of its original rated capacity
.
Q2. In one or two sentences explain the effect of the following on the battery:

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 a) Effect of over discharge

b) Effects of Overcharge

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book.

3.4 Primary and Secondary Batteries

The terms cell and battery are normally used interchangeably to mean the same thing.
However, this is not correct. A cell is a single unit, while a battery consists of two or
more cells connected together in series or parallel. In our day to day life, we use two
types of batteries. One which is used until it totally discharges and another type which
is rechargeable. The former type is called a primary battery, while the latter is called a
secondary battery. In this section, you will learn about the basic differences between
primary and secondary batteries.

3.4.1 Primary Cells

These are used only once and then disposed of since they are not
rechargeable. They are made of only one cell. Examples include:
• Dry cells: these are commonly used in torches and radios,
• Wet cells: used in large systems because they are not portable, e.g. for
railway signalling,
• Mercury cells: these are used when a small physical size of a power source
is required, e.g., in hearing aids, medical electronics, watches and cameras.

Figure 3.3 illustrates the components of a wet and dry primary cell.

a) Wet cell b) Dry Cell

Figure 3.3: Components of a wet and dry cell.

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3.4.2 Secondary Batteries
These are batteries that can be electrically recharged after use, in order to
restore them to their original condition. In other words, they are
rechargeable. They are made of several cells connected together in series or
parallel and are commonly available in different sizes. An example of a
secondary battery is a lead acid battery which is widely used in motor vehicles
and in solar home systems to provide light. This battery consists of positive
and negative electrodes/electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid all placed in a
container. Figure 3.4 shows the main parts of a secondary battery.

Figure 3.4: Components of a secondary battery

We hope you now understand the difference between primary and secondary
cells/batteries. Before you proceed to the next section, reflect on what you have just
learnt and then complete the following activity.

ACTIVITY 10:
Primary and Secondary Batteries (Allow 6 minutes)

Indicate whether the following statements are True or False by writing “T” next to the
sentence if it is True or “F” if it is false.

a) The terms cell and battery mean the same thing ___
b) A battery consists of two or more cells connected together in series or parallel
__
c) Primary cells are rechargeable ___
d) A dry cell is used in torches and radios ____
e) Secondary batteries are made of several cells connected together in series or
parallel ____
f) An example of a secondary battery is a lead acid battery _____

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Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. In the next
section, we shall look at the different types of batteries.

3.5 Types of Batteries

There are various types of batteries in the market today. You must have seen different
types of batteries in and around your home or where you work. Their shape and size
depends on the job they are expected to do. Some fit in hand held torches, some
inside computers, while others fit in cars and solar energy systems.

Basically, there are four types of lead-acid batteries. These are:

• The automotive type (Starts the lights and Ignition) that requires a high current
in short periods to start an engine.
• The industrial type, also known as the deep cycle type, which provides a
continuous power supply.
• The flooded type which requires one to top up the battery with distilled water
in order to maintain the level of electrolyte.
• The closed or sealed type which is maintenance free and does not need any
topping up with distilled water.

Figure 3.5 shows a picture of a flooded battery with white caps on the right and a
sealed battery (without caps) on the left.

Figure 3.5: Flooded battery with white caps (right) and sealed battery (left)

In the next section, we shall consider three types of batteries in further detail starting
with the deep cycle design.

3.5.1 Deep Cycle Battery

A deep-cycle battery is a lead-acid battery designed to be regularly and deeply
discharged, thereby using most of its capacity. In contrast, starter batteries
(e.g. most automotive batteries) are designed to deliver short; high-current for
starting the engine, thus frequently discharging only a small part of their
capacity.

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 A deep-cycle battery is designed to discharge between 45% and 75% of its
capacity, depending on the manufacturer and the construction of the battery.
Although these batteries can be cycled down to 20% charge, it is
recommended to keep the average cycle at about 45% discharge in order to
give it a long lifespan. These percentages are stated on the battery name plate
as the depth of discharge.

3.5.2 Flooded or Wet-cell Battery

Flooded or "wet cell" batteries are the most common batteries in the market
today. Flooded batteries come in a variety of shapes and sizes due to their
widespread use in various industries and applications. Flooded batteries use
lead plates, a sulphuric acid electrolyte and plate separators. However, unlike
sealed batteries, they are not sealed and also do not convert gases to liquids
internally. Instead, the gases are released directly to the environment through
vents. Acid, steam and condensation are also released through the same vents
leading to maintenance problems. Flooded batteries require regular
maintenance to maintain the correct levels of liquid and routinely replenish
lost electrolyte. If the lead plates are exposed to the atmosphere, they start to
deteriorate and may corrode and fail. Despite these needs, flooded batteries
are still a good choice as they last longer than sealed batteries. Figure 3.6
shows two flooded battery with white caps for topping up.

Figure 3.6: White cell or flooded batteries

3.5.3 Sealed Batteries

Sealed batteries are maintenance free batteries that do not require topping up
with distilled water. They have been designed to convert any gas that is
produced into fluid. They also have a large reservoir of electrolyte. If
overcharged, however, they produce too much gas resulting in damage to the
battery.

The large reservoir of electrolyte in sealed batteries comes in two forms: a gel
and liquid. A gel battery uses silica (sand) to turn the sulphuric acid into a jelly
like substance. This gel is then used as the electrolyte. Great care must be
taken with gel batteries not to expose them to high amperage situations. For
instance, a 12V battery should not be charged higher than 12.7V. High

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 amperage situations can literally 'SCAR' the gel inside, thereby creating a
pocket. These pockets cause the plates to start corroding, leading to
premature failure. Gel batteries should also not be used for fast
charging/discharging or high amperage charging/discharging situations. Figure
3.7 shows a photograph of two sealed batteries. As you can see from the
photograph, the batteries do not have caps for topping up.

Figure 3.7: Sealed batteries

You have come to the end of this section on types of battery. In the next section, we
will discuss battery components and operation. To help you review what you have just
learnt, answer the questions in the following activity.

ACTIVITY 11:
Types of Battery Technology. (Allow 15 minutes)

Complete the following table by inserting the appropriate information.

Battery Parameters
BATTERY TYPE Electrolyte Effect of Maintenance Cost
temperature

FLOODED

SEALED

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Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. Next, we shall look
at battery components and how they operate.

3.6 Battery Components

As we mentioned earlier in this unit, a battery is a device that converts chemical
energy into electrical energy and stores it. Batteries are made up of two electrodes
(plates) immersed in electrolyte solution. These plates produce an electric current
when a circuit is connected between them. The electric current is caused by reversible
chemical reactions between the plates and electrolytes. As we saw in topic 3.2,
primary cells can only be used once, while secondary batteries can be recharged over
and over again.

We shall start by examining the parts of a lead-acid battery.

3.6.1 Parts of a Lead-acid Battery

Figure 3.8 below shows the parts of a lead-acid battery. Study the diagram and
try to identify the parts as your read the following discussion.

Figure 3.8: Part of a Lead-acid battery

The following are the main parts of a lead-acid battery.

1) Electrolyte
The electrolyte is a mixture of water and sulphuric acid. It is a conducting
medium in which the flow of electric current takes place through migration of
ions. Its reaction with the lead plates causes the electric current to flow, hence
the terminology "lead acid battery." In a flooded battery, the electrolyte level
must be checked and replenished with distilled water regularly, while in a
sealed batteries water is not required.

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 2) Separators
Separators are essential in lead acid batteries because they keep the positive
and negative plates separate from one another. This prevents the battery from
short-circuiting. Separators must be resistant to oxidation and be chemically
compatible with the electrolyte solution.

3) Plates
Plates contain the active materials and the grid that supports it. They have a
positive or negative electrode in the battery cell.

4) The Grid
A grid is a metal alloy framework that supports the active material on a battery
plate

5) Terminal
This is an electrical contact used to connect a load or charger to a single or
multiple cell battery

6) Negative Terminal
The negative terminal is the source of electrical energy of a cell, battery or
generator, through which the current returns to complete the circuit. It is
generally marked as "Neg." or Positive.

7) Positive Terminal
This is the source of electrical energy of a cell, battery or generator from which
the current flows. It is generally marked as "Pos." or It+."

8) Vent, Vent Plug or Vent-Cap

The vent, vent plug or vent cap is a hard or soft rubber inserted in the cover to
retain atmospheric pressure within the cell. It also prevents the loss of
electrolyte through spillage. It allows gases formed in the cell to escape and
keeps dirt out of the cell.

We hope that you now know the parts of a battery. This knowledge is important
because it will help you to easily diagnose battery problems. To reinforce what you
have learnt about the parts of the battery, complete the following activity.

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ACTIVITY 12:
Parts of a Battery (Allow 10 minutes)

Complete the table below by writing a short description of the following battery parts.

COLUMN 1 (PARTS ) COLUMN 2

Grid

Terminal

Electrolyte

Plate

Separator

Positive Terminal

Vent

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. Next, let us look
at the principles of battery operation.

3.7 Principles of Battery Operation (Electrochemical

Reaction)
As we have just seen in the previous section, a lead-acid cell has two dissimilar plates
or electrodes, which are immersed in a suitable container, see Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9: Electrochemical reaction.

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As you can see from Figure 3.9, a lead acid battery operates on the basis of a chemical
reaction between a positive lead dioxide (PbO2), a negative lead plate (Pb) and an
electrolyte composed of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) with water (H2O). Let us look at how
the battery’s charge and discharge cycles operate.

3.7.1 The Discharge Cycle

When a fully charged battery is connected to a load (light bulb), a chemical
reaction between sulphuric acid and the lead plates produces the electricity to
light the bulb. The acid decreases and the water increases as shown in Figure
3.10. A finely divided amorphous form of lead sulphate (PbSO4) is produced.
This chemical reaction begins to coat both positive and negative plates with a
substance called lead sulphate. This build-up of lead sulphate is normal during
a discharge cycle. As the battery continues to discharge, lead sulphate coats
more and more of the plates and battery voltage begins to decrease from its
fully charged state. If the battery is not recharged, the lead sulphate can form
into hard crystals which cannot be reconverted, thereby causing a loss in
battery capacity.

TAKE NOTE
Discharging a lead acid battery below the prescribed voltage will severely
damage it!

3.7.2 The Charging Cycle

During charging, the acid increases and the water decreases as shown in Figure
3.10. The lead sulphate deposits are converted back to lead, lead dioxide and
sulphuric acid, thus returning the battery to its former state. During this
process, the lead dioxide accumulates on the positive plate, spongy lead
accumulates on the negative plate and the relative amount of sulphuric acid in
the electrolyte increases.

Figure 3.10 shows the discharging and charging process in a lead-acid battery.

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 Figure 3.10: Discharging and Charging process in a lead-acid battery

Chemical Equation for an Electrochemical Reaction in a Lead-Acid Battery

The following is the chemical equation for an electrochemical reaction in a lead-acid
battery.

Discharging
Lead + Lead dioxide + Sulphuric acid Lead Sulphate + water
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

Charging
Lead Sulphate + water Lead + Lead dioxide + Sulphuric acid
2PbSO4 + 2H2O Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4

3.8 Battery Installation and Care

Flooded lead-acid batteries are normally bought when they are dry (with no electrolyte
solution inside). The battery acid and the battery are usually packed separately to
avoid spillage of the acid. Therefore, before you install a new battery, you should fill it
with acid and then charged before use.

In this section, we will start by discussing the safety precautions that we should
observe when handling batteries. We shall also consider the conditions required for
battery installation and how to take care of the batteries. It is very important for you
to have a basic understanding of battery installation and care so that you can train the
client on the correct procedures.

3.8.1 Battery Installation

The following are the conditions required for battery installation during a site
visit:

• The battery should be located in a secure place which is readily accessible

• The room should have good ventilation and this should be at the highest
point of the ceiling to allow escape of gases, such as hydrogen, that can
easily ignite or cause an explosion in a poorly ventilated room
• The room should be free from dampness as this can cause corrosion due to
the presence of water
• The battery location should be near to the loads in order to reduce the
need for long cables as well as prevent a drop in the voltage.

3.8.2 Safety Precautions When Handling Batteries

It is always a requirement when working with batteries to observe the
following safety precautions:

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 • Use appropriate equipment to load /unload batteries from the
transporting vehicle
• Keep tools and other metallic objects away from uncovered batteries. If
metals come into contact with battery terminals this can cause arcing
which can easily cause a fire
• Use baking soda or a cleaning agent specified to neutralize spilled acid
• Wear gloves and safety glasses
• Never lay tools on the battery to avoid in case they come into contact with
the acid
• Never use spark producing tools near a battery as this may cause fire.

Figure 3.11 shows a photograph of a solar technician handling a battery with

protective clothing.

Figure 3.11: Technician handling a battery

3.8.3 Care and Maintenance of the Battery

When maintaining a battery, you should check the following:

1) Cracks in the battery case and for broken or damaged terminal. A crack
may allow the electrolyte to leak. This is a dangerous situation and the
battery should be replaced.
2) Cracked or broken cables or connection and replace them
3) Level of the electrolyte. The level can be viewed through the translucent
plastic case or by removing the vent capes and looking directly into each
cell. The proper level is ½” above the separators. If it is low, add distilled
water to each cell but avoid overfilling. When water is added, always shake
the battery to make sure the water and acid mix
4) Loose battery hold-down and loose cable connections and tighten as
needed
5) Corrosion on the terminals and dirt or acid on the case top. Routinely clean
the terminals and the top of the case with a mixture of water and baking

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 soda or ammonia. A Wire brush is needed for heavy corrosion on the
terminals.

Well, we hope you are now able to install, care and maintain a battery. To remind
yourself of what you have just learnt, please complete the following activity.

ACTIVITY 13:
Battery operation, installation and care. (Allow 15 minutes)

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false by writing “T next to the
statement if it is true or “F” if the statement is false.

Statement T/F
When a battery discharges the acid increases and the water decreases
When a battery charges the acid increases and the water decreases
Battery installation can be done in a damp room
Keep tools and other metallic objects away from uncovered batteries.
Use baking soda or a cleaning agent specified to neutralize spilled acid.
Cracks in the battery case do not pose any danger and should be ignored
Always check the level of electrolytes in the battery and add distilled water
whenever the level is low
The build-up of lead sulphate crystals in a battery increases its capacity
A new battery must be filled with acid and charged before use
There is no difference between the operation of a flooded and sealed battery

Compare your answers with those given at the end of this book.

TAKE NOTE
It is important to carry maintenance in order to preserve or restore a battery to
an acceptable standard. Maintenance also identifies problems that can lead to
failure in good time, thus giving a battery a long life.

You have come to the end of this unit on the solar battery. Let us now review what
you have learnt.

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3.9 Unit Summary
In this unit, you have identified the main parts of a battery and learnt about the
difference between flooded and sealed batteries. You have also learned about the
internal components of a battery and the basic electro-chemical reaction that powers
it. Finally, you have learned about the installation, care and maintenance of a battery.

Before you take a well-deserved break, go back to the learning objectives at the
beginning of this unit and review them again. Check if you have achieved them all. If
not, revise the relevant sections again. In the next unit, we will discuss an essential
component of all solar PV systems known as the charge controller.

3.10 References
1) Hankins. M. (1995). Solar, Electric Systems for Africa. Revised edition.
Commonwealth Science, Melbourn: United Kingdom

2) JICA (2012). Solar PV Training of Trainer’s book manual. Institute of energy and
environmental technology (IEET), Jomo Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya.

3) Maehlum, M.A (2015). Which solar panel is best? mono- vs polycrystalline vs thin
film. Retrieved 14th July, 2017, from http://energyinformative.org/best-solar-
panel-monocrystalline-polycrystalline-thin-film/#thin-film-solar-cells.

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 UNIT 4:

Charge Controller

4.1 Unit Introduction

Welcome to Unit 4 on the Charge Controller. In the last unit, you learnt how a battery
operates and how to install and maintain it in good condition. This unit discusses the
charge controller. A charge controller is an essential part of nearly all power systems
that charge batteries, whether the power source is PV cells, wind, hydro, fuel or utility
grid. Direct Current (DC) electricity generated from a solar PV module flows to a charge
controller if the system has batteries. The charge controller connects the battery to the
PV module for charging and also connects the loads to the battery. Its main job is to
protect and automate battery charging and discharging.

This unit will provide you with valuable information on the role of the charge
controller, the common types available, its specifications and how it connects to a PV
module.

4.2 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

1. Explain the role of a charge controller

2. Identify the common types of charge controllers
3. Describe the connection sequence of a charge controller
4. Describe the specifications for charge controller

4.3 Role of a Charge Controller

The main function of a charge controller is to maintain a battery’s state of charge,
between the pre-set minimum and maximum, in order to avoid overcharging or over
discharging. Let’s examine in further detail how a charge controller fulfils this function.

4.3.1 Protecting Batteries from Overcharging

The charge controller protects batteries from overcharging. Overcharging can
occur if the battery is charged by the solar PV module beyond the specified
voltage level. The charge controller protects the battery by disconnecting it
from the PV modules. For example, in a 12V solar home system, the battery is
fully charged at 14.4V. Beyond this level, the charge controller applies its high
voltage disconnect switch (HVD) to stop the battery from further charging. As
we saw in the last unit, overcharging of a battery causes a decrease in

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 electrolytes and an increase in acid concentration, which can damage the
battery.

4.3.2 Protecting Battery from Over discharging

In this protection system, the charge controller disconnects the loads from the
battery when the battery voltage falls below the specific level set by the
manufacturers. This is done to avoid damage to the battery. For example,
when a battery voltage is low (close to empty at 11.5v) the charge controller
disconnects the load from the battery to avoid further discharging. The system
uses a low voltage disconnect (LVD) switch to disconnect the battery from the
loads. Otherwise the battery would be damaged.

As we saw earlier, battery over discharge results in the build-up of lead

sulphate crystals permanently on the plates (sulphation). A prolonged state of
discharge may also result in stratification. Stratification occurs when the
concentration of acid becomes higher at the bottom of the cell and lowers at
the top of the cell. This reduces the capacity of the plates at the top and
accelerates corrosion at the bottom of the plates, thereby shortening battery
life.

You now know how a charge controller functions. Before you move on to the next
section complete the following activity.

ACTIVITY 14:
Role of Charge Controllers. (Allow 10 minutes)

Identify the two main roles of charge controllers from the list below, by circling the
correct answers.

1. To disconnect the battery from the PV modules once it is fully charged

2. To convert chemical energy into electrical energy
3. To allow gasses formed in the cell to escape
4. To disconnect the load from the battery when the voltage falls below the minimum
level
5. To separate the positive and negative plates inside a battery.

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. In the next section,
we will discuss the different types of charge controllers.

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4.4 Types of Charge Controllers
There are several types of charge controllers which are used to provide protection to
batteries. In this unit, we shall discuss the following four types:
• Shunt type charge controller
• Series charge controller design
• PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) charge controller design
• MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracker) charge controller

Let’s examine each in turn and see how it works.

4.4.1 Shunt Type Charge Controller

The shunt controller regulates the charging of a battery from the PV array by
short-circuiting the array terminals. Figure 4.1 shows an illustration of a shunt
type charge controller.

Figure 4.1: Shunt type charge controller

As you can see in Figure 4.1 above, the Shunt switch S1 is a high voltage
disconnecting switch (HVD). When the battery is fully charged S1 closes to
shunt or short circuit the PV array. Hence further charging stops. When the
battery voltage goes below the set level, the switch S1 opens so that charging
of the battery can start again. The diode D1 protects the battery against a
short circuit when the PV array is shorted. All shunt controllers must have a
blocking diode in series between the battery and the shunt element to prevent
the battery from short-circuiting when the array is regulating. The shunt type
charge controller is limited for use in PV systems with array currents less than
20 amp.

4.4.2 Series Charge Controller Design

As the name implies, this type of controller works in series between the array and
battery, unlike the shunt controller which works in parallel. This type of controller is

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used in both small PV systems and larger systems because it does not have the current
limitations of shunt controllers. Further, the series controller open-circuits the array
and therefore no blocking diode is needed to prevent the battery from short-circuiting
when the controller regulates. This is different in the case of shunt controllers, where
the series controller short-circuits the array.

Figure: 4.2 show a diagram of a series charge controller.

Figure 4.2: Series charge controller

4.4.3 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Charge Controller

This charge controller regulates the charging current according to the battery
requirements. It therefore charges the battery in an efficient way and without
applying any stress on the battery. It also increases the battery life because of
the regulated charging current. It can be used with all battery types, however,
the controlled manner with which it applies power to a battery makes it most
suitable for use with sealed Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) type of
batteries.

The PWM system switches on and off using pulses at a frequency of about
100HZ. The width of the pulses can be varied depending on the battery state
of charge. Figure 4.3 shows a typical PWM charge controller.

Figure 4.3: PWM charge controller

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 The charging of a battery by the PV array takes place when the voltage pulses
from the charge controller are supplied to the battery. The PWM controller
reduces the current from the power source according to a battery’s condition
and recharging requirements. It achieves this by checking the state of battery
charge to determine how long the pulses should be and how fast they should
come. The controller self-adjusts and appropriately sends pulses to charge the
battery. It is essentially a rapid on/off switch. When the battery is nearly
discharged the pulses may be long and continuous. When the battery becomes
charged the pulses become shorter. When full charge is achieved the pulses
are disconnected. Also, the pulses from the charge controller are connected to
the loads when the battery is in a fully charged state.

Advantages of PWM charge controllers

The following are the advantages of PWM charge controllers:

• They charge batteries in an efficient way because they apply less stress.
• They increase battery life.
• They can be used with all types of batteries

4.4.4 MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracker) Charge Controller

This controller converts a higher voltage DC output from solar panels down to
the lower voltage needed to charge batteries. Figure 4.4 show a photograph of
a MPPT charge protector.

Figure: 4.4 Photo of a typical MPPT charge controller (Source: RIAT, 2017)

An MPPT type of charge controller is the most recent and best type of solar
charge controller. It converts a high voltage DC output to a low voltage in
order to charge the battery. It also converts the best voltage to get the
maximum current into the battery. MPPT controllers differ from traditional
PWM solar charge controllers in that they are more efficient and have more
features. MPPT solar charge controllers allow solar panels to operate at their
optimum power output voltage, thereby improving their performance by as
much as 30%

Traditional controllers connect the solar module directly to the battery when
recharging. This requires the solar module to operate in a voltage range that is

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 below the module’s Voltage at Maximum Power (Vmp). For example, in a 12V
system, the battery voltage may range from 11-15V, while the module’s Vmp is
typically around 16 or 17V. MPPT helps to significantly reduce power loss as
the charging current is lower than the traditional type of charging.

We hope you are now familiar with the different types of charge connectors. Before
you proceed to the next section, complete the following activity.

ACTIVITY 15:
Types of charge controllers. (Allow 10 minutes)

Column A has names of charge controllers while column B has their descriptions.
Match each charge controller with the correct description by linking them with a line.

Type of Charge Controller Description

Shunt type charge controller Regulates the charging current according to
the battery requirements.
Series charge controller design Converts a higher voltage DC output from solar
panels to a lower voltage needed to charge
batteries
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Regulates the charging of a battery from the
charge controller design PV array by short-circuiting the array terminals
MPPT (Maximum Power Point Works in series between the array and the
Tracker) charge controller battery.

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. In the next
section, you will learn how to connect PV module batteries and loads to the charge
controllers.

4.5 Connection Sequence of PV Module Batteries

and Loads to Charge Controllers

When connecting PV module batteries and to charge controllers, you should strictly
follow the correct sequence. This is because when PV modules of say 24V are directly
connected to loads of 12V, the loads are damaged by the high voltage from the PV
modules. You should always remember that loads are rated and can only withstand
the rated voltage and current.

Figure 4.5 below shows an illustration of a solar home system components connection.

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 Figure 4.5: Solar home system components connection

When installing a charge controller, it is recommended that you follow the sequence
given below:
• Connection sequence: connect the battery to the charge controller, followed by the
module and lastly the loads (Battery, Module, Load)
• Disconnection sequence: disconnect the load(s) from the charge controller first,
followed by the module and lastly the battery (Load, Module, Battery).

You now know the right connection sequence between PV modules, loads and charge
controllers. Next, let’s look at specifications for charge controllers.

4.6 Charge Controller Specifications

The following are important specifications for charge controller:

a) Maximum module input short circuit current

This is the short circuit current from the PV module which the charge controller
should be able to handle. The short circuit current is calculated by the technician
and depends on the connection (series or parallel) of the modules. Usually the
short circuit current for the module is displayed on module specification
(nameplate).

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b) Maximum load output current
This is the maximum load current that the charge controller can supply. The total
load current of the system should be calculated by the technician.

c) System voltage
This is the voltage level which is required by the solar home system for running the
loads. Examples of system voltages are:
• 12v
• 24v
• 48v

d) Low voltage disconnect

This is the lowest voltage of a battery which the charge controller monitors in
order to automatically turn off the load to prevent the battery from over
discharging. In most systems, low voltage disconnect occurs at 11.5v. This usually is
a specification given by the manufacturers of the charge controllers and is usually
a pre-set value. However, the solar PV technician should be able to select a
controller which suits the battery for the system.

e) High voltage disconnect

This is the highest battery charging voltage, which prompts the charge controller
to disconnect the PV modules from the battery in order to avoid further
overcharging. Otherwise the battery could be damaged. A typical high voltage
disconnect value is 14.2V and the battery nominal voltage is 12V for a 12 Volts
system.

f) Self consumption
This is the energy used by the charge controller when it is switched on without
supplying the loads.

g) Indicators
These are pilot lamps on the charge controller which indicates the system status of
the Solar Home System. The lamps show the following:
• Red light indicator shows that the battery is low and is not being charged.
• Yellow light indicator shows that charging is in progress
• Green light indicator shows that the battery is fully charged and the system is
ready.

You have come to the end of this unit on the charge controller. Before we review what
you have learnt, complete the following activity.

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ACTIVITY 16:
Charge Controller connection sequence and specifications. (Allow 15 minutes)

Q1. Which of the following is the correct connection sequence for charge controllers?
Circle the correct answer.

a) Battery  Module  load  charge controller,

b) Battery  Charge controller  module  load
c) Module  Load Charge controller  Battery
d) Load  Battery  Charge controller  Module

Q2. Which of the following is the correct disconnection sequence for charge
controllers? Circle the correct answer.

a) Charge controller  Load(s)  module  battery

b) Module  battery Load(s)  charge controller
c) Load(s)  charge controller  module  battery
d) Battery  module  Load(s)  charge controller

Q3. Indicate whether the following statements on charge controller specifications are
True or False by writing “T” for true or “F” for false next to the statement.

Charge Controller Specification T/F

a) Maximum module input short circuit current refers to the maximum load
current that the charge controller can supply.
b) The system voltage refers to the voltage level required by a solar home system
for running loads.
c) High voltage disconnect prompts the charge controller to disconnect the PV
modules to avoid overcharging.
d) Self-consumption refers to the maximum load current that a charge controller
can supply.
e) Indicators on the charge controller show the status of the system.
f) Low voltage disconnect refers to the lowest voltage of a battery which triggers
the charge controller to automatically turn off the load.

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. Let’s now review
what you have learnt in this unit.

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4.7 Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt about the role of charge controllers in a power system that
charges batteries and the various types available. You have also learnt about the
correct sequence of connecting various components to charge controllers. Lastly, we
have looked at the different specifications of charge controllers and what they mean.

To find out how well you are getting on, look at the learning objectives at the
beginning of this unit and see if you have achieved them all. If there is any you are not
sure about, revise the relevant section again. If you feel confident that you have
achieved all the objectives, then you are ready to move on to Unit 5 which covers
photovoltaic system sizing.

4.8 References
1. International Solar Energy institute for Rural Development (2012). Basics of
Photovoltaic Technology.

2. Akio, S., and JICA, (2000). Solar Home System Hand book. Tokyo: Japan
international co-operation agency.

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 UNIT 5:

Photovoltaic System Sizing

5.1 Unit Introduction

Congratulations for coming this far and welcome to Unit 5 on photovoltaic system
sizing! In the last unit, we discussed the role, types, sequence and specifications of
charge controllers. In this unit, you will learn how to determine the appropriate size of
a solar PV system based on your client’s needs.

This unit starts by looking at the definition of ‘system sizing’ and explains its
importance. It then discusses how to determine the total daily energy demands for a
system with DC loads and describes the ‘rule of thumb’. The unit ends with a
discussion on how to estimate the number of lights and battery capacity as well as
identify the size and capacity of solar PV components using a PV system design table.
As usual, we will start with our learning objectives.

5.2 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

1. Define the term ‘system sizing’ and state its importance in PV systems
2. Determine the total daily energy demand for a system with DC loads only
3. Apply the ‘Rule of the Thumb’ to determine the system voltage for a simple DC PV
system
4. Estimate the number of DC lights and battery capacity by PV module size using the
EZ solar formula
5. Identify the appropriate module current, module array size, battery bank capacity
and size of charge controller for a corresponding daily energy demand using a PV
system design table

5.3 PV System Sizing and Its Importance

This section looks at the definition of the term ‘system sizing and its importance. It
also discusses the qualities of a good solar PV system and how to conduct a client
consultation.

5.3.1 What is PV System Sizing?

PV System sizing is the process of matching the capacity and size of solar PV
system components with the electricity needs of the end user.

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5.3.2 Importance of System Sizing
System sizing is important because it enables the solar technician to find out
the total power and energy consumption of all the loads that need to be
supplied by the solar PV system. System sizing ensures that the solar PV
system works effectively and that the end user is satisfied. It also ensures that
the best PV battery-charge controller combination is selected to support the
end user’s daily energy requirement throughout the year. An undersized
system does not deliver the power required while an oversized system can be
expensive due to overcharging, therefore causing reduced battery life.

5.3.2 Essentials of a PV Solar Home System

A Direct Current (DC) solar PV home system has four main components:
• a solar PV module
• a charge controller,
• a battery
• a load

Figure 5.1 shows a diagram of a DC solar PV home system.

Figure 5.1: A solar PV home system

In Figure 5.1, points B and C represent the energy at each stage while point C is
the electricity to be used by the DC loads. Point A is the isolation and point Y is
the rated power of the PV module. When calculating the size of a solar PV
system, much attention is given to the flow of energy and the efficiency of
each device, i.e., the battery, charge controller and module, among other.

The components of a solar PV system are available in different sizes and

capacities, which allows a technician to design a system that is durable and
that gives clients maximum power for their loads. Proper system sizing
improves system efficiency. For example, a bigger battery can store more
electricity than a smaller one. However, electricity is produced by the PV
module and not the battery. Therefore, if the battery is bigger than the system
module, it will not charge fully. If on the other hand it is too small, it runs the
danger of being overcharged. As a rule of the thumb, a good system sizing

Solar PV System Design Guide for Beginners Page|65

 should ensure that the energy demands and system voltage match with the
size of the main system components. It should also ensure that the PV system
works effectively and the end user is satisfied.
.
A correctly sized solar PV home system should efficiently supply the required
energy to the end user all year round. It should have the following qualities:
• A battery bank that is capable of delivering energy efficiently even on
cloudy days.
• A PV module that is sized to charge the battery even during months when
the average daily insolation (the rate at which solar radiation is delivered
on the earth’s surface) is low .
• Basic system components, such as, the charge controller, battery and solar
module should have the right size and capacity to power the system loads
efficiently.
• A small buffer (allowances for new additional appliances that will be using
the system power) for future load growth of the PV system.

Finally, you should explain to the end user the important role that the PV
Array, battery and charge controller play in a solar PV system and how energy
usage in the home affects battery’s life and storage levels. Unfortunately,
many solar energy systems in our homes suffer from poor sizing, which often
leads to system failure. It is important for the designer or maintenance
personnel to have a clear understanding of system sizing, so that they can
design an efficient PV system that is able to supply reliable and adequate
energy.

5.3.3 Consulting with the Home Owner

The first step in sizing a solar system is to consult with the client so that you
can determine the electrical appliances they intend to use. Once you estimate
the client’s energy consumption, then you should be able to calculate the
estimated cost of installation. The final PV system design solution that you
provide to the client must be affordable. This may involve asking the client to
make a compromise on their initial energy demands in order to find a balance
between energy service and affordability.

The next steps of this consultation process involve carrying out an energy
demand audit and a site survey to confirm the requirements as given by the
end user. Simply put, you need to make a site visit and fill-in the energy audit
table so that you can verify the number of loads that need to be powered by
the expected solar system. During the site survey, you should make sure you
identify all the energy needs and list them on the energy audit template.

You now know the meaning of system sizing, its importance and basic essentials of a
solar home PV system. In the next section, we shall discuss how to conduct a daily
energy demand audit for DC loads. But before you move on, complete the following
activity.

Solar PV System Design Guide for Beginners Page|66

ACTIVITY 17:
PV system sizing and its importance. (Allow 10 minutes)

Circle the correct answer.

Q1. Which of the following is NOT a quality of a well sized solar PV home system?

a) A battery bank that delivers energy even on cloudy days.

b) A PV module that is sized to charge the battery even when the average daily
insolation is low.
c) Oversized system components that can power the system loads efficiently.
d) A small buffer for future load growth of the PV system.

Q2. Which of the following is NOT a component of a solar PV system?

a) solar PV module
b) charge controller
c) solar energy
d) battery
e) load

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book.

5.4 Daily Energy Demand Audit for DC Loads

An energy audit helps you to understand the energy that a solar system needs to
provide daily. This in turn enables you to approximate the total energy storage of your
battery bank and module requirement. In this section, we will discuss how to estimate
the daily energy consumption and complete an energy audit for a simple DC system.

5.4.1 Estimating the Daily Energy Consumption

Generally, a stand-alone PV system should be used to feed power-saving
devices in a home system. Further, the use of devices operating at 12 or 24 V
DC (since PV systems provide DC voltage) helps to prevent some conversion
losses. Figure 5.2 shows a diagram of a solar home system with power saving
DC appliances only.

Solar PV System Design Guide for Beginners Page|67

 Invertor

Figure 5.2: A schematic diagram of a solar home system with DC appliances only

To estimate the daily energy consumption of a home, you should proceed as

follows:
• Multiply the power input (measured in Watt) for every device by the hours
this device will be switched on.
• Add up these figures and add a small percentage for future growth.

The average daily energy output by a PV system should be sufficient to cover the
daily consumption of a solar home system. For most countries where summer and
winter seasons are not as pronounced, the average daily energy output by the PV
system is more or else constant.

5.4.2 Completing an Energy Audit for a Simple DC Solar Home

System
An energy audit helps you to understand the energy that a solar system should
deliver each day. This in turn, helps you to calculate the energy storage and
generation requirements of the batteries and PV array, respectively. Table 5.1
shows a sample template that you can use to conduct an energy audit.

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 Table 5.1: Sample Energy Audit Template

Number of Watts Daily Run DC Energy Usage

Load Description
Items (W) Time (hours) (Watt-hours)

Total DC Energy usage

Buffer for
Growth ( ___ %)
Final Design Load
(Whs)

TAKE NOTE:
When filling the above template, you should ask the user how their energy
usage varies from one season to another and use the higher end of their
estimated usage.

The following steps will guide you on how to perform a simple energy audit. Keep
in mind that appliance ratings will differ from one appliance to another with the
usage hours depending on the end user.
1. Identify all electrical appliances and devices that will be powered by the
system
2. Select energy efficient appliances, e.g., use DC LED (Light Emitting Diode) or
compact Fluorescent Lights when providing lighting for solar
3. Determine whether devices are AC or DC and the wattage of these appliances
4. Confirm the average duration that these appliances will be used throughout
the day
5. Calculate DC loads by multiplying Wattage, Hours and number of items
6. Provide a small additional allowance to allow for future energy load growth.

The following formula gives you the Total Daily DC Energy Usage (Watt-hours) for
each load:

DC Energy Usage = Number x Wattage (W) x Daily run

of items for each item time in hours

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Let’s use this formula to calculate the DC energy usage of one LED bedroom light with
a power rating of 3 watts and a daily runtime of 2 hours. Start by attempting the
following activity and then compare your findings with ours.

ACTIVITY 17:
DC Energy Usage. (Allow 6 minutes)

Using the formula we have just discussed, calculate the DC energy usage of one LED
bedroom light with a power rating of 3 Watts and daily runtime of 2 hours. Use the
space provided below for your calculation and then compares your answer with what
you read in the following section.

Well done! We hope your answer was 6Wh calculated as follows:

DC Energy Usage = 1 LED light × 3W × 2 hours = 6 Watt-hours

You should apply the same formula to determine the total DC energy usage of each
item’s load and then add them all together in order to get the total load design in
Watt-hours.

Once you calculate the total load design, you should add a future buffer growth
provision of at least a 10%, in order to determine the final design load. This provision
of 10% is based on the assumption that in future the solar home system owner might
decide to add more loads to the PV solar system, e.g., more lights. Therefore, it’s
always advisable to include this percentage for future load expansion. The formula for
calculating the future buffer growth is as follows:

Future buffer growth = Assumed buffer growth percentage X Total load design

To help you understand how to calculate future buffer growth let’s look at Example 2.

EXAMPLE 2: Future Buffer Growth

An energy audit of a simple house has calculated a total load design of 90W after
adding up the total DC energy usage in watt-hours of four LED lights (39Wh), a radio

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 (45Wh) and mobile phone charger (6Wh). If the future buffer growth is 10%, then we
can calculate it and the Final Design Load as follows:
10
1. Future buffer growth = x 90 = 9Wh
100
Total load Future buffer
2. Final design load = +
design growth

Final design load = 99Wh

Table 5.2 shows the full energy audit of a small home based on Example 2.

Table 5.2: Sample Energy Audit Sample with a growth buffer for a small home

Number Daily Run

Wattage DC Energy Usage
Load Description of Time
(W) (Watt-hours)
Items (hours)
LED lights (Bedrooms) 1 3 2 6

Led lights (Bathroom) 1 3 2 6

LED lights (Living Area) 1 3 3 9

LED lights (Kitchen) 1 3 3 18

Radio 1 15 3 45

Mobile Phone Chargers 1 3 2 6

TOTAL DC Energy Usage
90Wh
(Wh)
Buffer for future Growth (90Wh x 10%) =
(10%) 9Wh
Final Design Load (Whs) 90+ 9 = 99Wh

You have come to the end of this section. We hope you are now able to estimate the
daily energy consumption and complete an energy audit for a simple DC system.
Before you move on to the next section, complete the following activity. It will help
you to practice what you have just learnt.

ACTIVITY 18:
Energy Audit. (Allow 20 minutes)

Complete the following daily energy demand table for different DC loads shown below.
Then, calculate the total daily load/energy consumption in watt hours and the final
daily load expected if the future buffer growth provision is 10%.

Solar PV System Design Guide for Beginners Page|71

.

Number of Daily energy

Appliance
Appliance Number hours of requirement
rating (watts)
use/day(hours) (watt hours)
Indoor lights 3 4 4 48
Security light 1 8 10 --------
TV 1 60 2 --------
CD player 1 20 3 --------
Phone charger 2 4 2 --------
Total
daily/energy ------
load (Wh)
Future buffer
------
growth (10%)
Final design
------
load (Wh

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. Next, we shall
discuss how to estimate the system voltage and the key rule of thumb to observe
when doing this estimation.

5.5 Estimation of a System Voltage

The choice of battery voltage depends on the size of the system. For a small PV solar
home system that powers DC loads only, e.g., lights, radio and TV, you can install a 12V
voltage system (a battery bank that can provide a 12V). While for larger systems
where loads are predominantly AC and the total AC load exceeds 1200W, a 24V
voltage systems is recommended. However, most DC appliances are available in 12V.

The voltage system of a solar home system (SHS) is the effective voltage that can be
provided by a battery bank of a given solar system. This value can be estimated from
the following block diagram of the total energy daily demand of a system.

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 Figure 5.3: Total energy daily demand system (SEIAPI, 2012)

The Sustainable Energy Industry Association of the Pacific Islands (SEIAPI) developed
guidelines on how to choose a system voltage based on the schematic diagram in
Figure 5.3 above. These guidelines are also known as the ‘ Rule of Thumb ’ in system
voltage determination (SEIAPI, 2012). The voltage system can only be estimated if the
total energy daily demand of a system is known. You learnt how to calculate the total
energy daily demand of a system in the previous section.

The schematic in Figure 5.3 gives the following guidelines:

• If the total daily demand is less than 1000Wh, then you should use a 12V
system voltage
• If the total daily demand is between 1000Wh and 4,000Wh, then you should
use a 24V system voltage
• If the total daily demand is more than 4,000, then you should use a 48V system
voltage.

Most of the households that use PV solar power to connect AC appliances (e.g. a
refrigerator) have a voltage system of 24V and above. This is because the total energy
demand is greater than 1000Wh.

To help you understand how to estimate a system voltage using the schematic in Table
5.3 to complete the following activity.

ACTIVITY 19:
System Voltage. (Allow 10 minutes)

Using the schematic in Figure 5.3, determine the appropriate system voltage for a PV
solar home systems with the following total energy daily demand:

1. 356Wh _______________

2. 500Wh. _______________

3. 1500Wh. _______________

4. 2,000Wh _______________

5. 4,500Wh ________________

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book.

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You have come to the end of this section. Knowledge of estimating system voltage will
enable you to start sizing system components either using the EZsolar or Standard
method. In our next section, we are going to look at the EZsolar method.

5.6 The EZsolar Method (Easy Solar Method)

This is a simplified method that is used for estimating the number of lights based on
the size of a DC PV module and battery capacity. This method was developed for small
solar home systems with PV module sizes below 110w. The system appliances may
include lights, radio, CD or USB player and a TV without an inverter. In this section, we
will discuss how to estimate battery storage capacity and calculate system sizing using
the EZSolar method.

5.6.1 Estimating the Battery Storage Capacity

Since a PV system generates electricity when the sun is shining, which in many
cases is not the time we need the energy, we use rechargeable batteries to
store the electrical energy. As clearly indicated by the equation below, the
capacity of such batteries is measured in ampere-hours (Ah) (Muchunku &
Okendo, 2012).
Constant
Battery Capacity (Ah) = current drawn x Time (h)
from the

If we divide the assumed consumption per day (in Wh) by the output voltage
(in V DC) of the storage system (mostly 12V DC for our small Home systems),
we get the appropriate capacity of the battery that can effectively support the
system loads. For example, let us assume that the assumed consumption of a
small home system is 500Wh per day. Using the formula below, we can
calculate the battery capacity as follows:

assumed consumption per day (in Wh)

Battery Capacity (Ah) =
output voltage (in VDC) of the storage

500 (Wh) 500 V Ah

Battery Capacity (Ah) = = = 41.67 Ah
12V 12V

5.6.2 System Sizing using EZSolar Formulae

Since the EZSolar method was developed for small solar home systems
(module size of 110W or less), the size of the system is mainly determined by
the number of lights. The EZSolar method takes into account the following
assumptions:
• It is not necessary to consider battery type and autonomy (situations when
the module doesn’t charge the battery, e.g., on a cloudy day).

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 • The formula’s shallow DOD, i.e., the depth of discharge (DOD) is around
10% to 30%.
• That the battery capacity is enough to cover autonomy for 1 to 3 days, that
is, it is large enough to cover the loads for one to three days when the
sunshine is not enough to charge the battery.

EZSolar method employs two formulae, that is, EZSolar formula1 and EZSolar
formula2.
• EZSolar formula1 is employed to determine the number of lights by
different PV module sizes
• EZSolar formula2 is used to determine the battery size by a given module
size. Let’s consider each method in further detail below.

Let’s look at each formula in further detail.

1. EZSolar Formula 1: Determining the number of lights powered by PV module

size.

The size of a PV module in wattage is expressed in whole numbers, whose digits

hold different place values. Therefore, this formula takes into account the digit
and its place value depending on whether you are including a small TV set or not.
In a whole number, the digit on the extreme right-hand side of the number has a
place value of one, while the one before it has a place value of ten. The other
remaining digits continue to fill in the place values until there are no digits left. For
example, 167 is a whole number and digit 7, 6 and 1 hold a place value of one, tens
and hundreds, respectively.

Since the wattage figure value is represented by digits that hold different place
values, the digit holding the place value of tens, hundreds or both is employed in
estimating the number of lights that can be powered by a given PV module size. If
the wattage value consists of three digits then both the last two digits (tens and
hundreds) provide the value that is used when applying this formula.

According to Akio and JICA (2000), the number of lights is given by the following
equation based on the presence or absence of a TV in the Solar Home System
(SHS).

Number of Lights = Value at tens digit of PV module size – EZ1

EZ1 = 0 if the SHS doesn’t have a TV and
EZ1 = 1 if the SHS has a TV

We will now apply this formula using the following two examples

EXAMPLE 3:
Small Home System (SHS) Without a TV

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We have been asked to determine the number of lights for a 66W PV module without
a TV. Since this system doesn’t have a TV, the EZ1 value is taken as zero “0”. Therefore,
the number of lights would be calculated as follows:
66 W (PV module size)

6 – 0 = 6 Lights

tens digits EZ1

The number of lights for a 66W PV module is 6.

Let’s now look at Example 4 which shows you how to determine the number of lights
in a home with a small TV.

EXAMPLE 4:
Small Home System with a TV
Determine the number of lights for a 66W PV module with a TV.

Since this system has a TV, the EZ1 value is taken as One “1”. Therefore, the number of
lights would be calculated as follows:

66 W (PV module size)

6 – 1 = 5 Lights

tens digits EZ1

The number of lights for a 66W PV module with a TV is five (5).

We hope you noticed from these two examples, that when we added a TV to the load,
the number of lights dropped from 6 to 5. Table 5.2 below shows the approximate
number of lights that can be powered by different PV module sizes.

Table 5.3: PV module size versus Number of lights

Number of lights (7W or 9W)

PV module size (w)
With Radio +USB Player With Radio + USB Player + TV
29 2 1
56 5 4
66 6 5

Solar PV System Design Guide for Beginners Page|76

 80 8 7
109 10 9
110 11 10

TAKE NOTE:
If the end user limits the number of lighting hours, it may be possible to install
more lights. However, ordinarily it is difficult to control the total usage of lights.
That is why the number of lights is always limited by PV module size.

Let’s now look at the second EZSolar formula.

2. EZSolar Formula 2: Determining the battery size by PV module size.

This formula takes into consideration fixed values or constants that when
multiplied with the wattage rating of a given PV module provide a given
minimum/nominal/maximum battery bank capacity. The fixed values can either be
1, 1.5 or 2, respectively. Any of these three values is an EZ2 value. The product of
an EZ2 value and a given PV module size gives us the estimated battery bank
capacity. The number of lights is given by the following equation:

Battery Capacity (Ah) = PV module size (W) x EZ2

EZ2 = 1 to 2 (Any value between 1, 1.5 or 2)

TAKE NOTE:
The product of the PV module size and E22 values 1, 1.5 or 2, corresponds with
the minimum, nominal and maximum battery bank capacity, respectively.

Example 5 illustrates how to calculate the minimum, nominal and maximum sizes of
battery capacity.

EXAMPLE 5:
Determining the battery capacity for a 66W PV module using E22 values:
Minimum size of battery capacity (EZ2 = 1.0)
66 x 1.0 = 66Ah
Nominal size of battery capacity (EZ2 = 1.5)
66 x 1.5 = 99 Ah
Maximum size of battery capacity (EZ2 = 2.0)
66 x 2.0 = 132Ah

The table below gives the minimum, nominal and maximum battery bank capacities for
various PV module sizes using the EZSolar formula in Example 5 above.

Solar PV System Design Guide for Beginners Page|77

 Table 5.4: PV module size versus Battery capacity

Battery Capacity (C/20)

PV Module size Maximum
Minimum Nominal
(EZ2=2)
(EZ2=1.0) (EZ2=1.5)
50Ah
25W 25Ah 37.5Ah
60Ah
30W 30Ah 45Ah
50W 50Ah 75Ah 100Ah
66W 66Ah 99Ah 132Ah
83W 83Ah 124.5Ah 166Ah
110W 110Ah 165Ah 220Ah

Table 5.4 shows the corresponding battery capacities for various PV module sizes
assuming a battery capacity rate of 20 hours, i.e., C/20. This table can quickly assist you
to estimate the minimum, nominal and maximum battery capacities. For instance, the
minimum, nominal and maximum battery capacities for a PV module with a wattage of
66W can be obtained by reading across the table as highlighted in Table 5.4 to obtain
the values, which we calculated in Example 5 above.

TAKE NOTE:
A bigger battery is preferred to a smaller one because it can store more
electricity. However, it’s important to remember that electricity is produced by
the module. So while a bigger battery can support a large number of loads, it
also takes a longer time to fully charge.

You have come to the end of this section on the EZSolar method. In the next section,
we are going to look at system design table, which employs the standard method of
sizing. But before you move on, please complete the following activity.

ACTIVITY 20:
Sizing the battery bank and number of lights using the EZsolar method. (Allow about
30 minutes)

1) Use EZSolar formula 1 to determine the number of lights for a 105W PV

module with a small radio, a USB player and a TV.

Solar PV System Design Guide for Beginners Page|78

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2) Use EZSolar formula 2 to determine the battery size,

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. In the next section,
we shall discuss how to use the standard method of sizing.

5.7 The System Design Table

A PV system design table is used for system sizing. It takes the following parameters
into consideration:

• Energy loss: a PV system loses energy due to inefficiencies in wire, batteries and
inverters. This loss must be added to the total daily load energy demand, though
it’s difficult to approximate the exact energy. However, a general estimate of
energy loss can be made as follows:
- If the system components are new and properly sized, the energy loss is
15% of the estimated system energy daily load.
- If there are a number of long wires (over 10meters) and the equipment is
new, the energy loss is 20% of the estimated system energy daily load.
- If the system uses an inverter, the system loss is 30% of the estimated
system energy daily load.

• The peak sunshine hours (insolation): this refers to the average sun hours falling
on a particular location. This insolation data is usually available from Insolation
maps in Meteorological departments. The same data can be obtained from
Africa energy isolation maps and Table 5.5 shown below, courtesy of
AfricaEnergy.com.

• Depth of Discharge (DOD): as we discussed in Unit 3, DOD describes the

extent to which a battery is emptied relative to its total capacity. The
maximum limit is usually indicated by the manufacturer. A maximum of 75%
depth of discharge is recommended, though choosing a lower level (such as
50%) will further increase battery life cycle.

• Days of Autonomy: this refers to the number of ‘no-sun’ days of energy

storage that can be delivered by a battery bank to power a load. For common,

Solar PV System Design Guide for Beginners Page|79

 less critical PV applications, autonomy periods are typically between two and
four days.

Figure 5.4 shows energy isolation maps for Africa in December and June.

Figure 5.4: Africa energy isolation maps

Table 5.5 shows isolation in KWh per square meter in selected African sites.

Table 5.5: Insolation in kWh (peak sun hours) per square meter in selected African sites

Solar PV System Design Guide for Beginners Page|80

Country City Latitude Longitude Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Average

12' 24"
BF Ouagadougou 1' 30" E 5.48 6.43 6.56 6.62 6.53 6.16 5.76 5.48 5.87 6.18 5.83 5.35 6.02
N
18' 32"
CF Bangui 120' 36" E 4.13 4.97 5.99 6.61 6.17 5.53 5.73 4.87 5.07 4.55 4.07 3.81 5.13
N
CM Yaounde 3' 48" N 11' 30" W 4.94 5.38 5.16 4.68 4.46 4.42 5.17 5.07 5.03 5.4 5.29 4.83 4.99
11' 33"
DJ Djibouti 43' 09" E 5.6 5.77 6.59 6.81 6.85 6.87 6.46 6.47 6.56 6.77 6.22 5.55 6.38
N
36 ' 50"
DZ Alger 3' E 2.22 2.94 3.87 5 5.88 6.69 7.23 6.48 5.15 3.53 2.43 2.02 4.45
N
29' 35"
EG Cairo 31' 09" E 3.39 4.17 5.24 6.49 7.11 8 7.88 7.4 6.42 5.07 3.86 3.19 5.69
N
ET Addis Ababa 9' 2" N 38' 42" E 5.96 5.8 6.23 6.31 6.11 5.79 5.03 5 5.64 6.31 6.15 5.75 5.84
GH Accra 5' 36` N 0' 12` W 5.65 6.01 5.65 5.33 5 4.49 4.5 4.59 4.67 5.25 5.7 5.55 5.20
13' 28"
GM Gambia 16' 39" W 5.01 5.93 6.67 6.92 6.72 6.06 5.48 5.09 5.3 5.67 5.36 4.95 5.76
N
GN Conakry 9' 36" N 13' 36" E 5.81 6.41 6.51 6.22 5.69 5.69 5.09 5.05 5.46 5.87 5.98 5.6 5.78
KENYA Nairobi 1' 16" S 36' 48" E 6.05 6.24 6.07 5.7 5.0 5.14 4.88 5.09 5.78 6.03 5.48 5.6 5.62
LR Liberia 6' 30" N 9' 30" W 5.43 5.72 5.59 5.31 5.11 4.61 4.25 4.19 4.67 5.13 5.24 5.2 5.04
32' 54"
LY Tarabulus 13' 11" E 3.1 4.03 5.19 6.48 6.89 7.77 8.11 7.45 6.12 4.58 3.35 2.76 5.49
N
32' 32"
MA Rabat 9' 17" W 3.13 3.86 5.09 6.08 6.89 7.31 7.34 6.8 5.69 4.37 3.25 2.82 5.22
N
12' 30"
ML Bamako 7' 54" E 5.61 6.35 6.64 6.78 6.42 6.47 5.87 5.65 6.04 6.13 5.85 5.36 6.10
N
17' 45"
MR Nouakchott 15' 45" E 5.31 6.21 6.8 7.54 7.57 7.63 7.2 6.9 6.78 6.34 5.49 4.88 6.55
N
13' 30"
NE Niamey 2' 12" W 5.42 6.39 6.72 6.79 6.75 6.31 6.07 5.78 6.07 6.16 5.79 5.29 6.13
N
NG Abuja 9' 12" N 7' 11" E 5.57 6.33 6.22 6.1 5.89 5.47 4.92 4.65 5.12 5.82 5.81 5.42 5.61
15' 33"
SD Al khur-tum 32' 32" E 5.46 6.19 6.75 7.25 6.85 6.96 6.52 6.35 6.42 6.17 5.66 5.22 6.32
N
SL Freetown 8' 29" N 13' 14" W 5.19 5.91 6.08 5.47 4.76 4.09 3.6 3.58 4.25 4.84 4.93 4.94 4.80
14' 38"
SN Dakar 17' 27" W 4.84 5.77 6.56 6.81 6.7 5.7 5.15 5.01 5.13 5.46 5.03 4.63 5.57
N
SO Muqdisho 2' 02" N 45' 20" E 6.38 6.81 6.71 6.28 5.85 5.45 5.21 5.61 6.15 6.16 6 5.91 6.04
36'
TN Tunis 10' 6.8" E 2.29 3.06 4.09 5.47 6.38 7.16 7.57 6.8 5.33 3.65 2.54 2.08 4.70
47.8" N

As you can see in Table 5.5, a PV system near Nairobi (Kenya), with a 1 kWp nominal
output, would generate 5.6 kWh of electrical power per day on average monthly
insulation in December and an average annual insolation of 5.62 peak sun hours.

TAKE NOTE:
In the absence of insolation data from maps or tables, you may can use the
global isolation standard of 5 peak sun hours (kWhrs of insolation per
square meter) when sizing.

You now know what a system table is and how it is used. Next, we will look at how to
size the PV Array.

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5.7.1 Sizing the PV Array
The size of an array is based on the total final daily load (with a buffer growth)
and the average daily solar irradiation in the area that the system is to be
installed. The daily energy requirement in amp hours is determined by dividing
the final daily demand requirement by the system voltage. The daily energy
requirement in ampere hours is given by the following equation (Muchunku &
Okendo, 2012):

Final daily demand / load

Daily energy requirement (Ah) =
system voltage

Using this formula, calculate the daily energy requirement in the following
activity.

ACTIVITY 21:

Determining the daily energy requirement (Ah). (Allow 10 minutes)

A PV home system has a final daily demand/load (with a buffer growth) of 356.4, and a
system voltage of 12V. Using the formula above calculate the daily energy
requirement (Ah) in the space provided below.

Well done! We hope your calculation was as follows:

Final daily demand / load
Daily energy requirement (Ah) =
system voltage

356.4 Wh = 29.7 Ah ≅ 30Ah

12V

Once the daily energy requirement in ampere hours (Ah) has been
determined, then the next step is to determine the PV module current that is

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 required to provide the daily energy requirement. This can be calculated
using the following equation:

Daily energy requirement (Ah)

Module current (A) =
Number of peak sun hours

Using the daily energy requirement of 30Ah (in the previous example) and if
the number of peak sun hours is five (e.g. in Nairobi), then the module current
will be 5.94 Amperes calculated as follows:

Daily energy requirement (Ah)

Module current (A) =
Number of peak sun hours

30
= = 6 Amperes
5

5.7.2 Standard Method of Sizing the Battery Bank

A battery size is based on the following parameters:
• daily energy requirement (Ah),
• the Depth of Discharge (DOD) and
• the days of autonomy that range from 2-4 days.

However, caution should be taken to ensure that the module capacity is

sufficient to recharge a large battery bank adequately. In cases where the days
of autonomy are more than 3 days, you should consider using bigger modules
that can provide more power and that enable the battery to charge fully and
faster (over sizing).

An appropriate battery bank capacity in ampere hour for a SHS is given by the
following formula:
Total final daily demand (Ah) x day of
Battery bank capacity (Ah) = autonomy
Depth of discharge of a given battery

Let’s apply this formula using the information in Example 6.

EXAMPLE 6:

Battery bank capacity

Let’s assume that the DOD of a given battery is 50%, the system voltage is 12V, days of
autonomy are two and the total final daily demand in ampere hour is 30Ah. We can
calculate the battery bank capacity as follows:

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 Total final daily demand (Ah) x day of
Battery bank capacity (Ah) =
autonomy
Depth of discharge of a given battery
30 x 3
= = 180 Ah
50%

The battery bank capacity is 180Ah. This can be rounded off to the nearest
battery size.

The capacity specifications of a battery are always indicated on the data sheets
that accompany the battery when it is sold.

5.7.3 Standard Method of Sizing the Charge Controller

The charge regulator is selected based on the PV module short circuit current,
i.e., the maximum current that can be drawn from the PV modules at 0 volts.
This value of the short circuit current is always indicated on the data sheet of
every genuine PV solar module. The charge controller current rating should be
higher than the short circuit current rating of the module. The charge
controller current rating should be approximately 1.3 times that of the module
short circuit current rating. However, the voltage rating of the charge
controller remains the value of the system voltage. Table 5.6 shows a sample
system design table.

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 Table 5.6: System Design Table (Source: Muchunku and Okendo, 2012)

Daily Daily Energy Daily Module Module Battery bank Charge

Energy Req. Energy Current Array (Ah) controller
Req. (Wh) (50% DOD
Req. (Ah) ( Amps) (Wp) (Amps)
(Wh) (considering and 3
(considering storage
20% losses)
5psh) days)
40 48 4.0 0.8 14 26 5
60 72 6.0 1.2 20 26 5
80 96 8.0 1.6 30 26 5
100 120 10.0 2.0 40 40 5
120 144 12.0 2.4 45 50 5
140 168 14.0 2.8 50 50 5
160 192 16.0 3.2 50 65 5
180 216 18.0 3.6 65 75 5
200 240 20.0 4.0 65 75 5
220 264 22.0 4.4 75 100 10
240 288 24.0 4.8 80 100 10
260 312 26.0 5.2 85 100 10
280 336 28.0 5.6 105 100 10
300 360 30.0 6.0 105 130 10
320 384 32.0 6.4 110 130 10
340 408 34.0 6.8 115 130 10
360 432 36.0 7.2 120 150 10
380 456 38.0 7.6 125 150 10
400 480 40.0 8.0 140 150 10
420 504 42.0 8.4 140 150 10

You can use this table to get the recommended size of a module/array, battery
bank and charge controller by identifying the value in the first column that is
nearest to the total daily energy requirement from your audit. Then you just read
the values across the row. For example, let us assume that your audit has a total
final demand/load (with 10% buffer growth) of 99W. This figure is near 100W in
the first column of the table. Therefore, you should read across the highlighted
row with 100W in order to obtain the following recommended sizes of
module/array, battery bank and charge controller:

• 40Wp PV module with a 2.0A module current

• Battery bank capacity of 40Ah
• 12V, 5A charge controller

5.7.4 Comparison of EZSolar and Standard Method System Design

Flow
As we discussed earlier in this unit, both the EZsolar and standard methods are
used for sizing different solar PV home systems. However, their suitability and
preference depends on their simplicity and the final system performance after
installation. Figure 5.6 and Table 5.6 below show a system design flow chart
that compares the two methods.

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 Figure 5.6: EZsolar and Standard method system design flow

Table 5.6: Comparison of EZsolar and standard method system design flow

Standard Method EZsolar Method

System training is needed Computation is easier

Often assumed Everybody can calculate

Maximum system
Acceptable system performance
performance

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 The flow chart in Figure 5.6 clearly shows that the standard method of
designing system components allows for resizing of the battery bank and PV
module based on affordability. While this may be challenging to you as the
system designer, it enables the final system to achieve maximum performance
by powering the right number of loads.

We hope you now understand the difference between the EZsolar and
Standard methods. As a way of reflecting on what you have learnt so far,
please complete the following activity.

ACTIVITY 22:
The system design table (Allow about 30 minutes)
Q1. Using the row of 400Wh in the system design table, determine the daily energy
demand of the following PV system component:
• module current ________

• module array _________

• battery bank capacity ___________

• charge controller ______________

Q2. The following data was obtained from a PV system technician:

• total final daily demand of 20Ah
• 5 peak sunshine hours
• battery depth of discharge of 50%
• 2 autonomous days

Without using the system design table, calculate the following:

• the system voltage

• battery bank capacity

• PV module current

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Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book.

That comparison between EZsolar and Standard method brings us to the end of this
unit. Let’s now review what you have learnt.

5.8 Unit Summary

In this unit, you have learnt about the importance of sizing PV systems according to the
energy needs of the end user. Proper sizing of PV modules, charge controllers and
battery power banks ensures that you install the best PV battery combination to
support the end user’s daily energy design requirements. It also ensures that there is a
suitable battery cycling that can maximize the battery’s service life. You have also
learnt that the EZsolar method can be employed to size a SHS with a module size of
110W or less while the standard method can be used for all module sizes. For bigger
SHS systems, you can do a quick system sizing using the system design table.

In the next and final unit of this book, we will discuss how to maintain a PV system.
Before you move on to the next unit, go back to the learning objectives at the
beginning of this unit and review them again. Check if you have achieved them all. If
not, revise the relevant sections again. If you are confident that you have achieved all
the learning objectives, you can proceed to Unit 6.

5.9 References
1. Akio, S., and JICA, (2000). Solar Home System Hand book. Tokyo: Japan
International Co-operation Agency.

2. JRC European Commission (2017). Photovoltaic geographical information system:

Interactive Maps. Retrieved from
http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/apps4/pvest.php?map=africa on 14th July, 2017.

3. Mogare, R. (2016). A Schematic diagram of a solar home system with DC

appliances only. Coast Institute of Technology, Mombasa Kenya.

4. Muchunku, C., and Onkendo, M. (2012). Manual for sales technicians for PV and
balance of system components. Kenya renewable energy services. Nairobi, Kenya:
Camco advisory services.

5. SEIAPI, (2012). Off grid PV power systems design guidelines for the Pacific Islands.
Pacific Islands: Sustainable Energy Industry Association of the Pacific Islands in
Collaboration with the Pacific Power. Page 4.

6. Solar electricity handbook.com (2016). Solar Irradiance. Retrieved from

http://solarelectricityhandbook.com/solar-irradiance.html on 14th July, 2017.

Solar PV System Design Guide for Beginners Page|88

 UNIT 6:

Solar PV System Maintenance

6.1 Unit Introduction

Welcome to the last unit of this book on basic solar PV technology. In the last unit, we
discussed how to determine the size of key components of a solar PV system. In this
unit, we will discuss how to maintain and repair components of a solar PV system.

6.2 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

1. Define the term maintenance

2. Carry out routine maintenance tasks on key components of a solar PV system
3. Identify common faults and carry out simple repairs.

6.3 What is Maintenance?

Maintenance is the art of keeping something in good condition. In solar PV systems,
the aim of maintenance is to sustain the original condition of the system by addressing
normal wear and tear. Maintenance in a solar PV system is vital in order to ensure that
faults are identified and resolved quickly. If maintenance is not performed, problems
can become difficult and expensive to fix. A well designed solar PV system is safe,
clean, low maintenance and long lasting. If you observe any faults in a system, this may
mean that the installation was not properly done.

6.4 Solar PV System Maintenance Tasks

System maintenance is an important part of a successful and reliable solar PV system.
System maintenance can be compared to personal hygiene in human beings. It is a
regular exercise in the life of a PV system. Remember, prevention is better than cure!
Therefore, it is better to prevent faults from occurring than to fix them when it is too
late.

In this section, we will look at the maintenance tasks that should be carried out on the
various components of a solar PV system. These components are the module/array,
battery and charge controller.

We will discuss the maintenance tasks for each component in turn.

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6.4.1 Module/Array maintenance
The key maintenance tasks carried out on the module/array are cleaning,
mechanical checks and electrical tests.

Cleaning
It is important to ensure that the PV module is free from any shading created
by dust. When dust accumulates on the module, it reduces the amount of
sunlight reaching the solar PV cells, which in turn reduces the amount of
charging current to the battery.

Inspect the module for dust after every two weeks and if necessary clean it
with water and a mild soap. Wipe the glass with a sponge or a soft cloth to
avoid scratching. It is also important to ensure that no part of the module is
covered by falling leaves or bird droppings.

Mechanical Checks
Once a year, inspect the junction box on each module to make sure that the
terminations are firm. The solar PV module is usually exposed to high
temperatures (heat from the sun) and its junction box might become loose
(wet connection) due to expansion of the terminals (wires). There is need to
tighten them.

Check the tightness of the screws to avoid loose connections on all connector
strips and control switches. Ensure that there are no bare wires which are
exposed. You should also inspect the system wire runs for breaks, cracks in
the insulation or bites from rodents.

Electrical Tests
It is important to check the switches, fuses and the charge controller as well as
ensure that grounding wires are grounded. Clean the lamps, reflectors and
fixtures every few months and replace blackened or blinking lamp tubes for
better vision.

6.4.2 Battery Maintenance

Batteries should be checked carefully and regularly to prolong their useful life.
Ensure that the batteries are always at the allowable pre-set limits of the state
of charge. Conduct a specific gravity once a month to measure and compare
the state of charge of battery cells. The cells of a fully charged battery have a
state of charge of 100%. You can use a voltmeter or hydrometer to measure
the state of charge, however hydrometers are more accurate.

Ensure that the battery is clean and observe the following procedures of
battery cleaning:

• Switch off or disconnect the battery from the module

• Disconnect the battery from the leads and remove the terminals from the
posts
• Clean the top and outer cover of the battery with wet carbonated cloth.
Avoid using a lot of water as it can enter the battery cells.

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 • Apply petroleum jelly or grease to the battery posts (terminals) to ensure
that there is integrity of cable terminations and to protect the terminals
from corrosion. Clean the terminal posts until they shine. If the terminals
are corroded use a solution of baking soda and water to clean carefully.
Replace all badly corroded terminals.

6.4.3 Charge Controller/ Regulator Maintenance

The routine maintenance tasks of a charge controller involve dusting,
conducting voltage tests and checking the status indicator. Let us consider
each in turn.

Dusting
Remove all the dust that has accumulated on the terminals as it can cause an
electric short circuit.

Voltage Tests
In general, it is important for you to ensure that the design voltages are
maintained during the working life of the system. Therefore, voltages between
the points below need to be checked as follows:
• Between the PV module and the charge controller
• Between the battery and the charge controller
• Between the charge controller and the load
• Between the PV module and the load.

Status Indicators Checks

Ensure that the LED lights are working properly so that the user can interpret
the true status of the system.

You have come to the end of this section on maintenance tasks of key components of a
solar PV system. But before you read the next section complete the following activity.

ACTIVITY 23:
Solar PV System Maintenance Tasks (Allow 10 minutes)

The following are maintenance tasks for a module, battery and charge controller.
Match the maintenance task with the correct component by writing the name of the
component next to the task.

1. Wipe off dust with a sponge or soft cloth and remove falling leaves and birds
dropping ____________________

2. Conduct a specific gravity check once a month to measure the state of charge
_______________________

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 3. Ensure the LED lights are working properly. ___________________

4. Ensure the terminations in the junction box are firm _____________

5. Clean and grease the terminals and posts to prevent corrosion

_________________

6. Conduct voltage tests to ensure that the design voltages are maintained
___________________

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book. In the next
section, we will look at common faults and how they can be rectified.

6.5 Common Faults and Their Remedy

Table 6.1 summarises the common faults found in a solar PV system and how you can
resolve them.

Table 6.1: Common faults in a solar PV system and their remedy

No FAULT TYPE REMEDY

1 Battery state of charge is low • Check and fix the connection to the
module
• Add distilled water to the cells
• Check for broken wires or loose
connection.
• Check the state of charge of each cell
• Clean the modules
2 There is no charging current from • Locate and repair loose connections
the PV • Clean the module as already discussed.

3 Appliances or lamps do not work • Replace the tubes or globe

well. • If tubes have short lifetime, check voltage
of system.
• Locate broken or loose wires and repair
them
• Check the socket and if bad replace
• Check the fuse socket
• Replace or repair broken appliances
4 Blown fuse • Check if there is a short circuit along the
wire to the solar cell module, battery or
load and repair the short circuit.
• If the fuse wall is too small, use a fuse
that’s 20% larger than the combined
power of the loads

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This discussion on common faults and their remedies brings us to the end of this unit.
As a way of reflecting on what you have learnt, answer the questions in the following
activity.

ACTIVITY 24:
Solar PV System Maintenance and Repair (Allow about 30 minutes)

Q1. Identify the causes that can make a lamp not to operate well.

Q2. Maintenance in a PV system is important because?

Q3. State the basic routine maintenance practices carried out on the following system
components:
a) PV Module

b) Battery

c) Charge controller

Compare your answers with those provided at the end of this book.

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Let’s now review what you have learnt.

6.6 Unit Summary

In this unit you have covered the following main points:

• Solar PV system maintenance ensures that all system components are working in
good order;
• System maintenance identifies faults and resolves them quickly in order to
preserve the system life for as long as possible;
• The main maintenance tasks are carried out on three system components, namely,
the module, battery and charge controller;
• Maintenance tasks carried out on the module entails cleaning, mechanical checks
of the junction box, connector strips and control switches, and electrical tests;
• Battery maintenance involves conduct specific gravity check in order to measure
the state of charge of battery cells and cleaning of battery terminals;
• The routine maintenance tasks of a charge controller involve dusting, conducting
voltage tests and checking the status indicator;
• The common faults found in a solar PV system are:
- Low state of charge in the battery
- Lack of a charging current from the PV
- Appliances or lights do not work well
- Blown fuse.

To check how well you have understood the lesson of this unit, look back at the
learning objectives at the beginning and find out whether you have achieved them all.
If there are any you are not sure about, revise the relevant section again. If you have
achieved all of them, then you deserve a pat on the back!

Congratulations, you have come to the end of this book. We hope you have found this
book interesting and informative. This book set out to provide you with knowledge
and skills on solar PV technology. We hope that you now understand how a solar PV
system works, and especially how to correctly determine the size of a PV system based
on the needs of the end user. Remember, implementing a solar PV system is not
enough, it must be implemented accurately and maintained regularly. We wish you
great success as you embark on your career as a solar PV technician.

6.7 References
1. Philippines Department of Energy (DOE) and JICA (2009). Manual for solar PV
training.

2. Ballwerk, (2013), Solar Home Systems Basic maintenance and repair training
workbook, 35/3011 Bern/Switzerland

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ANSWERS TO LEARNING ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY 1: Definition of Terms

Q1. In one or two sentences define the following terms:

a) Resistance - refers to the opposition to the flow of current in a conducting
wire.
b) Voltage – pressure that forces elections to flow in the conductor
c) Current – Flow of electrons in a conductor

Q2. In the table below insert the accepted electrical symbols associated with the given
terms; the first one has been done for you.

Quantity Symbol Unit Quantity

Current I Ampere(A) Current
Voltage V Volt(V) Voltage
Resistance R Ohms(Ω) Resistance

Activity 2: Electric Circuit

Q1. Using one simple sentence write the meaning of the following terms in the space
provided below each term.
a) A Load is an appliance that uses electricity to do some work
b) A conductor is a material used to connect together circuit components
c) A source produces the force that causes a current to flow in a circuit
d) An open circuit is one that has a gap that prevents the flow of a current
e) A closed circuit is a loop that enables a current to flow to all appliances
f) A short circuit is an alternative path created so that charges can move

ACTIVITY 3: Ohms Law

Q1. The Ohms law states that a Current is directly proportional to Voltage as long as
the temperature conditions remain constant

a) In a circuit if there is a resistance of 0.1Ω and current is 3A, what is the

voltage?
Voltage = current x resistance.
Therefore Voltage (V) = I × R
= 0.1 × 3 = 0.3V

b) In a circuit, if the Voltage is 12V and Resistance is 10Ω. What is the current?
From Ohms law, Current (I) = V/R
Therefore;

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 I = V/R
= 12/10 = 1.2A

c) In a circuit, if there is a current of 1A and voltage of 12V. What is the power?

Power is given by the formula: P = Voltage × resistance.
Therefore;
Power (P) = V × I
= 12 × 1 = 12W

d) A 10-Volt lamp has a resistance of 50 ohms. Calculate the current that it takes,
its power rating in watts and the amount of Energy it consumes in 40 hours.
From Ohms Law, Current is equal to voltage divided by resistance ( I = V/R)
Therefore I = 10/50
= 0.2 A
= 10 × 0.2 = 2 Watts

Energy = power × time

= 2 × 40 = 80 J

ACTIVITY 4: Series and Parallel Connections

Q1. Briefly explain the difference between a series and parallel connection in the
table provided below. The first one has been completed for you.

PARAMETERS SERIES PARALLEL

Voltage Total voltage is the Sum Equal voltage across all
of individual voltages resistors i.e.
V = V1 + V2 +.......... V1 = V2 = V3 etc.
Current Same current flows Different currents flow
through all the resistors through the components.
Resistance Total resistance is the Total resistance is the
sum of individual sum of inverse of
resistors individual resistors.

Q2. In a certain circuit three resistances R1, R2 and R3 are given as follows:

R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 3Ω and R3 = 5Ω. They are connected in series.

Calculate the following:

a) The total resistance

Total Resistance (RTotal) = R1 + R2 + R3

= (2Ω + 3Ω + 5Ω)
= 10Ω

b) Calculate the current flow in the circuit if the source voltage is 10 Volts:

From Ohm’s Law you have learnt that; Voltage is equal to Current multiplied by
Resistance (V = I x R). Also, Current (I) = V/RTOTAL

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 Therefore, I = 10volts/10 Ω = 1A.

Q3. A series connection has the following three resistors: R1 = 2Ω; R2 = 4Ω; and
R3 = 6Ω.

a) Calculate the total resistance:

Total resistance is equal to the sum of individual resistors

R Total = (2 + 4 + 6)Ω
=12Ω.

b) The same resistors are connected in parallel. Calculate the total resistance.

For parallel connections:

1/R total = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/6; this will give you the reciprocal of the total
resistance and then you need to get the inverse to give you the answer which
is 12/11=1.09Ω

ACTIVITY 5: Electrical Measuring Instruments

Q1. Which instrument would you use to measure the following in a PV circuit?

a) Current: AC-DC clamp meter

b) Irradiance: Irradiance meter

c) Temperature: Infrared thermometer

ACTIVITY 6: Definition of Terms

Q1. Using one or two sentences define the following terms:

a) A solar cell: this is the basic unit of a Module that converts light energy into
electricity.
b) A solar PV module: this is an interconnection of a number of solar PV cells in
series.
c) A solar PV array: this is made by connecting a number of solar PV modules
together either in series, parallel or a combination of the two

ACTIVITY 7: Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Match the terms in Column A with the correct description in Column B by inserting the
Number of the correct term next to its description.

Column A Column B
Insulator Is neither a conductor nor insulator (3)
Conductor Results when 3 free electrons from a foreign atom
are paired with 3 of 4 free electrons of a pure
semiconductor (4)
Semiconductor The impurity introduced during doping has 5 free
electrons in its valence shell. (5)

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 P-type semiconductor The materials easily transmit or pass electricity from
one point to another (2)
N-type semiconductor Materials that do not transmit electricity (1)

Activity 8: Electrical Parameters of a PV Module

Q1. Which of the following statements describes the short circuit current parameter of
a PV module?

a) The sum voltage of all the cells in the module

b) The highest possible power output that a module can deliver for use
c) A measure of the maximum current that can be delivered by a solar module
d) Irradiance, room temperature and air mass

Q2. Which of the following statements describes the maximum power parameter of a
PV module?
a) Measures the maximum voltage that can be delivered by a solar module
b) The highest possible power output that a module can deliver for use
c) A measure of the maximum current that can be delivered by a solar module
d) Irradiance, room temperature and air mass

Q3. How would you determine the number of cells in a solar PV module?

You can determine the number of cells in a module by checking or measuring its open
circuit voltage and dividing it by 0.6v (voltage drop per cell). The formula is as follows:

Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)

Number of cells =
Voltage drop per cell (0.6v)

ACTIVITY 9: Battery Terms

Q1. Draw a line to match the battery terms in Column 1 with their definition in Column
2. The first one has been done for you

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Q2. In one or two sentences explain the effect of the following on the battery:

a) Effects of Over discharge

Over discharging has two detrimental effects:
• Hard sulphation: this is formation of excessive sulphate due to
overcharging. The long-term effect is to cause hard sulphation. Hard
sulphates cannot be converted to lead dioxide in the charge cycle. Hard
sulphation eventually sheds, leaving less active material available for the
electrochemical action.
• Plate buckling: this is physical deformation of the grids that contain the
active material due to overcharging. Buckling causes active material to
break away from the grid.

b) Effects of Overcharge
When a battery is overcharged, it swells and becomes hot to the touch. When
the battery swells, sulphuric acid can leak from the battery. This is potentially
harmful when it comes in contact with the skin and should be avoided at all
costs by wearing protective clothing. However, if it happens, you should rinse
the affected area immediately.

ACTIVITY 10: Primary and Secondary Batteries

Q1. Indicate whether the following statements are True or False by writing “T” next to
the sentence if it is True or “F” if it is false.

a) The terms cell and battery mean the same thing F

b) A battery consists of two or more cells connected together in series or parallel
T
c) Primary cells are rechargeable F
d) A dry cell is used in torches and radios T
e) Secondary batteries are made of several cells connected together in series or
parallel T
f) An example of a secondary battery is a lead acid battery T

ACTIVITY 11: Types of Battery Technology

Complete the following table by inserting the appropriate information.

Battery Parameters
Effect of
BATTERY TYPE Electrolyte Maintenance Cost
temperature
Not much
FLOODED Liquid Required Cheap
affected

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 Affected at
SEALED Gel high Free Expensive
temperatures

ACTIVITY 12: Parts of a Battery

Complete the table below by writing a short description of the following battery parts.

BATTERY PART DESCRIPTION OF BATTERY PART

A metal alloy framework that supports the active material
Grid
on a battery plate
An electrical contact used to connect a load or charger to a
Terminal
single or multiple cell battery
A conducting medium which allows the flow of current via
Electrolyte
ionic transfer between the plates.
Plate It is a positive or negative electrode in a battery cell.

An electronically insulated divider between the positive and

Separator
negative plates.
A terminal of a source of electrical energy as a cell, battery
Positive Terminal
or generator from which the current flows
Hard or soft rubber part inserted in cover to retain
Vent atmospheric pressure within the cell, while preventing loss
of electrolyte from spray.

ACTIVITY 13: Battery Operation, Installation and Care

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false by writing “T” next to the
statement if it is true or “F” if the statement is false.

Statement T/F
When a battery discharges the acid increases and the water decreases T
When a battery charges the acid increases and the water decreases F
Battery installation should be done in a damp room F
Keep tools and other metallic objects away from uncovered batteries. T
Use baking soda or a cleaning agent to neutralize spilled acid. T
Cracks in the battery case do not pose any danger and should be
F
ignored
Always check the level of electrolytes in the battery and add distilled
T
water whenever the level is low
The build-up of lead sulphate crystals in a battery increases its
F
capacity
A new battery must be filled with acid and charged before use T
There is no difference between the operation of a flooded and sealed
F
battery

ACTIVITY 14: Role of Charge Controllers

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Q1. Identify by circling two main roles of charge controllers from the list below.
a) To disconnect the battery from the PV modules once it is fully charged
b) To convert chemical energy into electrical energy
c) To allow gasses formed in the cell to escape
d) To disconnect the load from the battery when the voltage falls below the minimum level
e) To separate the positive and negative plates inside a battery.

ACTIVITY 15: Types of charge controllers.

Column A has names of charge controllers while column B has their descriptions.
Match each charge controller with the correct description by linking them with a line.

Type of Charge Controller Description

Shunt type charge controller Regulates the charging current according to
the battery requirements.
Series charge controller design Converts a higher voltage DC output from solar
panels to a lower voltage needed to charge
batteries
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Regulates the charging of a battery from the
charge controller design PV array by short-circuiting the array terminals
MPPT (Maximum Power Point Works in series between the array and the
Tracker) charge controller battery.

ACTIVITY 16: Charge Controller connection sequence and

specifications

Q1. Which of the following is the correct connection sequence for charge controllers?
(b)

a) Battery  Module  load  charge controller,

b) Battery  Charge controller  module  load
c) Module  Load Charge controller  Battery
d) Load  Battery  Charge controller  Module

Q2. Which of the following is the correct disconnection sequence for charge
controllers? (c)

a) Charge controller  Load(s)  module  battery

b) Module  battery Load(s)  charge controller
c) Load(s)  charge controller  module  battery
d) Battery  module  Load(s)  charge controller

Q3. Indicate whether the following statements on charge controller specifications are
True or False by writing “T” for true or “F” for false next to the statement.

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 Charge Controller Specification T/F
Maximum module input short circuit current refers to the maximum load
F
current that the charge controller can supply
The system voltage refers to the voltage level required by a solar home
T
system for running loads
High voltage disconnect prompts the charge controller to disconnect the PV
T
modules to avoid overcharging.
Self-consumption refers to the maximum load current that a charge
F
controller can supply
Indicators on the charge controller show the status of the solar home
T
system
Low voltage disconnect refers to the lowest voltage of a battery which
T
triggers the charge controller to automatically turn off the load

ACTIVITY 17: PV System Sizing and Its Importance

Circle the correct answer.

Q1. Which of the following is NOT a quality of a well sized solar PV home system? (c)
a) A battery bank that delivers energy even on cloudy days.
b) A PV module that is sized to charge the battery even when the average daily
insolation is low.
c) Oversized system components that can power the system loads efficiently.
d) A small buffer for future load growth of the PV system.

Q2. Which of the following is NOT a component of a solar PV system? (d)

a) solar PV module
b) charge controller,
c) battery
d) solar energy
e) load

ACTIVITY 18: Energy Audit

Complete the following daily energy demand table for different DC loads shown below.
Then, calculate the total daily load/energy consumption in watt hours and the final
daily load expected if the future buffer growth provision is 10%.
.
Appliance Number Appliance Number of Daily energy
rating hours of requirement
(watts) use/day(hours) (watt hours)
Indoor lights 3 4 4 48
Security light 1 8 10 80
TV 1 60 2 120
CD player 1 20 3 60

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 Phone charger 2 4 2 16
Total daily/energy load 324
(Wh)
Future buffer growth (10%) 32.4
Final design load (Wh) 356.4

ACTIVITY 19: System Voltage

Using the schematic in Figure 5.3, determine the appropriate system voltage for a PV
solar home systems with the following total energy daily demand:

a) 356Wh ______12V_____

b) 500Wh. _____12V_____

c) 1500Wh. ____24V_____

d) 2,000Wh ____24V_____

e) 4,500Wh ____48V_____

ACTIVITY 20: Sizing the battery bank and number of lights using
the EZsolar method.

Q1. Use EZSolar formula 1 to determine the number of lights for a 105W PV module
with a small radio, a USB player and a TV.

EZ1 = 1 for a SHS with a TV. So the number of lights are:

value given by
Number of lights = hundreds and one – EZ1 (Home has a TV)
place values

Number of lights = 10 – 1 = 9 lights (of 7w or 9w)

Q2. Use EZSolar formula 2 to determine the battery size for the Solar Home System
above:

a) Minimum size of battery capacity (EZ2 = 1.0)

105W x 1.0 = 105Ah
b) Nominal size of battery capacity (EZ2 = 1.5)
105 1.5 = 157.5 Ah
c) Maximum size of battery capacity (EZ2 = 2.0)
105 x 2.0 = 210Ah

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ACTIVITY 22: The system design table (Allow about 30 minutes)
Q1. Using the row of 400Wh in the system design table, determine the daily energy
demand of the following PV system component:

a) module current __8.0A____

b) module array ___140Wp__
c) battery bank capacity __150Ah____
d) charge controller ____10A_____

Q2. The following data was obtained from a PV system installer:

a) total final daily demand of 20Ah
b) 5 peak sunshine hours
c) battery depth of discharge of 50%
d) 2 autonomous days

a) Without using the system design table, calculate the following:

i. The system voltage will be 12V since the total final daily energy demand 400Wh is less
than 1000Wh
Total final daily demand (Ah) x day of
ii. Battery bank capacity (Ah) =
autonomy
Depth of discharge of a given battery
20 x 2
=
50%

iii. The daily energy requirement will be:

Final day demand / load
Daily energy requirement (Ah) =
System voltage

400
= = 33.3 Ah
12

iv. The module current will be:

Daily energy requirement (Ah)
Module current (A) =
Number of peak sun hours

33.3
= = 6.66 A
5

ACTIVITY 23: Solar PV System Maintenance Tasks

The following are maintenance tasks for a module, battery and charge controller.
Match the maintenance task with the correct component by writing the name of the
component next to the task.

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 a) Wipe off dust with a sponge or soft cloth and remove falling leaves and birds
dropping. Module
b) Conduct a specific gravity check once a month to measure the state of charge
Battery
c) Ensure the LED lights are working properly. Charge Controller
d) Ensure the terminations in the junction box are firm. Battery
e) Clean and grease the terminals and posts to prevent corrosion. Battery
f) Conduct voltage tests to ensure that the design voltages are maintained.
Charge Controller.

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