materials

Review
Recent Advancements in the Nanomaterial Application in
Concrete and Its Ecological Impact
Haleema Saleem, Syed Javaid Zaidi * and Nasser Abdullah Alnuaimi

Center for Advanced Materials (CAM), Qatar University, Doha P.O. Box 2713, Qatar;
[email protected] (H.S.); [email protected] (N.A.A.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: At present, nanotechnology is a significant research area in different countries, owing

to its immense ability along with its economic impact. Nanotechnology is the scientific study,
development, manufacturing, and processing of structures and materials on a nanoscale level. It has
tremendous application in different industries such as construction. This study discusses the various
progressive uses of nanomaterials in concrete, as well as their related health risks and environmental
impacts. Nanomaterials such as nanosilica, nano-TiO2 , carbon nanotubes (CNTs), ferric oxides,
polycarboxylates, and nanocellulose have the capability to increase the durability of buildings by
improving their mechanical and thermal properties. This could cause an indirect reduction in energy
usage and total expenses in the concrete industry. However, due to the uncertainties and irregularities
in size, shape, and chemical compositions, some nanosized materials might have harmful effects
on the environment and human health. Acknowledgement of the possible beneficial impacts and



inadvertent dangers of these nanosized materials to the environment will be extremely important


when pursuing progress in the upcoming years. This research paper is expected to bring proper
Citation: Saleem, H.; Zaidi, S.J.; attention to the probable effects of construction waste, together with the importance of proper
Alnuaimi, N.A. Recent regulations, on the final disposal of the construction waste.
Advancements in the Nanomaterial
Application in Concrete and Its Keywords: nanomaterials; concrete; nanosilica; risk assessment; health risks
Ecological Impact. Materials 2021, 14,
6387. https://doi.org/10.3390
/ma14216387

1. Introduction
Academic Editors: Ovidiu Oprea and
Swarup Roy Nanotechnology is a developing field of science related to the engineering of nanosized
particles composed of different materials [1–6]. Nanotechnology is distinguished as the
Received: 13 September 2021 study of operating matter on a molecular and an atomic scale that permits the conception
Accepted: 5 October 2021 of innovative techniques and devices with sizes in the range of 1 nm to 100 nm, and
Published: 25 October 2021 the utilization of these materials varies from mechanics to medical applications. This
technology generates vast commercial potential for industries and is normally considered
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral as a very promising one. Materials perform in a different manner at the nanoscale level [7],
with regard to jurisdictional claims in and with the application of nanomaterials, exceptional results can be obtained in different
published maps and institutional affil- fields [8,9].
iations. In the past several decades, nanotechnology has accomplished incredible develop-
ment [10–14]. More enhanced awareness of nanomaterial characteristics contributes to
finding a better way to fabricate advanced materials in the forthcoming years and can
improve standards of living. The development of and research on nanotechnology are
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. extremely active worldwide, and this technology is already being employed in different
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. applications and seen in hundreds of products currently, such as textiles, cosmetics, sports
This article is an open access article equipment, paint, and electronics [15–18]. This advanced technology is also being utilized
distributed under the terms and in biosensors, drug delivery, other biomedical uses, and environmental applications (envi-
conditions of the Creative Commons ronmental contaminant clean-up) [19–22]. In recent times, nanotechnology was also found
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to have tremendous applications in construction industries [23–29]. Nanomaterials have
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ uses in coatings, glass, concrete, steel, bricks, and insulation.
4.0/).

Materials 2021, 14, 6387. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216387 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2021, 14, 6387 2 of 32

The chemistry and physics of nanosized construction materials vary from ordinary
materials because of quantic effects and a greater surface-area-to-volume ratio. Char-
acteristic morphologies of nanomaterials are sheets, cylinders, and spheres. Currently,
the utilization of nanomaterials in the building and construction materials industries
has highlighted several benefits [30–34]. In the past few years, significant and multiple
progressions in nanoscience and technology have shifted the construction and building
material technology to a very advanced level. Innovative trends and opportunities are
developing, which must be taken into the account by young researchers, engineers, and
companies. Different types of manufactured nanomaterials can have advantageous uti-
lization in construction, including high-resolution sensing/actuating devices, superior
structural properties, and functional coatings and paints [35–38]. Some utilizations of
nanomaterials in the construction industry are presented in Table 1 [39–45].
Table 1. Some of the utilizations of nanomaterials in the construction industry.

Application Area
Sl. No. Nanomaterial Used Properties Reference
in Construction
Aluminium oxide Asphalt concrete,
1 Increased serviceability [39]
nanoparticles timber
Crack prevention,
2 Carbon nanotubes Concrete [40]
mechanical durability
Self-cleaning, increased
3 Titania nanoparticles Concrete [41]
degree of hydration
Rapid hydration,
4 Silica nanoparticles Concrete reinforcement of [42]
mechanical strength
Formability, corrosion
5 Copper nanoparticles Steel [43]
resistance
Abrasion-resistant,
Iron oxide
6 Concrete increased compressive [44]
nanoparticles
strength
Increased surface
7 Clay nanoparticles Bricks and mortar roughness and [45]
compressive strength

Concrete is one of the prominent materials in building industries. Concrete is a mix-

ture of aggregates and paste [46]. The aggregates are gravel, sand, or crushed stone; the
paste is water and Portland cement [47]. The use of concrete is developing with a superior
performance concrete designed for specific construction and building requirements. Ce-
ment, a concrete ingredient, comprises 10 to 15% of the concrete mix by volume. Through a
process known as hydration, the water and cement will harden and bind the aggregates to
form a rocklike mass. Cement reacts with water in hydration and hydrolysis actions [48]. A
dormant period occurs after the preliminary mixing and the first reaction climax, and prior
to the concrete hardening. In structural engineering and civil engineering, serviceability is
the condition under which a building will be useful. If the limit states are exceeded, then
the structure will be weak. This relates to conditions different from the building strength
that make the buildings unfit. Serviceability limit states in the design of structures include
factors such as excessive vibration, cracking, deflection, fire resistance, overall stability,
and durability. For satisfying the serviceability limit states, a concrete structure should be
serviceable and function as expected during its service life. Extreme deflection must not
impair the purpose of the structure or be aesthetically improper.
Cement manufacturers mine materials such as iron ore, shale, limestone, and clay;
crush and screen the rock; and place it inside a cement kiln. After heating at higher
temperatures, these materials will form a tiny ball termed as a “clinker”, which is extremely
fine-ground to prepare Portland cement. Silica and lime make up about 85% of the cement
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 3 of 32

ingredients. Other elements present are iron oxide and alumina [49]. Plasticizers are
chemical compounds that help in concrete production with an almost 15% lower content
of water. Superplasticizers permit a water content reduction of 30% or higher. Long-term
creep prediction has been a main issue in designing concrete structures for some time [50].
Concrete creep is the structure deformation under sustained load. Long-term shrinkage
and concrete creep can influence a concrete structure’s lifespan [51]. Reinforced concretes
are composite materials made up of various constituent materials with distinct properties
that complement each other [52]. For reinforced concretes, the component materials are
mostly concrete and steel (Figure 1). Figure 2 shows semidry concrete that contains only
enough water for the cementitious materials to hydrate and should be compacted using
a roller. Current concrete structures require structural components that have improved
mechanical properties and higher durability. This can be achieved by the incorporation of
nanostructured materials in concrete materials that can improve their mechanical properties.
The use of nanomaterials in concrete structures has been confirmed to provide increased
durability and higher mechanical strength, which reduce their maintenance needs or any
requirement for quick replacement.

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of a simple reinforced concrete beam. Reproduced from [52].

Figure 2. Semidry concrete for a road foundation. Reproduced from [52].

Despite such progress in nanotechnology, proper information regarding nanomaterials’

environmental and human health impacts has been insufficient until now [53–56]. Thus, a
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 4 of 32

careful approach must be developed when working with these materials. Nanosafety is con-
sidered as a growing concern, as the continuous exposure to the engineered nanomaterials
is associated with many health effects, including pulmonary inflammation [57–61], geno-
toxicity [60], carcinogenicity [62], and circulatory effects [60]. As nanomaterials are difficult
to detect as soon as they are released into the environment, they can lead to many types of
environmental and health concerns if the remediation system is risky. Therefore, further
studies are very important for systematically labeling the structure–function relationship
of nanomaterials with regard to their basic chemistry. Moreover, complete risk evaluations
must be performed on nanomaterials, which represent a real exposure hazard all during
their manufacture or use [63–68]. Hence, green nanotechnology is also considered to lower
the potential ecological and human health dangers from the manufacturing and use of
nanosized materials, and to progress toward the replacement of predominant materials
with innovative nanosized materials, which are extremely environmentally friendly [69,70].
In the present study, we analyzed the use of nanomaterials in the prominent concrete
sector field in the construction industries. The evolution of the number of publications
related to the nanomaterials in concrete sector is presented in Figure 3, which was generated
from the scopus.com database, and presents the number of studies carried out in each year
over the period of last 10 years in which the expressions ‘nanomaterials’ and ‘concrete’
were found in the title, abstract, or keywords. The database returned 448 hits for the search
with the keyword expressions ‘nanomaterials’ and ‘concrete’. In 2021, 86 publications have
been reported so far, while in 2012, only 18 studies were reported. Thus, a clear growth
in interest in nanomaterial application in the concrete sector was observed in the past
10 years. Out of the 448 papers found in the database, 252 were research studies, 82 were
conference papers, and 17 were review papers. We have included 206 papers in this study
based on their relevance, and removed the irrelevant papers. Figure 4 shows a flow chart
demonstrating the steps of the literature review’s methodology. We analyzed different
nanomaterials such as nanosilica, carbon nanotubes, titanium dioxide, ferric oxides, etc.
used in the concrete application. Out of the papers obtained from the database, we selected
the papers based on the materials and topics discussed in this study; for example, concretes
based on nanosilica, carbon nanotubes, titanium dioxide, and ferric oxides; as well as the
related challenges, limitations, and environmental and health concerns. Figure 5 shows a
schematic illustration of the study’s structure.

Figure 3. The number of articles (by year) in which ‘nanomaterials’ and ‘concrete’ were seen in the
abstract, title, or keywords in the last 10 years. Data were obtained from the scopus.com database
(20 September 2021).
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 5 of 32

Figure 4. A flow chart demonstrating the steps of the literature review’s methodology.

An important challenge associated with the concrete sector is the decrease in the emis-
sions of carbon dioxide gas. A solution to the aforementioned problem is the development
of concrete frameworks with improved mechanical properties and enhanced durability,
which would in turn reduce the maintenance needs and also reduce the requirement for
early replacements. However, we also must consider the risk assessment, health issues
due to the exposure of nanomaterials, and environmental implications associated with
the application of nanomaterial-based concrete structures. The above mentioned positive
and negative factors were the main motivation of the current study. We attempted to
analyze whether the inclusion of nanomaterials in concrete structures would improve the
mechanical properties (tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural strength), ductility,
freeze–thaw resistance, and abrasion resistance of the concrete. We selected the nanomateri-
als (nanosilica, carbon nanotubes, titanium dioxide, ferric oxides, etc.) presented here based
on the articles we obtained from the Scopus database for concrete application. Moreover,
in the current study, we sought to analyze whether the inclusion of carbon nanotubes and
titanium dioxide in concrete could offer self-sensing and self-cleaning properties to the
concrete structures. Furthermore, we also analyzed the challenges and limitations of the
application of nanomaterials in the concrete sector. The amount of manufactured nanoma-
terials continues to grow at an exponential speed, and conventional toxicity approaches
cannot keep up with the total number of nanobased materials employed in the construction
sector. Thus, in our study, the risk evaluation, health issues due to nanomaterial exposure,
and environmental implications related to the application of the construction field nano-
materials were comprehensively examined. The important features to be examined and
discussed include a toxicological analysis, long-/short-term exposure dangers of nanoma-
terials to the health of humans and environment in the service life of the material, and the
dangers related to nanomaterial disposal.
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 6 of 32

To the best of our knowledge, studies on the up-to-date progress in nanotechnology

for the application in concrete are still very limited. There is no study reported so far
that collectively discussed the application of nanomaterials in the concrete sector, together
with the challenges and limitations, the concrete recycling trend, risk assessment, health
issues related to nanomaterials in concrete, and related environmental implications. This
kind of study might be very beneficial to the appropriate development of applications
and research interest toward additional progress in nanomaterials. This study aimed to
contribute a comprehensive view of nanomaterials employed in the concrete sector and
their possible toxicological implications. We understand that this study can contribute new
knowledge as well as insights for the technical community in the concrete sector. The new
and improved concrete structures with improved mechanical properties and enhanced
durability can in turn reduce the maintenance needs and also reduce the requirement
for early replacements. This research paper is expected to bring proper attention to the
probable effects of construction waste, together with the importance of proper regulations,
on the final disposal of the construction waste.

Figure 5. A schematic illustration of the study’s structure.

2. Nanomaterials and Their Preparation

Nanomaterials can be categorized according to their dimensions and size [10]. There
are four categories of nanomaterials: zero-dimensional (0D), one-dimensional (1D),
two-dimensional (2D), and three-dimensional (3D). Some nanomaterials occur naturally
(e.g., sand); some are unintentionally developed (e.g., car exhaust fumes); and some other
nanomaterials are purposefully made. However, particular care should be taken in the
management of these materials. Naturally occurring nanoparticles are developed using a
range of mechanisms, and can show a range of effects. Primary producers of nanomateri-
als include desert surfaces, volcanic eruptions, and cosmic bodies. Deserts can produce
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 7 of 32

nanomaterials en masse, with approximately 50% of all aerosols in the troposphere devel-
oping from deserts, comprising a variety of materials signified in mass distributions. Toxic
materials such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, mercury, and cadmium were found in
an analysis conducted in China and South Korea in the course of a dust storm [43].
Engineered nanoparticles are developed through either a bottom-up approach or a
top-down approach. The two approaches vary such that in the top-down preparation
approach, larger structures will be gradually reduced in size to nanometer dimensions,
whereas the bottom-up preparation approach involves developing nanoparticles with
individual atoms or molecules until the required size is accomplished. Additional catego-
rization can be made depending on the mechanism of the preparation process, classifying
most engineered nanomaterials into three categories: physical, mechanical, and chemical
processes. Nanosilica is a nanomaterial commonly used in the concrete application, and
has characteristics such as smaller particle sizes, good dispersion, high chemical purity,
large surface energy, stronger surface adsorption, and large specific surface area [71]. Vari-
ous methods, such as pressurized carbonation [72], combustion in a diffusion flame [73],
chemical vapor deposition [74], plasma synthesis, chemical precipitation method, and the
sol-gel process are used for preparing silica nanoparticles. Out of the above-mentioned
fabrication methods, the sol-gel process is a superior method that can be followed for
preparing superior-quality, narrow-size-distributed, spherical nanoparticles. In addition,
nano-SiO2 can be prepared by grinding rice husk ash finely to develop nanomaterials [75].
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are also commonly used for concrete application, and the tensile
strength of CNT is almost 100 times higher than that of steel with a similar diameter. CNTs
also have a higher thermal conductivity, similar to that of diamond crystal [76]. High-
temperature manufacturing methods such as laser ablation or arc discharge were initially
employed for producing CNTs [77]. However, these techniques have been replaced by the
lower-temperature chemical vapor deposition method. This is because the density, purity,
diameter, length, alignment, and orientation of the nanotubes can be precisely controlled
with this method.
Recently, titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) nanoparticles have been used for concrete appli-
cation, and they have been prepared using different methods such as electrochemical
synthesis [78], microemulsion-mediated methods, wet-chemical synthesis by precipitation
of hydroxides from salts, gas phase (aerosol) synthesis [79], metal organic chemical vapor
deposition (MOCVD) [80], the sol-gel process, and reverse micelles. The larger effective
surface of TiO2 nanoparticles helps to absorb a large quantity of water, leading to a re-
duction in the concrete’s workability [81]. Polycarboxylates are one of the nanomaterials
employed in concrete [82]. Generally, polycarboxylates comprise a methoxy-polyethylene
glycol copolymer reinforced with methacrylic acid. The carboxylate groups contain a
water particle, contributing a negative charge along the polycarboxylates’ backbone. The
polyethyleneoxide group provides a nonuniform distribution of the electron cloud that can
provide a chemical polarity to the secondary reaction. Typically, polycarboxylates will be
applied in concrete as a high-range water reducer, and this incorporation helps to control
the workability of the concrete at a lower water-to cement-ratio [83].
Incidental nanomaterial generation takes place by different channels that are not
directly noticeable in everyday life; however, they can be obvious when recognized, as
well as addressed. A perfect example of incidental nanoparticles that develop in the built
environment are those produced by cars through exhaust emissions, brake pad material loss,
tire material loss, and paint deterioration. Presently, one of the major challenges related to
nanomaterials is inhalation exposure, in spite of its numerous remediation application [84].
Moreover, the nanomaterial preparation process can be difficult and complicated. In
addition, the complete process is expensive, a requires optimum results—particularly
concerning their use in different consumer goods—to avoid financial losses. Nanomaterials
that are engineered might also end up in water bodies, prior to their accumulation into
large-sized particles. Even though an engineered nanomaterial concentration is expected
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 8 of 32

to be very small, frequent discharge might lead to an increase in concentrations over time,
worsening the related adverse impacts.
The nanomaterial field is highly interested in increasing the sustainability of the pro-
cesses involved in nanomaterial production, which stimulates the assessment of alternate
inputs for nanoparticle production and the application of green synthesis methods. Green
nanotechnology regards the manufacturing processes that are environmentally sustainable
and economic. Using clean manufacturing processes for yielding value-added materials
from waste materials has arisen as an appropriate synergy to achieve both circularity and
sustainability goals. For reducing the adverse ecological impacts and health risks related to
the manufacture, use, and discarding of novel nanomaterials, the materials engineering
and nanotechnology fields are highly concerned with sustainability methods, metrics, and
frameworks. Currently, green nanotechnology is expected to progressively impact on a
large range of economic sectors.

3. Nanomaterial Application in Concrete Industries

Concrete has been extensively reviewed in several research works as a nanoenabled
material, with many studies confirming the utilization of several nanomaterials. Figure 6
shows the applications of nanomaterials in concrete [33]. There is a relation between the
bulk properties and microstructure, and therefore researchers are continuously trying
to establish this relationship in concrete. In the following section, we will discuss the
application of different nanomaterials such as nanosilica, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), ferric
oxide, and nano-titanium oxide in concrete industries. It can be noted that majority
of nano-based concrete products are still at the laboratory-scale level, and only a few
products, such as nanosilica particles (Gaia) and polycarboxylate nanoproducts, have been
commercialized and are used by the industry. Nanoparticle-incorporated concrete is also
known as nanoconcrete, and more commercialization is required.

Figure 6. Applications of nanomaterials in concrete. Reproduced from [33].

3.1. Nanosilica
Nanosilica is nanomaterial used for construction applications that can substitute
silica fume and microsilica fume. In fact, the more broadly used nanomaterial in concrete
is silica. In typical concrete, silica exists within the framework of a standardized mix.
The nanosilica reacts with lime at the time of the cement hydrating procedure as well as
subsequently generating a C–S–H gel, which might enhance the mechanical properties and
durability of the concrete. In some of the research works, it was observed that nanosilica
utilization in concrete enhanced the particle packing [85]. The cement hydration rate also
was improved, which efficiently improved the strength, and lowered the dormant period
and time of setting. This nanomaterial also decreased the concrete porosity and prevented
the possibility of the degradation of concrete [86].
Nanomaterials decrease the porosity of cement, producing a denser interfacial tran-
sition zone [87]. Concrete technology presents a higher extent of porosity, which is the
fraction of material volume occupied by pores. A higher-strength concrete grade shows an
increased density, less porosity, and very closed pores in, and lowers the carbon dioxide
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 9 of 32

transmission coefficient in the concrete. Therefore, the carbon dioxide quantity transmitted
into the concrete is consequently reduced. A higher strength grade of concrete requires
higher consumption of cement and more hydration products in the hydration reactions,
which assist the system in absorbing more carbon dioxide. Singh et al. [88] stated that
the technique employed for incorporating nanosilica into cement composites can impact
the porosity and mechanical properties of the composites. Nanosilica-included cement
pastes were examined to understand the hydration process, as well as the microstructure
evolution. Cement mortar with properly dispersed nanomaterials will have a denser
microstructure even though the nanomaterials are incorporated in smaller quantities; how-
ever, if the nanomaterials are not well dispersed, this will lead to the formation of voids
and weak zones. A bad dispersion of nanosilica in concrete materials can produce voids
and weak zones, changing the material’s mechanical characteristics.
Li et al. [89] analyzed the properties and microstructure of superior-performance
concrete, which is formulated by using particles of nanosilica and nanolimestone. The
team employed Portland cement type I, as well as fly ash, with the binding agent’s silica
fumes. The percent of nanolimestone and nanosilica by cement weight were noted to be
2.00%, 3.00%, and 4.00%, and 0.50%, 1.00%, 1.50%, and 2.00%, respectively. Considering the
microstructure features, the results confirmed that the nanosilica acted as an efficient filling
material that decreased the porous areas and enhanced the hydration process of the cement.
It was noted that the tensile strength and compressive strength of concretes inclusive of
nanosilica and nanolimestone were increased with respect to concretes with no additions.
The results from this study confirmed that the nanosilica and nanolimestone contents were
very important to the performance of the ultrahigh-performance concrete matrix.
In a study by Najigivi et al. [90], the team assessed the effects of two different nanosilica
particles with different ratios on the compressive strength and workability, and of prepared
binary blended concretes cured in lime solution and water as two distinct curing media.
Test results for hardened concrete showed that the optimum replacement level of cement by
N series of nanosilica particles for developing concrete with remarkably increased strength
was set at 1.0 wt %, subsequent to curing in water. This study confirmed that nanosilica
particles performed an important role in the concrete’s mechanical properties through
the development of calcium silicate hydrate gel at the time of treatment. This played a
significant role in increasing the binary blend’s compressive strength. A study by Barbhuiya
et al. [91] reviewed the nanosilica preparation for concrete application, and the influence of
the addition of nanosilica to cement concrete with regard to various components, hardened
state, and fresh state; as well as physical properties such as setting times and workability.
Thus, overall it was noted that the nanosilica reacted with lime at the time of the
cement hydration process, and subsequently enhanced the mechanical strength and dura-
bility of the concrete. In addition, we found that nanosilica and nanolimestone contents
were very important to the performance of an ultrahigh-performance concrete matrix,
due to the fact that their inclusion could improve the tensile strength and compressive
strength of concrete. Moreover, the freeze–thaw resistance and abrasion resistance of the
concrete could also be improved with the inclusion of nanosilica in the concrete mix. When
increasing the nanosilica concentration, the flexural strength, split tensile strength, and
compressive strength of concrete increases because the nanosilica functions as an activa-
tor to promote the hydration, thereby improving the microstructure pores. Furthermore,
nanosilica can improve the interfacial transition zone, thereby changing the concrete matrix
to be more dense, and thereby improving the concrete’s durability. Although several
studies have been performed that confirmed the application of nanosilica as a suitable
material in the construction sector, this nanomaterial has still not achieved momentum in
the production of concrete. This is due to the formation of agglomerates, the unavailability
in several nations, and the expensive nature. Another matter of concern is the absence
of appropriate dispersion of nanosilica in concrete. Although the sonication method is a
potential approach to better dispersion, alternate techniques should also be considered.
This nanomaterial application is still in its investigation stage, and is developing from
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 10 of 32

fundamental investigation to commercial applications. However, Gaia is one of the first

commercial nanoadmixtures employed in concrete, and it was prepared by Ulmen S.A.
(Santiago de Chile, Chile) and Cognoscible Technologies (Chile) for substituting silica fume
in ready-mixed concrete amenities certified by the ISO 14001-Environmental Management
System [92]. This product is in liquid form, which can efficiently disperse the nanosilica
particles present in concrete. Gaia shows the perfect impacts of slump improvment, as well
as water lessening, on the concrete. The self-compacting concrete design turns out to be a
simple task with the benefit of the Gaia. The Gaia application at 1.3 wt % concentration
contributed a slump loss of 30% in 1.5 h at a 20 ◦ C ambient temperature for concrete.
In the meantime, incorporation of Gaia contributed approximately a twofold rise in the
compressive strength of concrete at 7 days and 28 days and was almost three times greater
than the earlier compressive strength (at 1 day of age) of the reference concrete.

3.2. Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)

Several studies have confirmed that carbon nanotubes in a lab environment can be
used to improve the strength of materials and to contribute electrical conductivity [93].
Nanomaterials with properties such as strength and durability are of special interest in the
manufacturing of concrete [43]. CNTs can be incorporated into concrete; however, their
commercial utilization is not very advanced because CNTs are costly when considering the
amounts needed for their inclusion in mass concrete, even though characteristic suggested
proportions are just 1 wt %.
Presently, carbon nanotubes are also added to concrete as a nanofiller because they
possess a higher surface area and unusual mechanical characteristics. Mohsen et al. [94]
examined the influence of carbon nanotube utilization on the microstructure, permeability,
strain capacity, and flexural strength of concrete. The test results confirmed this nano-
material increased the concrete beam ductility by approximately 150%. A qualitative
microstructural analysis showed the CNT filaments’ uniform dispersion inside the con-
crete hydration products in entire batches. The study confirmed that a large void content
was occurring due to the increased surfactant content present in the solution after the
sonication process. Gürkan et al. [95] demonstrated that relative to carbon nanotubes,
carbon fiber utilization remarkably enhanced the load-carrying capability and ductility,
leading to bending mode of failure even with inadequate shear reinforcement. In a study by
Adhikary et al. [96], the impact of CNTs and graphene nanoplates on lightweight concrete
properties were investigated. The test results confirmed that the compressive strength of
lightweight concrete specimens was marginally increased by including CNTs and graphene
nanoplates. The composite specimens fabricated with CNTs showed increased compressive
strength relative to the concrete specimen fabricated with graphene nanoplates at the
same concentration.
Lushnikova et al. [97] analyzed the impact of different carbon nanotubes when in-
cluded in cement samples. CNTs affected the nanoscale processes in the C–S–H structure
on the molecular level that kept the cementitious matrix together. The team employed
molecular dynamics simulations for determining the impact of carbon nanotubes on the
mechanical properties of C–S–H, such as elastic constants, bulk modulus, shear modu-
lus, and the Poisson ratio. The findings of the simulations confirmed an increase in the
examined mechanical characteristics. Consequently, this study confirmed that carbon
nanotubes were nanomaterials that could improve the concrete’s mechanical properties. A
study by Chandran et al. [98] proposed that the macroscopic carbon nanotube bars could
be used as reinforcement bars for concrete structural elements, and this offered superior
performance concrete that was crack-free and had increased ductility. In a research work
by Yu et al. [99], the group examined the mechanical improvement in carbon-nanotube-
reinforced concrete. The authors studied the interplay between calcium silicate hydrate
and CNTs. This study confirmed that the porous property of C–S–H nanobranches could
allow the CNT incorporation.
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 11 of 32

Ultrahigh-performance concrete shows increased crack resistance and durability, with

150 MPa compressive strength, and thus it could be employed for the construction of facili-
ties requiring adequate physical protection. CNT incorporation in ultrahigh-performance
concrete was examined by Jung et al. [100] with respect to mechanical properties and
electromagnetic shielding effectiveness. Figure 7 shows the preparation process of the
specimen, consisting of four processes: (1) preparation of dispersed CNT solution; (2) mix-
ing of the ultrahigh-performance concrete dry premixture with the solution; (3) casting;
and (4) curing. Figure 8 shows that dispersing CNTs in ultrahigh-performance concrete
could improve the mechanical properties up to the critical incorporation concentration
due to the bridging effect, pore filling effect, and development of a hydration product
with increased stiffness. The results confirmed that the CNTs considerably improved the
electrical conductivity, and led to shielding effectiveness up to the percolation threshold.
Hawreen et al. [101] examined the impacts on the long-term creep, as well as concrete
shrinkage, due to the incorporation of various types of carbon nanotubes. The team
employed concrete with 0.05% to 0.5% of functionalized and unfunctionalized carbon
nanotubes and 0.35–0.55 water-to-cement ratios. With CNT incorporation, the concrete’s
compressive strength improved to 21%. Incorporating carbon nanotubes resulted in a de-
crease in the early and long-term shrinkage of the concrete of 54.0% and 15.0%, respectively.
Here, the carbon nanotubes basically influenced the stiffness and porous structure of the
cement paste, which covered about 30% of the concrete volume. The CNT addition to
concrete showed 17.0% to 18.0% lower long-term creep as compared to the concrete with
no CNTs. CNTs have been considered as advanced nanomaterials in the civil engineering
sector that can reduce nanocrack development. The presence of CNTs in concrete might
improve the flexural strength and compressive strength of the concrete.

Figure 7. The specimen preparation process for CNT-incorporated ultrahigh-performance concrete.

Reproduced from [100].

Thus, it was noted that the carbon nanotubes were nanomaterials that could improve
the concrete’s mechanical properties such as compressive strength, flexural strength, and
ductility, and also offered crack resistance and increased electrical conductivity. The
carbon nanotube application can increase the concrete beam ductility by approximately
150%. Moreover, the compressive strength of lightweight concrete specimens can also
be increased by including CNTs. For improving the different properties of cement-based
composites by the addition of CNTs, the appropriate dispersion of CNTs must be confirmed
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 12 of 32

for the manufacture of CNT-containing cement-based composites. The knowledge of

the chemical–mechanical dispersion mechanism of CNTs in cement-based composites is
definitely beneficial in the design of CNT-containing functional cement-based composites.
Various dispersion techniques, such as ultrasonication, use of admixtures or siliceous
materials, minimization of the water-to-cement ratio, and modification of CNTs, have
been attempted to disperse CNT particles in cementitious composites. The admixed
carbon nanotubes could also reduce the porosity of the cementitious matrix. Furthermore,
CNT incorporation into concrete can result in a decrease in both the early and long-term
shrinkage of concrete.

Figure 8. The effects of CNTs on the mechanical properties of ultrahigh-performance concrete

(UHPC). Reproduced from Ref [100].

3.3. Titanium Dioxide (TiO2 )

Another nanomaterial used in concrete is titanium dioxide. The inclusion of tita-
nium dioxide in concrete can offer concrete some self-cleaning ability. Titanium dioxide-
incorporated concrete can permit a photocatalytic degradation of contaminants from
automobile and industrial emissions. TiO2 is manufactured in great quantities due to its
photocatalytic, stable, and anticorrosive properties. The photocatalytic ability of titanium
dioxide results from the higher surface area of the nanoparticles; thus, when incorporated
in concrete, the material turns out to be self-disinfecting and self-cleaning. In the presence
of light, the aforementioned nanomaterial disintegrates the dirt and organic pollutants
present on the concrete surface into carbon dioxide and water; the catalytic reaction prod-
ucts are then simply detached by rain or simple cleaning. The addition of nano-TiO2 in
cement matrices can offer concrete frameworks with self-sensing and self-cleaning capa-
bilities. Zanfir et al. [102] studied the sol-gel preparation, as well as characterization of a
titania–silica fume composite generated by the coating of silica fume particles with TiO2
photocatalytic nanoparticles. It was noted that the TiO2 –silica fume composite powders
demonstrated an improved pozzolanic activity and could be employed for the partial re-
placement of Portland cement in the self-cleaning mortar preparation. In a research work by
Nikbin et al. [103], the group examined the shielding performance of heavy concrete with
magnetite aggregates and different concentrations of TiO2 nanoparticles, substituted by
weight of cement in different temperatures cycles. The test results confirmed that samples
with 6% TiO2 nanoparticles met the design requirements (increased compressive strength).
The Jubilee Church in Rome, Italy, which was constructed in 2003, was one of the
first buildings that employed reinforced and self-cleaning concrete [104]. The construction
possessed three iconic shells built in 2001–2002 that used precast panels with photocatalytic
titanium oxide nanoparticles. The titanium oxide nanoparticles can absorb energy from
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 13 of 32

light and use this energy for accomplishing the pollutant photocatalytic degradation.
Joshaghani et al. [81] examined and compared the impacts of various nanoparticles, such as
TiO2 nanoparticles, alumina nanoparticles, and nano-ferric oxide, on a self-consolidating
concrete’s performance regarding durability and mechanical properties by performing
various experiments. Self-consolidating concrete is a concrete type that can be placed, as
well as compacted under its own weight, with no requirement for compaction. Figure 9
shows the method of performing the V-funnel and slump flow tests. The incorporation
of nanomaterials in the mixes moderately reduced the V-funnel time, confirming that the
flowability property of the self-consolidating concrete increased marginally. This study
confirmed that partial substitution of cement with nanomaterials on average increased the
durability and compressive strength of self-consolidating concrete, but also resulted in a
workability reduction.

Figure 9. Experiments on fresh concrete: (A) slump flow test apparatus; and (B) V-funnel test
apparatus. Reproduced from [81].

From the analysis of different studies, it was observed that the incorporation of
nano-TiO2 in cement matrices could offer concrete frameworks with self-sensing as well
as self-cleaning capabilities. It could also contribute improved mechanical properties,
such as the compressive strength and durability, to the concrete. Moreover, incorporation
of nano-TiO2 to the concrete mix could moderately reduce the V-funnel time, thereby
confirming the improvement in the flowability property of self-consolidating concrete.
The TiO2 nanoparticles also improved the strength and the durability of the nano-based
concretes by enhancing the carbonization tolerance, as well as the resistance to different
chemical attacks, which was additionally due to the upgrading in the microstructures,
porosity reduction, and refinement of the voids or microcracks. The larger surface area and
stronger reactivity of the nanoparticles added into the concrete structures could improve
the pozzlanic reactions, leading to a significant improvement in strength performance.

3.4. Ferric Oxide (Fe2 O3 )

The optimum incorporation of ferric oxide nanoparticles in concrete specimens might
increase the compressive strength. Kani et al. [105] studied the properties of cement
composites and mortars in the presence of ferric oxide nanoparticles as the modifier. The
cement composite was synthesized by the sol-gel technique with the complex ligand
tetraethylammonium orthosilicate. Ferric oxide nanoparticles were incorporated at 2.0, 4.0,
and 6.0 wt % concentrations in the cement composite; whereas for mortars, 2.0, 3.0, and
4.0 wt % of ferric oxide nanoparticle concentrations were employed. Figure 10 presents
the scanning electron microscopy images of the cement composite with (a) 0.0 wt %,
(b) 2.0 wt %, (c) 4.0 wt %, (d) and 6.0 wt % of ferric oxide nanoparticles. The test results
confirmed a variation in the molecular structure and phase composition of the cement
composites, resulting in stronger bonds in the silicate network, with an extremely ordered
arrangement of nanomaterials in them. The mechanical properties of mortar samples
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 14 of 32

increased with inclusion of ferric oxide nanoparticles, and a 3.0 wt % dosage was recognized
as the optimal concentration.

Figure 10. Scanning electron microscopy images of cement composites with: (a) 0.0 wt %, (b) 2.0 wt %,
(c) 4.0 wt %, and (d) 6.0 wt % of ferric oxide nanoparticles. Reproduced from [105].

A study by Heikal et al. [106] examined the influence of ferric oxide nanoparticles on
the properties and durability resistance to chloride and sulfate anion attacks. Ferric oxide
nanoparticles were manufactured from the heating of Fe(CH3 COO)2 OH at 450 ◦ C and
300 ◦ C at a 2 h soaking time. The manufactured ferric oxide nanoparticles demonstrated
the buildup of fine ferrihydrite and hematite crystals with an almost 10–20 nm grain size.
Ferric oxide nanoparticles increased the durability of composite pastes containing ferric
oxide nanoparticles toward chloride and sulfate anion attacks. Mixes with 0.5–1.0% ferric
oxide nanoparticles confirmed low values of total chloride and total sulfate contents. This
was due to a finer and denser matrix with low porosity, which blocked the empty pores to
the diffusion of chloride and sulfate anions, and therefore demonstrated increased values
of bulk density and compressive strength.
Thus, overall, it was noted that the addition of ferric oxide nanoparticles to the concrete
could improve its mechanical properties, such as its compressive strength. Further, the
hardened concrete’s water absorption could also be improved with the inclusion of iron
powder. Moreover, it was observed that the ferric oxide nanoparticles could increase the
durability resistance of concrete against chloride, as well as sulfate anion attacks.

3.5. Other Nanomaterials

Polycarboxylate, a nanomaterial, is an admixture in concrete. The construction of
remarkable concrete structures have been benefited from the exceptional performance of
present commercial polycarboxylate products, including the construction of the tallest
skyscraper in the world—Burj Khalifa, Dubai, with an 820 m height. The development
of higher-strength concrete, including a kind of polycarboxylate product and a retarder,
permitted the structural concrete to be pumped up to an increased height of 650 m, and
showed slump retention over 3 h at 50 ◦ C for the concrete [107]. The stress-free handling
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 15 of 32

guideline or technique has permitted polycarboxylate to become a popular nanomaterial

used in cement-based materials.
Moreover, an increasing interest in the use of cellulose nanomaterials as fillers and
reinforcement in concrete has been noted [108]. Test results confirmed that an increased
elastic modulus was obtained, retaining a similar water-to-powder ratio. Types of cellulose
commonly used in concrete are cellulose filaments, microfibrillated cellulose, cellulose
nanocrystals, and cellulose nanofibrils. For nanocellulose, promising results have been
presented, and in a study by Barnat-Hunek el al. [108], the team analyzed nanocellulose
from carrot and apple in the form of nanofibers and nanocrystals. It was noted that
increased concentration of nanocellulose in the concrete resulted in a higher tensile strength
in bending.
Table 2 presents the different functions of nanomaterials when added to concrete [109–117].
It is evident that it could improve the mechanical properties and overcome physical and
chemical deteriorations.
Table 2. Nanomaterial applications in concrete.

Nanomaterial
Sl. No. Function Details Reference
Used
Nanosilica aggravated
Overcome physical the drying shrinkage
1 Nanosilica [109]
deteriorations—shrinkage when admixed in cement
composites
The admixed CNT
Overcome physical
2 Carbon nanotubes decreased the porosity of [110]
deteriorations—shrinkage
the cementitious matrix
Overcome physical
Nanosilica reduced the
3 Nanosilica deteriorations—freeze–thaw [111]
frost damage
damage
Overcome physical
Nanosilica improved the
4 Nanosilica deteriorations—freeze–thaw [112]
freeze–thaw resistance
damage
Overcome physical
Nanosilica increased the
5 Nanosilica deteriorations—freeze– [109]
abrasion resistance
abrasion/erosion
Overcome physical
Nano-TiO2 increased the
6 Nano-TiO2 deteriorations—freeze– [113]
abrasion resistance
abrasion/erosion
Overcome chemical Nanosilica decreased the
7 Nanosilica [114]
deteriorations—sulfate attack mortar expansion
Overcome chemical Nanosilica increased the
8 Nanosilica deteriorations—thermal thermal resistance of the [115]
degradation cement mortar
Compressive and
Carbon nanotubes Improvement of mechanical flexural strength were
9 [116]
and nanosilica properties enhanced for the
nano-admixed mortar
Carbon nanotubes Improvement of mechanical Nanomaterials improved
10 [117]
and nanosilica properties the compressive strength

As we can note, although nanomaterials offer superior properties to concrete, the

majority are not used as much commercially, due to their limited availability, along with
the increased price of the nanomaterials. However, global commercial interest in CNTs
is reflected in their manufacturing capacity, which currently is more than several thou-
sand tons/year [118]. In 2015, Zeon Corp. (Tokyo, Japan; www.zeon.co.jp, accessed on
5 October 2021) opened the world’s foremost mass-production facility for high-grade CNTs
at its Tokuyama facility in Shunan City, Japan. This facility produces CNTs using the Super
Growth (SG) method, and they have greater than 99% purity [119]. Table 3 presents an
overview of the improvements in concrete properties with the addition of nanomaterials.
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 16 of 32

Table 3. Overview of the improvements in concrete properties with the addition of nanomaterials.

Sl. No. Nanomaterials Used Property Improvements in Concrete

• Contributes to reduced emissions of CO2 , as the

addition of 1 kg microsilica reduced almost 4 kg
cement, and this can be higher if nanosilica is used
1 Nanosilica • Offers increased durability to concrete
• Improves compressive strength
• Increases the flexural strength,
• Improves the tensile strength

• Decreases the concrete’s final setting time,

• Restricts crack development and propagation at
early ages,
• Produces dense concrete,
• Increased quality of bond interaction between
aggregates and cement paste
2 Carbon nanotubes • Increases the compressive strength
• Improves the tensile strength, Young’s modulus,
flexural strength, and fracture toughness
• Decreases the required size of concrete
structural members
• Decreases the early and long-term shrinkage
of concrete

• Increases the abrasion resistance of concrete

• Improves compressive strength
• Increases the durability of concrete structures
• Increases the flexural strength
3 Nano-TiO2 • Speeds up the early-age hydration of ordinary
Portland cement
• Offers self-sensing and self-cleaning properties to
concrete structures

• Improves compressive strength

• Increases the flexural strength
• Improves split tensile strength
4 Nano-Fe2 O3 • Reduces the setting time of fresh concrete
• Decreases the total porosity of concrete
• Improves concrete’s abrasion resistance

So far, there have been no nanomaterials employed commercially in the construction

sector, except for nano-SiO2 and polycarboxylate. However, these nanomaterials are not
very economical or as abundantly available as other supplementary cementitious material.
However, if thorough research is carried out in this area, then there will be an opportunity
to develop advanced, highly performing, durable, economical, and sustainable concrete.
Nano-SiO2 , carbon nanotubes, and titanium dioxide have good possibilities for use in
nanoconcrete. Smart concrete and self-sensing concrete tend to find a suitable space in the
construction sector. The application of specific nanostructured materials could improve the
performance and the life cycle of concrete structures. Scientists are attempting to develop
the manufacturing technology for producing nanomaterials at a commercial scale so that
these materials will be easily accessible economically.

4. Challenges and Limitations of Nanomaterials in Construction Industries

Specific consideration must be given to the probability of penetration of water within
the building matrices with the utilization of nanomaterials [120–125]. The clay-based
nanomaterials are hydrophilic, and hence special care must be taken for controlling the
water necessities in the clay–cement composite. A reduction in water can be accomplished
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 17 of 32

through an organic cation exchange modification, in which the organic cation replaces
calcium or sodium existing in the interlayer, lowering its hydrophilicity. In the recent past,
the chemical binding of polyvinyl alcohol has been employed for creating linked clay parti-
cle chains that, while incorporated in the cement, could enhance their performance [126].
When nanocoatings were employed in some cultural heritage stone, the major problem to
be considered was their photoinduced super hydrophilicity, which could adversely impact
the stone [127].
Another major challenge in using nanoparticles in the construction industries is the
absence of their homogenous dispersion [128,129]. The nanoparticles are inclined to ag-
glomerate in a cement matrix, and hence could not be homogeneously dispersed with a
basic mixing technique [130]. Mostly, carbon nanotubes/carbon nanofibers have increased
hydrophobicity and stronger self-attraction. Including these nanomaterials in the con-
struction industries appears extremely attractive, but somewhat complicated. For solving
this problem associated with dispersion, proper knowledge of the intricate mechanisms
in the paste and the interaction at interfaces are important parameters for optimizing the
inclusion of carbon nanotubes/carbon nanofibers in concrete [126]. Extra steps might be
needed when mixing these materials, such as purification and functionalization prior to
mixing. These may still cause weak bonding between the cement and the nanomaterials
(carbon nanotubes/carbon nanofibers). Some scientists have concentrated on overcoming
this issue by introducing a simple technique for the development of better dispersion of
carbon-based nanomaterials.
Nanomaterial compatibility with building materials is another limitation in the appli-
cation of nanomaterials [131,132]. Specifically, regarding titanium dioxide nanoparticles,
some research has confirmed that when titanium dioxide is added to cement, there might
be additional complexities, as compared to when titanium dioxide is coated on other sub-
strates such as ceramics and glass. Cement has poor stability and less surface area [133,134],
which are adversative to the photocatalytic reaction, and lead to a negative effect regarding
the use of poor stability in building matrixes. As time passes, its efficiency reduces. Mainly,
after four months, the photocatalytic influence appears to drop irrespective of whether it
was mixed with the bulk or used as a coating on the surface.
Another drawback of the use of nanoparticles in the construction sector is the fact that
at the time when nanomaterials are employed for enhancing the strength, the materials with
higher strength also have a higher density, which results in greater structure weight [135].
The high cost of nanomaterials is an extremely significant drawback in the use of
nanomaterials in the construction sector [136,137]. This is due to the uniqueness of this
technology and the intricacy of the equipment employed for manufacturing and charac-
terization practices. However, expenses have been shown to be reduced with time, and
as fabrication technologies progress, these expenses might be reduced further. Presently,
the greater expense of the nanostructure-based self-healing concrete, as compared to the
conventional ordinary Portland cement-based concretes, is mostly due to their superior
qualities, restricted knowledge as regards their implementation, as well as less manufactur-
ing globally. In spite of the high price of the nanomaterial-based self-healing concretes, the
implementation of these materials must be considered on account of their long-term bene-
fits. It is expected that nanomaterials will contribute exceptional solutions for solving any
complex issues, resulting in commercial scale uses, and thus making them economical [138].
Excluding all these, certain fundamental disadvantages of the use of nanomaterials in the
construction sector include environmental problems and health hazards [139–143]. Nano-
enabled construction products can be dangerous to human health [144–147]. Constructive
structure is presented in the natural surroundings, and hence all the materials employed
in the facilities are required to be compatible with the natural surroundings with almost
zero environmental impact, as feasible. The most frequent potential issues include the
discharge of nanomaterials through dust into the air, nanomaterials invading the ground-
water, and exposure to possibly dangerous materials at the time of construction and during
maintenance procedures.
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 18 of 32

Numerous factors should be considered for developing nanomaterial-based concretes.

First of all, the concrete and associated materials should be fabricated at a commercial
scale. Although the expense of high-priced concrete structures turns out to be lower, it
should have the capability of handling enormous materials in an ecofriendly and safer way.
Second, advances need to be methodically established with field assessments to achieve the
proper knowledge, as well as assurance in the concrete field. Finally, concrete structures
are difficult to destroy and require greater energies or explosives to break up. Therefore,
nanomaterial-based concrete fabrication must be compatible with the above-mentioned
traditional practices.

5. Environmental and Health Concerns of Nanomaterial Applications in Construction

Industries
The advancement and progress of nanotechnology can upgrade the properties of
building/construction materials, and thus assist sustainability [148–151]. There are obvious
benefits related to the development of several nano-enabled products; however, there might
also be dangers. For example, several health hazards are involved in the utilization of
certain nanomaterials. Several studies have examined the negative effects of nanomaterials
on human health and on the surroundings [152–156]. Figure 11 presents the potential
exposure routes during the complete cycle of construction nanomaterials. The precise form,
as well as the dose, of the nanomaterials involved are significant factors in whether the
danger is substantial, making it important to gain a better knowledge of the materials being
used. Analyzing the inadequate data accessible in the public domain has shown that it is
difficult to be certain about the utilization of nano-enabled products in the construction
field and their market penetration. Further, it is more difficult to predict which new
advancements in nanomaterials might become commercially obtainable for products in
the immediate future, and how extensively they may be used. The construction/building
industry is continuously considering different techniques for improving economic and
environmental sustainability. Although using nanomaterials in concrete has enhanced
constructability and has resulted in significantly upgraded construction features, there
still exists the problem of recycling these nanomaterials, together with the health dangers
related to them to the laborers in construction/demolition and members of the societies in
the area [157].

Figure 11. Potential exposure routes during the complete cycle of construction nanomaterials.

5.1. Risk Assessment

Risk assessment examines the hazards to the health of humans and the environment of
a sole substance at a specific point in its production time, service life, or discharge [158–160].
Risk assessment is regularly carried out to recognize if any stages of life cycle present a risk.
Recently, a momentous enhancement in the usage of nanomaterials in different construction
materials was noted that was inclusive of coatings, glass, mortar, timber, bricks, steel, and
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 19 of 32

concrete [161–163]. Partial scientific data has been collected that supports or discourages
nanotechnology implementation in the construction industries. The important features
to be analyzed and discussed include a toxicological analysis, longer-period and shorter-
period exposure dangers of nanomaterials on the health of humans and environment during
the service life of the material, and the dangers related to the nanomaterials’ disposal. There
were several previous studies carried out for the risk evaluation of nanomaterials used in
the construction industries [164–169].

5.2. Health Issues Related to Nanomaterials from Construction Industry

During the utilization of nanomaterials in the construction industry, exposure can
lead to the inhalation of nanomaterials, or their absorption by straight contact with ex-
posed skin. Consequences of nanomaterial exposure are not adequately realized, thus
demanding studies to understand the interactions between nanomaterials and organic
materials. Research works on the intake of many standard nanomaterials by mice gen-
erated understandings of the possible adversarial influences of nanomaterial exposure;
however, generalization of the results was restricted by the experiment’s subjects [170–172].
During recent years, toxicological examinations have been carried out with various kinds
of engineered nanomaterials to understand their impact on the human body. Some of
the health effects of nanoparticles used in the construction industry on human organs are
presented in Table 4 [173–178].
Table 4. Some nanoparticles used in the construction industry that are toxic to human organs.

Construction Affected
Sl. No. Nanomaterial References
Industry Application System/Organ/Cell
Carbon Inflammation, oxidative
1 Concrete, ceramics [173]
nanotubes stress
SiO2 Windows, ceramics, Bronchoalveolar
2 [174]
nanoparticles concrete carcinoma-derived cells
Cell death,
TiO2
3 Windows, cement carcinogenesis, [175]
nanoparticles
metabolic changes
Fibroblast, reproductive
organs, vascular system,
Silver
4 Biocidal activity carcinogenesis, brain, [176]
nanoparticles
liver, lungs, immune
system
Iron oxide
5 Concrete Oxidative DNA damage [177]
nanoparticles
Zinc oxide
6 Sensors Cell proliferation [178]
Nanoparticles

In relation to the most commonly used nanomaterials in the construction industry, it

can be noted that their risks are different. Several nanomaterials are comprised in the ven-
ture that the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has started
to promote the complete characterization of nanomaterials already present in the market
or soon-to-be commercialized [179]. Steffen et al. [179] presented an examination of the
published OECD reports regarding the information on ecotoxicology, environmental fate,
and the chemical and physical properties. The list includes gold nanoparticles, nanoclays,
dendrimers, zinc oxide, cerium oxide, aluminium oxide, titanium dioxide, silver nanopar-
ticles, multiwalled carbon nanotubes, single-walled carbon nanotubes, and fullerenes.
In the USA, as per the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH),
ultrafine titanium dioxide must be considered as a prospective work-related carcinogenic
agent, caused by a secondary genotoxicity mechanism common to other poorly soluble or
insoluble particles; it is associated with surface area and particle size, and a work-related
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 20 of 32

exposure limit of 0.3 mg/m3 must be considered [180]. The aforementioned institution also
estimated that there was adequate evidence of CNTs having damaging health effects in
humans (respiratory inflammation and fibrosis, and asbestos-type pathology resulting from
exposure to straighter, longer carbon nanotube structures), based on animal and in vitro
studies [181]. Particulate air pollution is associated with an extensive range of conditions
influencing several organs of the human body [182]. Inhaling different nanomaterials at
the time of manufacture, molding, coating, as well as inclusion could adversely influence
the workers, thus leading to a severe health problem. Therefore, proper monitoring of
air quality is needed in the course of manufacturing of nanomaterials in a factory [183].
Furthermore, personal shielding equipment (gloves, masks, etc.) can also be employed
for mitigating the possible hazards. Moreover, a periodic medical checkup is highly rec-
ommended for workers, due to the fact that the suggested personal shielding equipment
might be insufficient in certain cases. Predominantly, in the construction and materials
industry, there will be additional issues with regard to the final product presentation. Some
of the supplied materials will be in the form of a powder, and therefore, the nanomaterials
should be stabilized with different techniques. Several protective and preventive measures
were presented with respect to the nanomaterial properties. As an example, Díaz-Soler
et al. [184] stated five important steps for the management of nanomaterial exposure in
construction areas. Significant developments are required until the nanomaterials are
nontoxic for all.

5.3. Environmental Implications

With the enhancement in the demands and applications of nanomaterials from for-
merly unrelated industries, the fabrication and exposure of nanomaterials has increased.
Therefore, through transportation, disposal, washing, and erosion of the nanomaterial-
enhanced products, these nanomaterials will find their way into ecosystems [185]. The
influence of the addition of nanomaterials into land and aqueous environments is presently
unclear, with uncertain direct results of nanomaterial exposure.
Solid manufactured nanomaterial wastes from fabrication processes or the demolition
and construction activities are transferred to legalized disposal sites. Before their dumping,
these wastes most probably undergo a crushing process. Successive landfilling, land farm-
ing, and incineration might be the predominant methods for the ecological discharge of
manufactured nanomaterials in the construction industry. The current available literature
related to engineered nanomaterials incorporated in waste products; the possibility for
the discharge of engineered nanomaterials from these products; and their probable fate in
waste degradation, landfilling, incineration, and recycling was reviewed and assessed by
Part et al. [186]. Manufactured nanomaterials reach the waste stream, and subsequently
some nanomaterials will be subjected to incineration as part of their end-of-life treatment.
Incineration is an important waste treatment method, with high potential for nanomaterial
modifications, and either controlling them successfully or discharging these materials to
the surroundings. Incineration has been proven to be a safe and an effective end-of-life
treatment for limiting the effects of nanomaterials on the environment, as well as on the
human health [187]. The present regulations on incinerator emissions do not precisely
address nanomaterials; however, limits on metal and particle emissions might prove ef-
fective to a certain extent in reducing the discharge of nanomaterials in the incinerator
effluent. Aerosolization of manufactured nanomaterials; wastewater effluents from fab-
rication processes and construction works; as well as corrosion, abrasion, and adhesive
wear of civil/building structures, could also lead to the discharge of nanomaterials into
the environment. Evaluating the environmental exposure to manufactured nanomaterials
on a long-standing basis is a major challenge due to the analytical restrictions that pre-
vent extensive multiphase observation of their transformation, transportation, and fate in
the environment.
One of the significant problems with nanomaterials is the manner in which interactions
occur involving materials that have been formerly regarded as harmless. Specially, though
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 21 of 32

silver has been considered safe, studies have proposed that silver nanomaterial exposure
in the embryonic stage of zebrafishes could stimulate irregularity in development or
even death at levels greater than 0.190 nM [188]. Nonmarine illustrations contribute an
indication of problems emerging from ecological nanomaterial interaction, with silver-
based nanomaterials disturbing the development of seeds in a variety of plants, leading to
the accumulation of silver in shoots, and the biological accumulation in gastropods, rag
worms, and green algae [189].
Thus, a greater awareness of the novel products being established will also empower
the building/construction industries to maximize the advantages that nanotechnology
can contribute. With proper comprehension, there will be a development in the usage
of products that were previously accessible but hardly specified; e.g., insulation that
is four times as efficient as conventional materials, superior-performance concrete that
lessens the requirements for steel reinforcement, or photocatalytic concretes that can
decrease airborne contamination. It may also inspire the timely implementation of products
that are prospective but not yet completely advanced; e.g., photovoltaic cells that can
produce electricity from clear windows, or vanadium-based coatings that can eradicate
the requirements for the cleaning of windows on high-rise buildings. Nanomaterials can
contribute both risks and advantages. Currently, nanomaterials exist in a few commercial
construction products; a couple of them are labeled, while others are not, and there are
certainly further materials to develop. It is substantial that the building/construction
industries identify sufficient information on the nanosized materials to take safe and
smart decisions.

6. Concrete Recycling
The recycling of concrete is an important measure adopted for reducing the ecological
effects of concrete structures at the end of their life cycle [190–192]. In recent times, concrete
recycling with nanomaterials has been explored, and it was noted to have improved
compressive strength as compared to a standard recycled concrete (RC) [193–195]. It was
noted that the incorporation of nanomaterials in the recycled standard concrete could
offer mechanical properties that were the same as pristine standard concrete [196]. The
microstructure, as well as strength of concrete, are enhanced; however, the concrete’s
workability will be decreased with the inclusion of nanomaterials. Moreover, it can be
noted that the nanomaterial-incorporated RC could achieve a similar compressive strength
to pristine standard concrete after 28 days, while the concentration of the nanosilica was
3% by mass.
In a study carried out by Agarwal et al. [197], the team examined the flexural strength,
tensile strength, compressive strength, and durability of control concrete (with natural
aggregate and recycled aggregate) and concrete samples with nanosilica in the recycled
aggregate concrete matrix. It was noted that the concrete mix with 3% nanosilica and 40%
recycled aggregate showed the optimum results for durability and strength. Moreover, it
supported the decreasing of the emissions of carbon dioxide, which occurred due to the
greater quantity of cement use, resulting in ecological challenges such as the greenhouse
effect. Nanosilica use can enhance the recycled concrete’s microstructure [198]. In a study
by Hosseini et al. [198], it was noted that the inclusion of nanosilica in recycled aggregates
could decrease the flowability and workability of pristine concrete separately, although
the viscosity of recycled fresh concrete was remarkably increased. With the usage of lower
concentrations of nanosilica and increasing its concentration up to 3%, the permeability
and mechanical properties of recycled concretes were increased.
Wang et al. [199] fabricated recycled aggregate concrete and nanosilica recycled ag-
gregate concrete, and it was noted that the nanosilica 2% solution concentration and 48 h
soaking time demonstrated an improved modification effect on the mechanical behavior of
the recycled aggregates. Moreover, the nanosilica-incorporated recycled aggregate showed
a remarkable impact on the improvement in the compressive strength of the recycled
aggregate concrete cube.
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 22 of 32

A work by Mukharjee et al. [200] addressed the preparation of advanced construction

materials using commercially available nanosilica, as well as recycled aggregates obtained
from construction–demolition waste. The results confirmed that an increase in compressive
strength was accomplished with the inclusion of nanosilica, along with the restoration of a
decrease in the compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete mixes. In the study
carried out by Zheng et al. [201], it was noted that nano-SiO2 , basalt fiber, and composite
addition of nano-SiO2 , basalt fiber, could effectively enhance the interface structure and
durability of recycled concrete.
On the other hand, the existing studies on nanomaterial-incorporated concrete are
very limited, and therefore additional studies must be carried out to investigate the impact
of nanomaterial-incorporated recycled concrete on its dynamic mechanical properties, and
compare it with pristine standard concrete with respect to impact loading [196]. Because of
the defects in recycled concrete structures and the complexity in the interface framework,
additional studies should be carried out. The microproperties of fiber nanorecycled concrete
were mainly examined by employing scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and
other techniques, and the above-mentioned properties should be researched further. Several
studies were performed on the durability and carbonation resistance of recycled concrete;
though only very limited research has investigated the development of the microstructure
at the time of carbonation.

7. Future Research
Different bio-based nanomaterials are also recommended for the lowering the negative
impact on the environment and on human health. In a study by Bang et al. [202], a new
biomolecule, microbial calcite, was presented as a smart nanomaterial for self-healing con-
crete. The results confirmed that the overall performance of the concrete was remarkably
improved by microbial calcite treatment in simulated concrete cracks and cement mortar
beams. Barnat-Hunek et al. [203] also confirmed that nanocellulose in concrete could
increase the tensile strength in bending. More studies should be focused on developing
appropriate bio-nanomaterials that can be used in concrete. In addition, the nanomaterial
manufacturers must properly declare all nanoparticle ingredients in their products. Work-
ers must receive appropriate data and training regarding the nanomaterials and their safe
handling, and must be consulted on the preparation, organization, and implications for
health and safety in the nanomaterials’ application.
According to the current review, the subsequent potential studies are suggested:
(1) optimization of nanosilica-incorporated concrete, and the mathematical modelling of
behaviour of concrete, need detailed investigation; (2) scientists should develop a high-
performance, high-strength, and lightweight nanosilica-incorporated concrete; (3) it is
essential to set up a basic approach of mixing design for this nanomaterial-incorporated
concrete; (4) the hardened and fresh properties of nanosilica-incorporated concrete, needed
for acoustical and thermal properties, should be evaluated; (5) properly examine the
engineering properties such as shrinkage, creep, bond, etc. of nanosilica-incorporated
concrete; (6) the optimal amount of superplasticizers for improved workability should be
assessed; (7) the ultrasonication method demonstrated a noticeable outcome as regards
the CNT dispersion, and hence, the concrete manufacturers should modify their facilities
for accommodating the sonication technique. Consequently, the overall expenses must be
assessed and compared with the attained advantages of employing the CNTs with ordinary
Portland cement products; (8) studies on the mechanical characteristics and fundamental
model of RC under dynamic actions is inadequate, and hence research in this area must be
carried out; (9) proper assessment of the mechanical characteristics of recycled concrete in
complex stress states and multiaxial conditions must be performed; (10) research should
also be carried out on the development of the microstructure at the time of carbonation; and
(11) studies on the durability and mechanical behavior of RC at higher temperatures must
be performed, and a higher-temperature resistance modeling of RC must be put forward.
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 23 of 32

For developing the commercial-scale production of advanced concrete materials, it is

very important to have an effective technique for nanomaterial dispersion that will permit
an appropriate and stable dispersion in concrete. Moreover, in the future, a significant
challenge will be a decrease in the preparation expenses of the nanomaterials. It is always
desired to make construction sector materials economical, energy-efficient, and sustainable.
Some researchers are already carrying out studies for analyzing the negative impact of
nanomaterials for specific applications [204]; however, more studies should be carried out
in different sectors. Furthermore, additional studies must be carried out for the proper
determination of the optimum concentration of nanomaterials to be included in concrete
for obtaining higher durability and mechanical properties. Innovative products such as
functional/smart self-healing concrete must have capability of delivering the traditional
materials, such as handling the released admixture for penetrating into the market.

8. Discussion and Conclusions

In recent times, advanced nanotechnology has been meritoriously employed in various
sectors for the comfort and welfare of humanity. Conversely, any groundbreaking unen-
dorsed technology will come with some disadvantages. Presently, there are certain doubts
regarding the conceivable unsafe influences of the nanomaterials on the surroundings. In
general, the advanced nanomaterial-containing concrete for sustainable progress, being the
century’s main priority, have prompted significant financial investment in the studies for
defining novel avenues in the concrete field, suggesting the possibility of reducing ecologi-
cal contaminations. A majority of the nanostructure-based products applied to date in the
concrete sector have numerous advantages. There are several explanations for accepting the
fact that the nanomaterial usage is rising. Sometimes, the nanomaterial production might
need comparatively higher energy. Innovative concrete structures need structural compo-
nents with superior mechanical properties, as well as higher durability. The best solution is
the incorporation of nanostructured materials in concrete mixes, which could improve the
mechanical properties. Nanomaterials such as nanosilica, nano-TiO2, CNTs, etc. have the
capability for increasing the durability of buildings by improving mechanical and thermal
properties, which could result in an indirect reduction in energy usage and total expenses
in the concrete industry. The microstructures of various kinds of concrete is remarkably
improved by the inclusion of nanomaterials, as the nanomaterials enhance the hydration
process by generating more hydrated products. Incorporating various nanomaterials into
the concrete mixes decreased the setting time as well as workability, which was due to
the stronger reactivity of nanomaterials having a larger surface-to-volume ratio. Improve-
ment in compressive strength could be observed with an improvement in the replacement
ratio of nanomaterials. This was due to the improved hydration of a more compacted
microstructure with the incorporation of finely dispersed nanomaterials. Moreover, it was
noted that the nanomaterials could increase the concrete beam ductility by approximately
150%. With the incorporation of a nanomaterial such as CNT, the concrete compressive
strength could be improved to 21%, and also it can result in a decrease in the early as well
as long-term shrinking of concrete of 54.0% and 15.0%, respectively. Moreover, the CNT
addition to concrete showed 17.0% to 18.0% reduced long-term creep as compared to the
concrete with no CNTs. The inclusion of nano-titanium oxide in cement matrices could
offer concrete frameworks with self-sensing as well as self-cleaning capabilities. Overall,
it was noted that optimum concentrations of nanomaterial incorporation in the concrete
could enhance its flexural, tensile, and compressive strength, along with the workability
and water absorption. High-performance nanomaterial-incorporated concretes could pos-
itively impact the increase in the sustainability and durability of the constructions. The
self-healing sustainable concrete frameworks obtained from different nanomaterials could
restore the weakened constructions in an advanced manner at lesser expense, relative to
that accomplished by epoxy-containing healing products, therefore attaining the ecological
sustainability. The application of specific nanostructured materials could improve the per-
formance of concrete, as well as its life cycle. The nanomaterial-incorporated concrete could
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 24 of 32

permit the development of ultra-strength concrete frameworks having higher durability,

and thereby decreasing the maintenance needs.
It is extremely important to develop an advanced procedure to make sure the appro-
priate nanomaterial dispersion commercial-scale field applications. Effective dispersion of
nanoparticles is key to achieving the full benefits of adding nanoparticles in cementitious
system. So far, the nano-based technology is helping significantly for developing many
technologies along with industrial sectors: including the construction sector. Because of
the nonexistence of disposal guidelines, the amount of nanosized materials present in the
surroundings is continuously increasing. Nano-based concrete structures were established
to be ecofriendly with respect to greenhouse gas emissions, energy storage, and sustain-
able development. Thus, the current, as well as forthcoming, trends are to substitute the
conventional ordinary Portland cement-based concretes with functional/smart nano-based
concrete structures for sustainable development
It was noted the nanomaterials can play an important role in the development of
construction materials, and thus proper understanding of these nanomaterials is extremely
important. Along with the substantial advancement of nanomaterials in different appli-
cations, it should also be noted that the nanomaterials are still in their developing stages,
and they definitely have many challenges and unsolved complications for their huge
commercial prospects. The experimental test results of nano-reinforced cement specimens
have confirmed that they could improve the durability and mechanical strength of the
resultant concretes. This was also confirmed by different studies performed by scientists
on the nano-reinforced cement [204,205]. The building material and construction sector
have added difficulties due to its huge scale and also because of the current manufacturing
procedures that possibly need to be completely redesigned when the nanomaterials are
being used. Human exposure to nanomaterials from construction materials is increasing;
conversely, regrettably this is not complemented by the proper limits or/and awareness rec-
ommended by safety regulations with respect to their toxicology data. It could be predicted
that this situation may change soon. There must be a distinct administration body with a
guideline that notifies the manufacturers about the safer limits for their specific safety and
the public safety. A rise in the concentration of nanomaterial in the advanced smart nano-
based concrete structures greater than the optimum amount was demonstrated to show
adverse impact on the strength performance and durability, which was mostly because of
the less compaction, nonuniform dispersion, and development of weaker sections in the
concrete. Modern science, predominantly the analytic chemistry with the advancements in
instrument analytic techniques, is offering a wide spectrum of many methods that can be
used to monitor nanomaterials present in the construction material containing wastewater.
Research studies should be performed to prevent the probable human health dangers for
the users, including the adult population, then again specifically for the children and for
the babies.
Major conclusions from this study are: (i) the construction sector has higher prospects
of nanotechnology for solving certain complicated problems existing in this area; (ii) opti-
mum addition of appropriate nanomaterial to the concrete can improve the mechanical
properties such as tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural strength, durability, etc.
of the concrete; (iii) freeze–thaw resistance and abrasion resistance of the concrete can also
be improved with the addition of nanosilica to the concrete mix; (iv) nanomaterials can
offer concrete structures with self-sensing and self-cleaning abilities; (v) however, the con-
centration of the nanomaterial present in the concrete should be in a very limited quantity;
(v) the lack of information on nanomaterial toxicology topics and a tendency to disconnect
from prevailing research and development is a significant blockade for its development;
(vi) to suppress these type of restrictions, organized construction sector-strategic policies
should be followed to benefit from the nanomaterials to attain a reasonable benefit in
particular application extents and the product categories.
This study offered a complete and detailed analysis of improvement in concrete’s
properties with the addition of nanomaterials, its risk evaluation, related health issues,
Materials 2021, 14, 6387 25 of 32

and environmental implications of nanomaterial-based materials for the application in

concrete sector. The review focused on the environmental impact and the future scope of
the nano-based concrete materials. It was clearly noted that the nanostructured materials
have higher capability in smart infrastructure applications with superior strength concrete
frameworks. This study also featured a discussion on the prevailing issues and barriers to
the commercialization of nano-based construction materials that harness the benefits of
nanoparticles. It can be concluded that the application of nanomaterials in the construction
sector can offer both risks and benefits. Presently, the nanomaterials are existing in some
specific commercial items, and some of these are labeled, whereas some are not labeled.
Hence, it is important that the construction sector must have satisfactory knowledge on
the nanomaterials, and this will enable them to take safer selections. The main findings
from this study are expected to raise awareness on the probable effect of construction
wastes with nanomaterials in it and the importance of proper regulations regarding the
final disposal of these construction wastes. As the production of concrete is accountable for
higher than 5.0% of total emission of CO2 globally, the addition of nanomaterials into the
concrete mix reduces the essential size of concrete structures, leading to a lower emission of
CO2 thereby making concrete an eco-friendly construction material. Thus, the environment
pollution could remarkably decreased by applying high strong cement-based composites
manufactured utilizing different nanostructured materials. Consequently, in the area of
construction, the manufacture of nano-based materials is going to perform a substantial
part toward sustainable development in the coming period. The application of nano-based
concrete materials is beneficial with respect to enhanced engineering properties of cement
materials, particularly for the production of sustainable as well as self-healing concretes.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.A.A. and S.J.Z.; methodology, H.S.; software, H.S.;
validation, H.S. and S.J.Z.; formal analysis, H.S. and S.J.Z.; investigation, H.S.; resources, H.S.;
data curation, H.S.; writing—original draft preparation, H.S.; writing—review and editing, H.S.;
visualization, H.S.; supervision, N.A.A. and S.J.Z.; project administration, S.J.Z.; funding acquisition,
N.A.A. and S.J.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This publication was supported by Qatar University Grant QUST-2-CAM-2021-256. The
findings achieved herein are solely the responsibility of the authors.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing is not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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