Lecture Notes: Pavement Analysis, Design and Construction (CE-541) M. Tech.

(Ist Year)

Module: Design of Flexible Pavement

Unit: Equivalent Single Wheel Load

In order to limit the maximum load on a single wheel within the specified limit and to
carry greater load, it is necessary to provide dual wheel assembly on the rear axle of the heavy
vehicle. Dual wheels with single axle or tandem axle assembly of axle loading configuration is a
commonly used practice of transferring gross weight of vehicle on to the pavement surface over
a greater contact area. When the gross weight of the vehicle is transferred on to the pavement
surface by more number of wheels, the intensity of pressure developed on the pavement
surface will get reduced. Pursuant to this concept, the vehicles carrying greater weight are
assembled with single axle-dual wheel assembly, tandem axle- dual wheel assembly and tridem
axle-dual wheel assembly. More the number of axles, lesser will be the intensity of pressure
developed on the pavement. Hence, by providing more number of axles and dual wheel
assembly, the resulting intensity of load will be kept within a specified allowable limit.
Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) of the dual wheel load assembly at a depth ‘z’ may
be defined as the single wheel load replacement of the dual wheel load assembly which would
cause the same magnitude of vertical deflection or same value of compressive stress at that
depth ‘z’. Thus, the ESWL at any selected depth ‘z’ may be evaluated based on either
equivalent deflection or equivalent stress criterion.
Alternatively, the ESWL of a dual wheel is the load on single tyre that would cause an
equal magnitude of pre-selected parameters (stress, strain, deflection or distress) at a given
location within a specific pavement system to that resulting from a dual wheel load at the same
location.
Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is a single tyre which is calculated based on a
standard configuration of a dual wheel assembly (Fig.1 and Fig.3 a). The intensity of contact
pressure induced by ESWL, produces the same value of maximum stress or deflection or strain
as produced by the dual wheel, at a desired depth (z) of soil medium.
Suppose a dual wheel load assembly causes a certain value of maximum deflection (∆)
at a particular depth (z). Let us consider depth z equal to the thickness of pavement T or h. As
per the deflection criterion, the ESWL is that single wheel load having the same contact
pressure (p) which produces the same value of maximum deflection (∆) at the depth (z). Along
similar lines, as per the stress criterion, the ESWL is the single wheel load producing the same
value of maximum stress at the desired depth (z) of the dual wheel load assembly. The
procedure adopted for determination of ESWL from the standard configuration based on equal

1 Dr. Hemant Chore Associate Professor Department of Civil Engineering NIT Jalandhar
Lecture Notes: Pavement Analysis, Design and Construction (CE-541) M. Tech. (Ist Year)

stress criterion is presented below. This concept is widely known as the semi-rational ESWL
approximation of Boyd and Foster (1950) and is based on the following assumptions.
i. Equivalency concept is based on equal stress criterion.
ii. Contact area of tyre is circular and the a vertical load spreads uniformly over an
area defined by the frustum of a cone, whose sides slope at an angle of 30° with
the vertical.
iii. The stress distribution angle is 45°. Wheel load is concentrated at a point on the
pavement surface. The vertical load spreads uniformly over an area whose
vertex is at the pavement surface and whose sides slope at 45 with the vertical.

The angle of load distribution depends upon: interlocking properties of the materials,
physical properties of the materials and modulus of elasticity of the materials. All the same, it is
assumed to be 45° for the sake of simplicity.

Fig.1: Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL) using Equal Stress Concept Based on
Boyd and Faster. (1950) (after Srinivasa Kumar 2013)

Fig.1 shows the end view of a dual wheel load assembly. This figure also illustrates the
stress overlap on a single layer due to dual wheels. The spacing between the centres of the

2 Dr. Hemant Chore Associate Professor Department of Civil Engineering NIT Jalandhar
Lecture Notes: Pavement Analysis, Design and Construction (CE-541) M. Tech. (Ist Year)

wheel is denoted as s. The clear gap between the inner sides of the two wheels (or tyres) is
indicated as d. In order to simplify the analysis, the load dispersion is assumed to be at an angle
of 45°. Suppose a is the radius of the equivalent circular contact area. Hence, s = d + 2a.
It can be seen from Fig.1 that each tyre of a dual tyred assembly acts as an independent
unit up to a depth equal to half the distance d between the inner faces of the two tyres.
Alternatively, we can say that up to the depth z = d/2, each wheel load (P) acts independently.
At depths greater than d/2, the pressure (or the compressive stresses) within the pavement due
to each wheel load (tyre load) begin to overlap. At depth z = 2s and above, the overlapped area
of compressive stresses is considerably high when compared with the total area covered due to
dual wheel loads. At an approximate depth of 2s (twice the distance between the centre lines of
the two tyres), the dual wheel assembly acts as a single unit carrying a load equal to 2P (as
observed by US Corps of engineering while investing on airport pavements). Therefore, the total
stresses due to dual wheels at any depth greater than 2s or ESWL is considered to be
equivalent to magnitude 2P.
Thus, the value of equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) will be equal to P up to a depth
d/2 and P to 2P between depths d/2 and 2s. The percentage to overlap of stress beyond depth
2s is so large that ESWL can be taken as 2P although the value is slightly less.
In order to simplify determination of stresses due to dual wheel load at any desired depth
or to carry out the pavement design, the ESWL value is often made use of. The ESWL is usually
determined by equivalent stress criterion using a simple graphical method (Fig.2). The value of
ESWL varies depending upon the total pavement thickness, which is yet to be designed. Hence,
the determination of design value of ESWL requires trial and error method and the simple
graphical method proves to be a very useful tool.

Fig.2: Graphical Solution for Determination of ESWL (after Khanna et al. 2014)

3 Dr. Hemant Chore Associate Professor Department of Civil Engineering NIT Jalandhar
Lecture Notes: Pavement Analysis, Design and Construction (CE-541) M. Tech. (Ist Year)

In the simple graphical method, a straight line relationship is assumed between ESWL
and the depth on log-log scales. Two points A and B are plotted on log-log graph with
coordinates A (P, d/2) and B (2P and 2s). The line AB is a plot which is the locus of the point
where any single wheel load is equivalent to a certain set of dual wheels (Fig.2).

How to find ESWL?

In order to design the thickness of a pavement due to dual wheel assembly by a simplified
approach, following procedure is normally resorted to:
i. Plot points A and B on log-log graph.
ii. Assume a certain thickness (z) of the pavement.
iii. Find out ESWL from the graph on the basis of assumed thickness.
iv. If the thickness so obtained is equal to assumed thickness, the ESWL calculations
may be considered as the correct and the same may be used in the design of the
pavement.
v. Otherwise, resort to the additional trials by assuming another trial thickness.
vi. Continue the trials until the assumed thickness is almost equal to design thickness of
the pavement using this particular value of ESWL and adopt this value as the design
value of ESWL of the dual wheel load assembly.
vii. For pavement thickness values exceeding 2s, ESWL is taken as 2P.

The ESWL can be calculated using the following formula:

Where P = Wheel load

S = Centre to centre spacing between the two wheels
D = Clear distance between the two wheels
A = Radius of the tyre contact area
Z = Desired Depth

4 Dr. Hemant Chore Associate Professor Department of Civil Engineering NIT Jalandhar
Lecture Notes: Pavement Analysis, Design and Construction (CE-541) M. Tech. (Ist Year)

ESWL for Dual tandem wheel load assembly

In case of heavy commercial vehicles such as trucks and truck-trailer unit, load carrying
capacity of each unit is further increased by providing another set of rear axle in tandem, with
two pairs of dual wheels. This arrangement with two dual wheels (four wheel in all) on each side
of the tandem axle is called as dual tandem wheel load assembly (Fig.3 b). Such an
arrangement helps in distributing the increased amount of load on four wheels on either side of
the vehicle , instead of simply two wheels. Therefore, it helps in minimizing the damaging effect
on the pavement structure.

Fig.3: Typical Wheel Load Configuration for a Heavy Vehicle (after Khanna et al. (2014)

The procedure simple graphical procedure adopted for determining ESWL in case of
dual wheel assembly may also be employed here with little modifications. Here, the diagonal
distance between the centre of a outer wheel of the dual wheels of the first tandem axle and
centre of the inner dual wheel of the second tandem axle is taken as (s1). Two points A and B
are plotted on log-log graph with coordinates A (P, d/2) and B (4P and 2s1).The line AB is
drawn. The ESWL of dual –tandem wheel load assembly is obtained for any desired depth
between d/2 and 2s1 . The ESWL for depths greater than 2s1 is assumed to be 4P.

5 Dr. Hemant Chore Associate Professor Department of Civil Engineering NIT Jalandhar
Lecture Notes: Pavement Analysis, Design and Construction (CE-541) M. Tech. (Ist Year)

The ESWL concept is normally used for the design of runway pavements while the
ESAL (Equivalent Single Axle Load) concept is used for the design of highway pavements. The
damage caused to the runway pavements is attributed to the excessive wheel loads and that in
respect of highway pavements; the damage is attributed to the excessive repetitions of the axle
loads.
Still, McLeod Method of designing the flexible pavement follows the ESWL concept.

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Bibliography:
Highway Engineering (2014); Khanna, S.K.; Justo, C.E.G. and Veeraragavan, A, Nemchand and Bros., Roorkee
(India)
Pavement Design (2013): Srinivasa Kumar, R., University Press, Hyderabad (India)
Highway and Traffic Engineering (2014): Saxena, S.C. , CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi (India)

6 Dr. Hemant Chore Associate Professor Department of Civil Engineering NIT Jalandhar