Principle of Seed Technology (1+2)

INTRODUCTION: 

The history of agricultural progress from the early days of man has been the history 
of seeds new crops and crop varieties. In the early days progress, achieved through the 
cultivation of indigenous useful plants and introduction of new crop species. The second 
stage of progress was due to selection of superior types from the cultivated plants, many 
useful selections were made, and there was gradual but steady progress. Later on, using 
well-known techniques of selection and hybridization many new and better varieties were 
made available. However, the pace of progress remained slow. In the mid sixties, a 
revolution took place in Indian agriculture, with development of dwarf varieties, better 
responsive to high fertilizer doses in self pollinated crops rice and wheat and exploitation of 
heterosis in cross pollinated crops and development of hybrids of maize sorghum, Bajra, 
which made significant, advances in yield. 
However, to the farmer, all this scientific research would be of little value unless he 
gets genetically pure seeds with desirable qualities high germination percentage, high 
purity, more vigour and better seed health. This laid down the need of seed technology. 
Good agriculture depends upon good seeds. The pace of progress in food production there 
fore depend upon the speed with which we are able to multiply and market good quality 
seeds of high yielding varieties. 

Seed is a crucial and basic input to increase crop yield per unit area and to improve the 
agricultural economy of the country.  

What is seed?  
• Any part of plant used for propagation is called a seed.  
• It may be a true seed or any vegetatively propagating material such as seedlings,  cuttings,
bulbs, tubers rhizomes, root etc. 
• Seed have a life. 
• True seed is an embryo, a living organism embedded in the supporting and food  storage
tissue. 
• A true seed is defined as “a fertilized mature ovule consisting of embryo, storage 
material and protective coats.” 

▪ It can be clearly seen from the above that seed pertaining to material meant for 
sowing/planting purpose; the essential function being the reproduction. ▪ The business
of Seed Technology is to protect this biological entity and look after its  ‘welfare’,  
▪ While the focus of Food Technology is on the second component – the supporting 
tissue.  

What is a grain?  
A grain is used for consumption as a food by human beings and feed by animals. If 
it have a life it can also be used for sowing. Grain may or may not have life.
The major differences between scientifically produced seed and the grain (when use
as  seed) are as under. 
 Seed Grain
(1) It is the result of well planned (1) It is the part of commercial  produce, saved
seed programme.  for sowing or  planting purposes. 
(2) No such knowledge or efforts  are
(2) It is the result of sound scientific  required. 
knowledge organized efforts, investment  on
processing, storage and marketing  facilities 
(3) The pedigree of seed is ensured. It can be  (3) Its varietal purity is not known. 
related to the initial breeders seed. 
(4) During production, efforts are made to  (4) No such effort is made so the  purity and
rogue out off types diseased plants,  health status may be  poor. 
objectionable weeds and other crops  plants at
appropriate stages of crop  growth which
ensures satisfactory seed  purity and health. 
(5) The seed is scientifically processed  treated (5) It is manually cleaned. Not  properly
and packed and labeled with  proper lot- treated, labeled and  packed. 
identity. 
(6) The seed is tested for planting quality  (6) Routine seed testing is not done. 
namely germination, purity, mixtures of  weed
seeds and other crop seeds, seed  health and
seed moisture content. 
(7) The seed quality is supervised by seed  (7) There is no quality control. 
Certification agency. 
(8) The seed must meet the quality standards  (8) No such standard is applied here  hence the
prescribed. The quality is well known. quality is unknown.
(9) The labels/tags on the seed containers  (9) There is no such label or tag  which ensure
serves as quality marks.  quality of seed.  
What is Seed Technology? 
Seed technology can be defined as techniques comprises of seed production, seed 
processing, seed storage, seed testing, seed certification, seed marketing, distribution  and the
related research of these aspects. 
Feistritzer (1975), defined seed technology as “The method through which the  genetic
and physical characteristics of seeds could be improved. 
According to Cowan (1973), Seed Technology is “a discipline of study having to do  with
seed production, maintenance, quality and preservation.” 

Thus, Seed Technology is essentially an interdisciplinary science, which surrounded

by  a broad range of subjects.  

In broadest sense, “Seed Technology includes  

• The development of superior crop plant varieties, their evaluation and release, 
• Seed production, processing,  
• Seed storage, seed testing, seed certification,  
 • Seed quality control, seed marketing and  
• Seed distribution, and 
• Research on seed physiology, seed production and seed handling based on modern 
botanical and agricultural sciences.”  

The relationship of seed technology to other sciences 

1) Genetics and Plant Breeding : The Plant Breeders and Geneticists develop new crop 
varieties which are high yielding and superior in resistance to diseases and pests as 
compared to existing ones. They are also associated with the maintenance of nucleus  and
breeder seeds and grow out tests etc. 
2) Agronomy : The agronomist provide suitable package of practices for growing, 
harvesting and handling of seed crops in order to obtain maximum seed yields and best 
possible seed quality. 
3) Horticulture : The horticulturist provide the suitable package of practices for growing, 
harvesting and handling vegetable, flower and other horticultural crops to ensure  maximum
seed yields and best possible seed quality. 
4) Plant Pathology : The role of plant pathologist in seed production is to produce and 
distribute disease free seed and hence they provide package in regard to seed treatment 
and plant protection measures, to be adopted in order to produce disease free seeds.  They
are also involved in the development of the Seed Health Testing Techniques for  detection
of seed borne disease and plant quarantine. 
5) Entomology : The entomologist provide the package with regard to pest control during 
seed production and seed storage to ensure good seed quality and minimum losses due  to
storage. They are also involved in the development of seed health testing techniques  for
the detection and determination of insect, pests infestation and plant quarantine. 
6) Taxonomy : The taxonomist provide information necessary for identification of 
various crops and weed seeds and cataloguing of Germplasm, varieties etc.
7) Plant Physiology : The physiologist help in understating various planting seed quality 
problems, seed development and maturation, and seed storage problem and their  possible
solutions. They are associated with the development of techniques for seed  germination,
seed vigour, seed viability testing. 
8) Agricultural Economics : They provide necessary guidance in relation to seed 
marketing problems and helps in devising suitable marketing and distribution system.  They
are also concerned with the management aspects and in the determination of  cost/benefit
ratio, seed price fixation etc. 
9) Agricultural engineering : The agriculture engineers are associated with the 
development of suitable seed planting, harvesting machinery for seed crops and also the 
seed drying, seed processing machinery, seed handling and seed testing equipments. 
10) Agricultural extension : The extension agencies are involved in popularizing the use 
of high quality seeds of high yielding varieties amongst the farming community and  also
gave feedback to the researcher for the problems of farmers.  

Role of seed technology/ Importance of Seed production  

Feistrizer (1975) outlined the following roles of Seed Technology 
1. Improved seed – a carrier of new technology  
2. Improved seed – a basic tool for secured food supply  
3. Improved seed – the principal means to secure crop yield in less favourable 
production areas. 
4. Improved seed – a medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of natural 
sudden great failure.  

Improved seed – a carrier of new technology: 

∙ The introduction of quality seeds of new varieties wisely combined with other inputs 
significantly increases yield levels e. g. 
∙ In India, for instance the cultivation of high yielding varieties have helped to  increase
food production from 52 million tones to nearly 180 million tones in last  four
decades. Thus the introduction of new high yielding varieties boosted the food 
production. 
∙ Yields increased to the extent of 112% in Cereals, 124% in Potatoes and 142% in 
Sugarbeet in Central Europe through the use of improved seeds and agricultural 
inputs. 
∙ In the USA, the results achieved were still better.  

Improved seed – a basic tool for secured food supply: 

The successful implementation of the high yielding varieties programme in India
has  lead to a remarkable increase in production and to a new assessment of future
development  potential. As a result, food import from other countries have substantially
brought down in  spite of the rapid population increase.  
Improved seed – the principal means to secure crop yields in less favourable area of 
production: 
The supply of good quality seeds of improved varieties suitable to these areas is one 
of the few important continuations that Seed Technology can make to secure higher crop 
yields.  
Improved seed – a medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of
natural  disaster: 
Widespread floods and droughts in various parts of the country and elsewhere have 
focused attention to these recurrent crises. The relief operations by FAO show that it would 
be much more economical of the Government have National Seed Research Stocks at their 
disposal. The establishment of National Seed Reserve Stocks should receive high priority 
for meeting natural calamities.  

National Seed Stocks would have a two-fold role to play: 

1. They would provide improved seeds in emergency periods to production  area for
rapid production of food grains. 
2. They would supply seeds to disaster regions for re-sowing; as no seed would  normally
be available in such regions.  
 Goals of seed technology 
The major goal of seed technology is to increase agriculture production through the 
spread of good quality seeds of high yielding varieties. The goals of The goals of seed 
technology could be fulfilled in the manner as under. 

(1) Rapid multiplication of seeds of improved high yielding varieties. The seed should  be
made available to the farmers in the quickest possible time. 
(2) Timely supply of improved seeds of new varieties to the farmers well in time so that 
they may get timely planting and harvest the benefit of quality seeds. 
(3) Assured high quality seeds : In order to obtain the expected dividends from the use  of
seeds of improved variety the seeds must ensure high quality.
(4) Reasonable price : The cost of high quality seed should be within the reach of the 
average farmers i.e. price should be so reasonable that average farmer can easily buy 
it. 

Characteristics of good seeds 

The features or characteristics that determine the quality of seed are as under : 

(1) High genetic purity 

(2) High germination percentage 
(3) Higher vigour that give effective plant stand in the field 
(4) High physical purity i.e. it should be free from other crop seeds and weed seeds.
(5)Sound seed health : free from insect, pests and organism that causes disease, free  from
seed borne disease 
(6) Wider adaptability : It can be grown and perform better under wide environmental  and
soil conditions. 
(7) Always possess high yielding ability. 
(8) Quality for special characters : should maintain its superiority for the  characters/traits
for which bred. 
(9) Response to fertilizers and other inputs :should give higher response to high  fertilizer
dose and able to give higher yield. 
(10) Possess uniform seed size, weight, seed colour and specific gravity.  

Classes of seeds : 
The seed of a released and popular variety produced by scientific method is referred 
to as improved seed or quality seed. Variety refers to a genotype, which has been released 
for commercial cultivation either by state variety release committee or central variety 
release committee. 
Improved seed results in (1) better production (2) vigorous seedling growth (3) 
higher crop stand (4) better quality of produce and (5) higher crop yield. Thus production of
improved seed is an important aspect of seed technology. There  are four classes of
improved seed viz., 
1. Nucleus seed : It is the initial seed of an improved variety which is always limited  in
quantity. It is produced by the original plant breeder of a variety. It is produced at 
research farm of the concerned crop under the supervision of original plant breeder.  It
is genetically and physically 100 % pure. There is no need of seed certification for 
nucleus seed. Nucleus seed is used for the production of the breeder seed. 
2. Breeder seed : It is the progeny of nucleus seed produced under the strict  supervision of
original plant breeder at the research farm of the concerned crop  research station. It is
produced in isolation from other varieties. The isolation  distance differ from species to
species. It is also genetically and physically100 %  pure. The genetic purity is maintained
by proper rouging. Seed certification is not  necessary for breeder seed. However, the seed
plot is inspected by monitoring team  lead by original plant breeder and representative form
NSC National Seed Corporation (Established in 1963) and state seed  certification agency.
Breeder seed is used for the production of foundation seed. 
3. Foundation seed :It is the progeny of breeder seed. It is produced by the NSC or  State
Seed Corporation under the strict supervision of research scientist. Its  production is
taken up at the seed multiplication farms of Govt, or research farm of  ICAR institute or
University farm or on progressive farmer’s field. Proper isolation  distance is the pre-
requisite for the production of foundation seed, which varies from  crop to crop.
Genetically foundation seed is 100 % pure while permissible physical  purity is 98 %. In
case of foundation seed, certificaton is under taken by State Seed  Certification Agency.
Foundation seed is used for the production of certified seed. 
4. Certified seed : It is the progeny of the foundation seed. It is produced on the field  of
progressive farmers under strict supervision of State Seed Certification Agency.  Proper
isolation is adopted for its production which varies from crop to crop. It has  100 %
genetic purity and 98 % physical purity. The other crops seeds and weed seed  should
not be more than prescribed standards which vary from species to species.  Seed
certification from the State Seed Certification Agency is required for certified  seed to
meet the requirements of purity and germination of certified seed.
Principles of Seed Production 
Production of genetically pure seed and quality seeds is an important task which 
requires profound technical skills. During seed production, strict attention must be given to 
maintain genetic purity and other qualities of seeds in order to get benefit of new improved 
variety. Seed production involves genetic and agronomic principles to preserve genetic 
purity of seeds which ultimately leads to higher seed yields. 
⮚ Deterioration causes of crop Varieties and their control: Genetic
principles : 
Genetic purity of a variety can deteriorate due to several factors during production 
cycles. Kadam (1942) listed out some important factors which deteriorate the genetic purity 
of seeds as under : 

1. Developmental variations 
When the seed crop are grown under different soil and fertility conditions or 
under various agro climatic conditions or under different photoperiods or at
different  elevations for several consecutive generations, the developmental
variations may  arise due to differential growth response and there will be a genetic
 shift to the  changed agro-climatic conditions. This change in genetic shift causes
deterioration  of variety. To minimize such type of variations it is advisable to grow
seed crops in  their areas of adaptation and growing seasons. 
2. Mechanical mixtures 
This is the important source of variety deterioration during seed production. 
Mechanical mixture may occur at the time of sowing, if more than one variety is 
sown with the same seed drill, through volunteer plants of the same crop or through 
different varieties grown side by side in the same field get mixed at the time of 
harvesting or threshing. Sometimes the seed produce of all the varieties are kept in 
the same thresher for the processing which may result in deterioration of variety. 
Sometimes gunny bags, seed bins used for packing the seeds may contaminate the 
seeds. To avoid such type of mechanical mixtures it is necessary to rogue the seed 
fields. Care should be taken at every stage of seed production, harvesting, threshing, 
processing and packing of seeds. 
3. Mutations: 
Natural mutation is the continuous process in nature and it is difficult to 
identify or detect minor mutations, however, such mutant plant is observed in the 
seed field then it should be rogued out to avoid the contamination hence, constant 
inspection of seed plot is to be made rigorously.  
4. Natural crossing: 
Most of the field crops sexually propagate, hence natural out-crossing is 
another important source of contamination and varietal deterioration, due to 
introgression of genes from unrelated stocks through natural crossing. According to 
Bateman (1947), the extent of genetic contamination in seed fields due to natural 
crossing depends on following factors. 
A. The breeding system of species (nature of pollination, self or cross) B.
Isolation distance: It is the minimum separation required between two  or more
varieties of the same crop species for the purpose of keeping  seed genetically pure. 
C. Varietal mass i.e. no. of varieties grown at a time in field. 
D. Pollinating agents – Insects, predator’s, wind and wind direction.
E. Climatic factors – Humidity, temperature, wind velocity at the time of 
anthesis and pollination. 
5. Residual or Minor genetic variability : 
Sometimes, minor genetic variation may exist even in the varieties appearing 
uniform and homogenous at the time of release. During later cycle of seed 
production, these variations may affect the yield and quality of the variety and 
deteriorate the variety. Therefore, it is essential to take precautions during 
maintenance of nucleus and breeder seed. 
6. Disease infestation : 
Sometimes, an improved variety deteriorates because it is infested by a disease 
to which it was considered resistant at the time of its release. This may result either 
due to absence of such disease in the area where the variety was tested or due to 
formation of new pathogenic race of a disease. 
7. Techniques of plant breeder : 
 Cytological irregularities may cause instability in variety, if it is not properly 
assessed by the breeder at the time of its release. Premature release of variety may 
segregate for undesirable characters, which may deteriorate the variety. Therefore, 
proper care is required in testing the variety before its release.  
Other factors, such as breakdown of male sterility and heritable variations arise 
due to environmental conditions considerably deteriorates the genetic purity of 
variety. 

Maintenance of genetic purity during seed production 

Different workers have made suggestions to maintain the genetic purity of seeds during 
seed production. Notable among them are of Horne (1953) and Hartmann and Kester
(1968) 
Suggestions made by Horne (1953) 
1. Seeds approved by competent authority and inspected by the competent agency  before
planting. 
2. The seed field should be approved and inspected by the competent agency before 
planting. 
3. Inspection of seed field and approval of growing crops at critical stage for  verification of
genetic purity, detection of mixtures, weeds and seed borne diseases  should be made. 
4. Proper care should be taken at the time of sampling and sealing of cleaned seed lots.
5. A comparison of potentially approved stock should be made with authentic stock by 
growing the samples. 

Suggestions made by Hartmann and Kester (1968)  

1. Adequate isolation should be provided to the seed field to prevent contamination by 
natural crossing or mechanical mixtures. 
2. ROUGING of seed field should be carried out prior to the stage at which they could 
contaminate the seed crop. 
3. The variety should be tested periodically for its genetic purity. 
4. The seed crop should be grown only in the areas of its adaptation to avoid genetic  drift. 
5. The seed crop should be certified by the agency to maintain genetic purity and  quality of
seeds.
6. The seed production should be restricted to three generation only i.e. starting from 
breeder seeds, it should only be multiplied up to foundation and certified class. 7.
Variety grown for seed production should be tested for genetic purity by grow out  test
to make sure that it is being maintained in its true breeder form. 
Agronomic principles of seed production : 
In seed production programme in addition to genetic principles certain agronomic 
principles are to be followed to preserve good quality and abundant seed yields which are
as  under. 
1. Selection of a suitable agro-climatic region : Regions or areas with moderate rainfall  and
humidity are more suitable for seed production. Most of the field crops require a  dry
 sunny periods and moderate temperatures for flowering and pollination. The  crops
pollinated through wind require bright sunny weather with gentle wind  velocity which
results in to good seed setting. Thus, regions with extreme summer  heat and very cold
winter with excessive rainfall should be avoided for seed  production. 

2. Selection of seed plot : The plot selected for seed crop must have following 
characteristics 
I. Soil texture and fertility of plot should be according to the requirement of  seed
crop. 
II. The soil of the plot should be free from weeds, volunteer plants, insect, pests  and
soil borne diseases. 
III. The plot selected for seed production purpose should have not been used to  grow the
same crop in the previous season. 
IV. The plot should be well leveled and it should be feasible to isolate it from  other side
as per requirement of seed certification. 
3. Isolation of seed crop : The seed crop must be isolated from other nearby fields of  the
same crop and other contaminating crops. Enough isolation distance should be 
provided as per seed certification standard. For nucleus and breeder seed production 
isolation may be provided by enclosing plants or group of plants in cage or by 
removing male flower parts and then artificial pollination. 
4. Preparation of land : Good land preparation helps in improved germination, good  stand
establishment and eradication of weed plants, it also helps in water  management and
uniform irrigation. So land preparation is an important aspect. 
5. Selection of variety : The variety selected should be adapted to the agro-climatic 
conditions. It should be higher yielder and possess desirable attributes like resistance  to
disease, insect, and pest, earliness and good grain quality. 
6. Seed : The seed to be used for raising the seed crops should be obtained from an  official
authorized agency having known genetic purity and appropriate class. The  tag and seal
of seed bag purchased should be intact and the validity period of seed  should not be
expired. 
7. Seed treatment : Appropriate seed treatment must be given to the seeds before  sowing.
For seed borne diseases and pests the seeds should be treated with  fungicides,
insecticides and pesticides. In case of legume crops the seeds must be  inoculated by the
bacterial culture for higher nodulation, water soaking treatment for  softening the hard
seed coat and mechanical scarification or acid treatment for  breaking dormancy of hard
seed.
8. Time of planting : The seed crop should be sown as per the recommended time of 
sowing. In hybrid seed production programme, staggered planting may be adjusted  in
order to have synchronized flowering (flowering of male and female plant at the  same
time). There should be sufficient moisture at the time of sowing to have good 
germination. 
9. Seed rate : Recommended seed rate for different crops should be followed in order  to
carry out ROUGING and inspection of seed crop. 
10. Method of sowing : In order to take effective plant protection measures, ROUGING 
operations and field inspection, line (row) sowing is appropriate method to be  followed
in seed production programme. In case of hybrid seed production, female  and male
parents should be planted in definite proportion of 4:2 or 6:2 rows. 
11. Depth of sowing : The seed crop having small seeds should be planted at shallow  depth
while those having bigger seed size may be planted at deeper level. 
12. ROUGING : ROUGING means removal of off type, diseased plants, weed plants, 
volunteer plants or plants differing in the characteristics form the seed crop variety. 
Timely and adequate ROUGING is important in order to maintain genetic purity of
seed  crop. Generally ROUGING is practiced at (1) vegetative or pre-flowering state,
(2)  flowering stage and (3) at maturity state. ROUGING at flowering and maturity
stages is  more important because the undesirable plants which were not identified at 
vegetative stage may be removed from the seed crop to avoid the genetic 
contamination. 
13. Supplementary pollination : If the seed crop is pollinated by insects then provision  of
honey bee and other beneficial insects may be made in nearby the seed crop field  to
ensure good pollination and setting. 
14. Weed control : Efficient weed control is a basic requirement of seed crop in  producing
good quality seed and obtaining higher yield. Therefore, seed field should  be free from
weed plants or either it should be at minimum level. In no case, the  weed plants should
be allowed to flower or seed setting. 
15. Plant protection measures : The quality of seeds may be poor if damaged by insects, 
pests or disease and there will be reduction in yield, so proper plant protection 
measures should be taken up at appropriate time as per recommendations. 
16. Fertilizer application : For proper growth and development of seed crop application  of
fertilizers at proper time and as per recommended doses is important. Hence, it is 
necessary to have knowledge of nutritional requirement of seed crop. 
17. Irrigation : Irrigation is important to ensure good and uniform germination at  planting
time so it is advisable to irrigate the seed crop as per its requirements.  Irrigations
should be stopped two to three weeks before seed maturity to allow the  soil and plants
to dry. 
18. Harvesting of seed crops : Early or late harvesting will affect the yield and quality of 
seed hence, the seed crop should be harvested at the optimum time to allow  maximum
yield. Moisture content below 20 per cent is the optimum time to harvest  the seed crop. 

19. Drying of the seeds: In order to preserve seed viability and vigour, it is necessary to 
dry seeds to safe moisture content. Seeds of the field crops are dried to a room 
temperature.
20. Storage of raw seeds : The best method of storing seeds for a short period is gunny  
bags. After sun drying the seed should be filled in neat and clean bag. The stacks of 
bags should not be made directly on the floor but arrange them on wooden platform  in
 dry, cool, clean and rat proof store house or godowns. The store house should be 
fumigated time to time to protect seed from stored grain pests. 

Maintenance of Nucleus and Breeder seeed 

The nucleus or breeder seed should be produced in such a manner that it strictly 
satisfy the genetic purity and identify the quality of seeds and subsequently maintain the 
quality of foundation and certified seed produced / multiplied from it. 

Maintenance of Nucleus and Breeder in self pollinated crops 

The variety of self-pollinated crops should be completely homogenous (uniform). 
However, in practice some amount of variation may occur during seed production cycle
due  to natural crossing. Therefore, purification of such variety during maintenance of 
nucleus/breeder seed is necessary. The methods of maintaining nucleus/breeder seed can be 
divided in two groups. 
(1) Maintenance of newly released variety 
(2) Maintenance of established variety. 
Harrington (1952) outlined the procedure for maintenance of nucleus seed of newly 
released variety as under. 
(A)Sampling of the variety to obtain nucleus seed : 
The selected plants or lines which are highly promising in yield trials or 
breeding nurseries should be sampled for seed purification. Maximum fifteen such 
promising line at a research station should be sampled in one year. Approximately 
200 plants from the central rows should be selected. To avoid shattering of the
seeds, 
these plants should be pulled 4 to 5 days before the grains are fully mature. To 
prevent breakage or loss, these plants should be tied in a bundle and wrapped in a 
cloth or paper. Store properly these bundles till final yield results are available. 
Discard any of these bundle found inferior in yield and quality based on the results. 
(B) Table examination of samples : 
The two hundred plants of each sample should be threshed separately, clean the 
seeds and examine in piles on the table. Discard the pile found off type, diseased or 
not uniform. The seed of these selected two hundred plants is called nucleus seed, 
which is to be sown in a variety purification nursery. 

(C) Locating and seeding of nucleus seed: 

Each nucleus seed should be grown on clean fertile land at the research farm in 
the region or area for which it is to be released. The land to be used for sowing the 
nucleus seed must not had the same crop sown in the previous year. The 200 
progenies of a nucleus should be sown in 50 double rows plots in four series. To 
facilitate examination of rows during different growth stage the plot to plot distance 
 should be at least 45 cm. It should be isolated properly to prevent contamination by 
natural crossing. 
(D)Inspection of two rows plot and removal of off types :
From seedling stage up to maturity, the plot should be examined critically. 
Differences in early plant growth, rate of growth, time of heading, plant height,
head  characters and disease reaction should be observed if any plot differs from the 
average in such traits, it should be removed. From flowering to maturity,
ROUGING  should be done based upon ear-head characters. 
(E) Harvesting and threshing of nucleus : 
Each plot of the nucleus should be harvested separately, tied in bundle with 
proper labeling. Thresh the bundle individually, clean the seeds taking care that it 
should not get mixed with seeds of another plot. The seeds should be treated with 
fungicide and insecticide, bagged and labeled properly and stored as “Breeder’s 
stock seed”. 

(II) Maintenance of Breeder seed of newly released variety : 

1. Breeder’s stock seed obtained from nucleus should be sown on clean fertile land.  The
land to be used for sowing should not have a crop of the same kind grown in the 
previous year. The land requirement varies with the crop. e.g. In case of wheat about 
1.2 ha. while, in case of transplanted paddy the land requirement is 3 hectare. 
2. The seed should be properly isolated as per the seed certification standard. 3. The
field should be produced at research farm of university and in the area or region  for
which the variety has been bred. 
4. The sowing should be done in rows keeping sufficient spacing between rows so as to 
permit examination of plants for mixtures or off type. 
5. ROUGING should be critically done before flowering i.e. during growth period and  after
flowering i.e. during reproductive stage. 
6. Harvesting, threshing, drying, cleaning, bagging and labeling should be carried out  with
most care to avoid contamination. 
7. A portion of breeder seed should be retained by the plant breeder to multiply the  stock
with 100 % genetic purity. 

Maintenance of Breeder seed of established variety : 

The breeder seed of established variety can be maintained by two ways. 

1. By raising the crop in isolation : The breeder seed of established variety can be 
maintained by growing it in isolated plots and by rigorous ROUGING during 
various stages of crop growth by observing plant characters. 
2. By Bulk selection : In this method 2000 to 2500 plants representing typical  plants
characters of the variety are selected, harvested and threshed separately.  The seeds
from each selected plant are examined by table examination making  piles of the
individual plant and if seeds of any pile found off type or dissimilar  than it is
discarded The remaining piles are bulked to constitute the breeder seed. 
 How long a particular method should be used depends on the rate of 
deterioration in a variety either through natural crossing or mutation or mechanical 
mixture. If enough care is taken while production, we can maintain the genetic purity 
for several generations. 

Carry over seed : A portion of breeder seed retained by the plant breeder for continuation
of  a variety is called carry over seed. The breeder must retain enough quantity of seeds to 
safeguard against the loss of variety if there is complete failure during the foundation seed 
multiplication phase. 

Methods of maintaining nucleus and breeder seed in cross pollinated crop : 

The maintenance of variety of cross pollinated crops is complicated because it 
involves the maintenance of parental material and the method of breeding the variety. 
Maintenance of nucleus and breeder seed of newly released
variety : Maitenance of nucleus seed of inbred lines ; 
It involves self pollination, sib pollination or combination of both the procedures. 
Generally, sibbing (mating between the siblings) is preferred because it does not reduce the 
vigour excessively. However, a change in breeding behavior is observed then selfing
should  be used as a means of stabilizing the inbred lines. Alternate selfing and sibbing is
generally  practiced to maintain the parent material. The individual ear head obtained
through selfing  or sibbing is carefully examined and those appearing off type or inferior in
any characters  like texture, color, seed size, seed shape, and shape and size of ear head are
discarded. The  remaining ear heads are then threshed separately and are planted in ear to
row method or all  ear heads of an inbred are bulked for increase in the next season. 
Seed multiplication is carried out in isolation. ROUGING is carried out at different 
growth stages. Harvesting is done at physiological maturity. Generally, ear to row line 
(Progeny rows) is harvested, separately. Threshing or shelling is carried out in bulk or 
individually and then composited by examining the seeds. 

Maintenance of Breeder seed of inbred : 

The breeder’s stock obtained from nucleus seed is planted in an isolated field. 
Attention is paid to land, isolation, ROUGING, harvesting, shelling and drying so as to 
maintain maximum possible genetic purity. 

Maintenance of breeder seed of established variety : 

The breeder seed of established variety can be maintained in two ways : 

1. By raising the crop in isolation and ROUGING the off types thoroughly at various 
stages of crop growth right from sowing to maturity. 
2. By mass selection: The crop is grown under isolation and ROUGING is carried out at 
different growth stages. At maturity 2000 to 2500 true to type plants are selected.  The
selected plants are harvested separately and after careful examination they are  bulked to
constitute the breeder seed.
⮚ Seed production technologies in different field crops Wheat 
(1) Selection of seed plot : The plot to be used for seed production of wheat shall be free 
from weeds and volunteer plants. The plot should be well drained. Prepare the land 
with deep ploughing, followed by harrowing and leveling. Pre-sowing irrigation  should
be given for uniform germination. 
(2) Isolation distance : Wheat is normally a self-pollinated crop, however, natural cross
pollination to the extent of 1 to 4 percent occurs. So an isolation distance of 3 meter 
should be kept in all the side of seed plot to avoid natural crossing. If a variety of the 
seed plot is likely to get infected by loose smut then isolation distance of 180 meters 
between seed field and other field of wheat is recommended. 
(3) Planting time and seed rate :  
1) Long duration (late maturing) varieties may be sown during the first fortnight of 
November. 
2) Short (early) and medium duration varieties may be sown during second fortnight  of
November. 
3) The seed crop should be sown in rows at spacing of 20 to 22.5 cm to a depth of 5  cm. 
4) The recommended seed rate for seed crop is 85 to 100 kg /ha. 

(4) Cultural practices :

1) Fertilizer: The recommended doses of fertilizer is 80 kg nitrogen, 60 kg  phosphorous
and 40 kg potash per hectare. Apply all the quantity of phosphorous and potash
fertilizers at the time of sowing while 50 % quantity of  nitrogen at time of sowing
and remaining 50 % nitrogen at the crown root  initiation stage i.e. 30 to 35 days
after sowing. 
2) Irrigation: Depending upon the soil texture and structure about 4 to 6 irrigations  are
sufficient. 1st irrigation at 30 to 35 days after sowing and other irrigations at  late
tillering, panicle emergence, flowering, milk and dough stages should be  given 
3) Inter-culturing and weeding: Periodically inter culturing and weeding should be 
carried out to keep the crop free from weeds. Chemical weedicides like 2,4-D @  0.5
kg a.i. per hectare and pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i. per hectare in 750 litres of  water
should also be used for effective control of weeds. 
4) Plant protection :  
I. For the control of termites, use chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2.3 litres/ha  with
irrigation water. 
II. For control of stem borer apply carbofuran 3 G @ 25 kg/ha two  weeks after
germination or spray the crop with endosulfan 35 EC @  
1.5 litres per hectare. 
III. Seed treatment with systemic fungicide should be given for control of  loose
smut. 
(5) ROUGING : Two to three ROUGING are sufficient 
1) 1st ROUGING may be done at the time of heading to remove off types 
and plants infected with loose smut. 
2) 2nd ROUGING should be done just after flowering to remove off types 
plants with late flowering based upon ear head (panicle) characters. 
 3) 3rd ROUGING should be done at the time of maturity based upon 
variation in ear head color. Color of awns and ear head types as well  
as volunteer plants and weed plants should be removed. 
(6) Harvesting and threshing : Harvesting may be done by sickle and threshing with 
thresher. Care should be taken to avoid mechanical mixture. 
(7) Processing : Wheat seeds should have 9 to 10 percent moisture content for storing 
purpose. To maintain good quality of seeds, it should be cleaned, treated with  fungicide
and should be properly bagged. The seed should be stored in a dry, clean  and rodent
proof warehouse. 
(8) Yield : The average seed yield should be between 30 to 40 qtls per hectare. 

Minimum seed certification standard

Foundation seed  Certified seed

Germination (%)  85  85

Genetic purity (%)  98  98

Inert matter (%)  2  2

Other crop seeds 10  10

(No./kg) 

Weed seeds (No./kg)  10  10

Diseased seeds (%)  0.05  0.25

Moisture (%)  10  10

Rice (Paddy) 
1. Selection of seed plot : The plot should be free from weeds and volunteer plants and 
should have not been used for growing the same crop in previous year or season. 
Prepare the land with deep ploughing followed by harrowing so that the transplanted 
seedlings establish quickly. A plot should be kept flooded for a week or ten days  before
transplanting. 
2. Isolation chamber : The extent of cross pollination in rice varies from 0 to 6.8 %  hence it
is necessary to keep the plot isolated atleast by 3 meters from other rice plot  for pure
seed production. 
3. Cultural practices : The paddy crop must be grown by direct sowing or by  transplanting.
For seed production transplanting method is desirable. 
I. Raising nursery : Land selected for paddy nursery should not have paddy as  previous
crop to avoid varietal mixture due to volunteer plant. The appropriate  time of sowing
nursery for early duration varieties is from 10 th to 25th June and  for late duration
varieties, it is 25th May to 10th June. Long and narrow nursery  beds (1 m x 10 m) are
more ideal. Prepare raise bed to facilitate drainage of  excess water and also to
 irrigate the nursery uniformly. About 80 to 90 beds of  the size 10 m x 3 m are
sufficient for raising seedlings to transplant one hectare  of land. 
II. Seed rate : 20 -25 kg for fine grain varieties, 30-35 kg for coarse grain varieties Seed
should be obtained from the source approved by the seed certification  agency. The
sowing of seeds in nursery may be carried out in row (line) sowing  or broadcasting
may be done. Irrigate the nursery after sowing the seeds.  Recommended plant
protection measures and fertilizer application may be made  to raise the seedlings
successfully. Keep the nursery free of weeds. 
III. Uprooting of seedlings and transplanting : Seedling are ready for transplanting  after 3 to
4 weeks of sowing. Uproot the seedling gently, discard weak, diseased  or those
seedlings differing in any way from the original variety. The land  should be puddled
either by tractor or by bullock pair and flood it with  appropriate water level to
transplant the seedlings. Fertilizer may be applied  based on soil test, however, the
fertilizer recommendation is 120-60-00 kg  N:P:K for later varieties and 100-50-00 kg
N:P:K for early and mid-late  varieties. Apply whole amount of phosphorus and potash
as basal dose at the  time of puddling. 50 % nitrogen may be applied as basal dose
while 25 % of  nitrogen at tillering stage and 25 % at panicle initiation stage. If the
land is  deficient in zinc, apply 15 kg zinc sulphate per hectare at puddling stage. 
Spacing should be kept at 20 cm x 15 cm. Maintain a water level of 2.5 to 5 cm  of
water till milking stage. Drain excess water when the crop does reach to  physiological
maturity. 
IV. Weed control. : Keep the crop free from weeds by hand weeding or using  chemical
herbicides. Butachlor or benthiocarb @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha 5 to 7 days after  transplanting. 
V. Plant protection : Stem borer, brown plant hopper, leaf roller and Gundhi bug  are the
major pests of paddy. 
a) For the control of stem borer use carbofuran 3 % granules @ 20 kg/ha or 
phorate 10 % granules @ 10 kg/ha. 
b) For the control of brown plant hopper and leaf roller spray endosulphan 35  EC
@ 1 litre per hectare  
c) Disease : Blast, bacterial leaf blight, bacterial leaf streak and brown spot are  the
important disease of paddy.
i. For control of blast Hinosan 625 ml per hectare in 625 litres of water  one or
two times before panicle emergence and once after panicle  
emergence. 
ii. For the control of bacterial leaf blight spray 75 g agrymycine + 500 g  copper
oxychloride in 500 litres of water per hectare 3 to 4 times at an  
interval of 10 to 15 days. 
iii. For control of bacteria leaf streak spray 12 g of streptocycline or 75 g 
agromycin in 50 litres of water per hectare at an interval of 10 to 15  
days. 
iv. For the control of brown spot spray 0.25 percent dithane M-45 or  Zineb
after 6 weeks of transplanting at an interval of 10 to 12 days. 

4. ROUGING : ROUGING of off types and volunteer plants should be done once before 
flowering and then at flowering and maturity stage. ROUGING of wild rice or plants 
infested by pests and diseases may be done from time to time as required 
5. Harvesting and threshing : It is important to harvest the crop when the seed is ripe.  The
moisture content at this stage varies between 17 to 23 percent. Harvest the crop  by
sickle or combined harvester. Allow the crop to dry for two to three days till the 
moisture content reduce to 12 to 13 percent. Clean the seeds to remove chalf, durt, 
empty husks and light seeds by winnowing. Store in a gunny bags in a cool and dry 
place on wooden racks. 
6. The average paddy seed yield should be from 50 to 60 quintals per hectare  depending
upon the varieties. 

Minimum Seed Certification Standard 

Foundation seed  Certified seed

Germination (%)  80  80

Genetic purity (%)  98  98

Inert matter (%)  2  2

Other crop seeds 10  20

(No./kg) 

Weed seeds (No./kg)  10  20

Diseased seeds (%)  0.01  0.05

Moisture (%)  13  13

Seed production of hybrid rice 

The successful development and use of hybrid rice technology in china during 1970s 
led the way for development and release of rice hybrid. In India 14 rice hybrids have been 
bred and released for commercial cultivation by some the state agricultural universities and 
private seed companies. Hybrid rice can be produced in the following ways. 
(1) Three line system : This involves multiplication of cytoplasmic genetic male  sterile
line (A line), maintainer line (B line) and a restorer line (R line). Finally  production
F1 hybrid seed (A x R) 
(2) Planting ratio: 8:2
Male:10 kg/ha
Female: 20 kg/ha
(2) Two line approach : This involves the use of photoperiod sensitive genetic male 
sterile (PSMS) and any normal line can serve as a restorer. 
(3) By using chemical emasculators : Chemicals which act as male gametocytes have 
been developed which can sterilize the stamen without affecting the normal 
functioning of pistil. These chemicals are used to emasculate female parent for 
hybrid rice production. In this method, two varieties are planted in alternate strips 
and one is chemically sterilized and pollinated by the other.
Steps involved in seed production : 
 (1) Selection of seed field : The field should be free of volunteer plant, well leveled, 
should have fertile soil with good physical properties and well drainage facilities. (2)
Isolation : The hybrid rice field should be isolated from other paddy fields by 200 
meters for foundation seed and 200 meters for hybrid seed production (A x R)
(3) Synchronization of flowering : Synchronizing of flowering of both parents is the 
key factor to increase the yield. Technical measure such as staggered planting of 
female and male parents may be adjusted to ensure synchronizing the flowering  time.
In addition, one or two extra planting of male parents may be done to extend  the time
of availability of pollens. Flowering time can be manipulated by  additional fertilizer
application and regulation of water in the field.  
(4) Methods of improving seed setting :  
a) Supplementary pollination : This can be done by pulling the nylon rope back  and
forth on the restorer line and panicles of restorer lines are shaken  which helps
in transfer of pollen grains. 
b) Leaf clipping : Clipping of leaves prior 1-2 days of panicle emergence will 
increase the probability of pollination and out crossing so blade of the flag  leaf
may be clipped. 
c) GA3 application : Spraying of 60 ppm (60 mg/l) solution of GA3 on the  female
parent two to three times at the time of panicle emergence will  increase quick
exertion of panicle and helps in seed setting. 
(5) ROUGING : The seed field should be free of rogues (off type plants). Remove off 
type plants in the male and female parents. First before panicle initiation and then 
soon after emergence of panicles. Rogue out the plants of maintainer lines or  semi-
sterile plants from the female parent plot as and when required. 
(6) Harvesting and processing : Harvest male rows first to avoid chances of  mechanical
mixture. Moisture percentage in the grain at the time of harvesting should be less than
18 percent for combine harvester or harvested by hand and  must be sun dried to 12
percent for storing purpose. Cleaning of seeds should be  done taking enough care to
avoid mixture. Store the seed in cool and dry place. 
Minimum seed certification standard 
Foundation seed  Certified seed

Isolation distance (m)  200  100

Germination (%)  90  90

Genetic purity (%)  98  98

Other crop seeds 10  20

(No./kg) 

Weed seeds (No./kg)  10  20

Diseased seeds (%)  0.01  0.02

Moisture (%)  13  13

Seed production of composite and synthetic varieties in Pearl millet (Bajara) 

1. Land preparation : One ploughing followed by two harrowing and leveling. Land  should
have well drainage capacity. It should be free from volunteer plants and weeds 
2. Time of sowing : 
Kharif : 2nd fortnight of July 
Rabi : Mid October to mid December  
3. Isolation : Foundation seed – 400 m 
Certified seed – 200 m 
4. Source of seed : Obtain foundation seeds from the source approved by the  certification
agency. 
5. Seed rate, method of sowing and spacing : 
a) Direct sowing : 3.5 kg to 5.0 kg, keeping 50 cm spacing between rows.  Thinning
should be done at a distance of 10 to 15 cm. 
b) Transplanting : 1.5 kg/ha, Spacing : 45 cm between the rows 
6. Fertilizer : 50 kg NPK as basal, 25 kg N after 25-30 days of sowing and 25 kg N  after
40-45 days of sowing. 
7. Irrigation : Irrigate the crop as and when required. If rain is inadequate, 1-2  irrigation
may be given. 
8. Weed control : Pre-emergence application of Propazine or Atrazine @ 1 kg/ha and  one
hand weeding would be effective to control weeds. One or two inter-culturing  would be
sufficient to keep the crop weed-free. 
9. Plant protection :  
a) White grub and shoot fly : Apply 10 % phorate granules 10-15 kg/ha as soil 
application at the time of sowing. Spraying of carbaryl @ 2 kg in 500 litres  of
water per hectare would be effective. 
b) Red hairy caterpillar, leaf roller, hopper and army worms : Thiodan 35 EC,  1.25
litre/ha in 600 to 800 litres of water. 
c) Sucking pests like aphids, jassids can be controlled by Dimethoate 30  percent @
250 ml in 500 litres of water per hectare. 
d) Earhead midge and blister beetles : Carboryl 50 % @ 3 kg/ha or Malathion 2  %
dust @ 15 kg/ha. 
e) Smut : Seed treatment with Agrosan 3 gm/one kg seed. 
f) Rust : Spray zineb 50 % w.p. 1 kg/ha in 600 litre of water. 
g) Ergot : Spray the ears with Ziram (Cuman) 0.15 % or mixture of copper 
oxichoride (fytolan) and zineb (Dithane-Z-78) in 1:2 ratio 
10. ROUGING : Remove off types and volunteer plants identified on the basis of plant 
characteristics like stem color, hairiness, plant height, peduncle shape, colour etc.
11. Harvesting : Seed crop should be harvested when it is fully matured. Remove  
diseased or damaged ear-head at the time of harvest. Threshing can be done by 
thresher. Dry the seed to 10 % moisture before storage. 
Production of hybrid seed in Pearlmillet :  
The hybrid seed is produced by using CMS line and restorer (CGMS concept) as similar to 
other cereals. 
Important steps are : 
a) Maintenance of parental lines, i.e. male sterile line, B line and restorer line.
b) Production of hybrid seed i.e. (A x R) 

Planting ratio : Female : male , 4 : 2 rows. Eight border rows of parent should be provided 
on all sides of the field or sufficient availability of pollen grains. 
Spacing : 75 cms between rows adjust planting by sowing early or
late. Seed rate :  
Direct sowing - Female : 1.5 kg/ha and male : 0.75 kg/ha 
Transplanting : female : 400 g/ha, male : 200 g/ha 

Isolation : 200 meters from other field

ROUGING :  
a) Start ROUGING before flowering 
b) All off type plants and volunteers must be cut from the ground level or pulled out to 
prevent re-growth.  
c) Remove off types both from the seed parent and pollinator parents. 
d) Remove pollen shedding plants at the time of flowering from the rows of female 
(seed parent). 
e) Seed (female) parent should be rogued at least once a day. 
f) Remove diseased plants at the time of harvest. 
Harvesting : Harvest male rows first. Keep it separately. Female rows should be harvested 
after completion of male rows. The seed should be dried, threshed and cleaned before 
storage 
Seed yield : 3 to 4 qtls/ha 
Minimum seed certification standard : 
Foundation seed  Certified seed

Isolation distance (m)  1000 200

Inert matter (%)  2  2

Genetic purity (%)  98  98

Other crop seeds 10  10

(No./kg) 

Weed seeds (No./kg)  20  20

Diseased seeds (%)  0.02  0.04

Moisture (%)  12  12

Hybrid seed production in maize 
Production of hybrid maize seed involves three steps 
1. Maintenance of parental lines (Inbreds) 
2. Production of single cross 
3. Production of commercial hybrids 
a) Production of three way cross : (A X B) X C 
b) Production of double cross : (A X B) X (C X D) 
Maintenance of parental lines and production of single cross are called as foundation 
seed production while production of three way cross or double cross is known as certified 
seed. 
Maintenance of inbred lines : 
(1) Land requirement (Selection of seed plot) : The soil should be well aerated and  suitable
for maize growing. Selected field should be free from volunteer plants and  weed plants.
It should have good drainage capacity as maize is sensitive to excess  water as well as
drought conditions. 
(2) Isolation distance : The seed field of an inbred line must be isolated by not less than 
400 m. from any maize field with the same kernel colour and texture and 600 m.  from
maize field with different colour and texture. 
(3) Seed rate : Female parent : 10 kg/ha, male parent : 5 kg/ha 
Ratio - Female : male row ratio should be 4 : 2  
Planting time : 2nd week of June to Mid July. 
(4) ROUGING : Start ROUGING the distantly tall and vigorous plant when the crop is at
knee  light stage. At pre-flowering stage, rogue off plants which are easily identified on 
the basis of plant characteristics such as leaf shape, size, plant height etc. Continue 
ROUGING during flowering stage to remove plants differing in tassel or silk
character.  Final ROUGING should be done to remove stalk-rot affected plants. 
(5) Harvesting : Maize ears can be harvested when the seed moisture content is around  15
per cent. The male rows are harvested first so as to avoid mixing of male ears  with
female ears. After compilation of harvesting of male rows, harvesting of female  rows is
carried out. After harvest, sort out all off type maize ears, particularly those  showing
different colours and torture and infested by disease. 
(6) Processing : Before shelling of maize ears they are once again examined and any  off-
type or diseased ear is found, it is removed immediately. Processing for kernel is 
carried out at processing plant under the supervision of staff of seed certification 
agency. 
Minimum seed certification standard 
Foundation seed

Germination (%)  90

Genetic purity (%)  98

 Inert matter (%)  2

Other crop seeds (No./kg)  5

Weed seeds (No./kg)  None

Diseased seeds  None

Moisture (%)  12

Hybrid seed production in sorghum 

The hybrid sorghum seed is produced by utilizing cytoplasmic genetic male
sterility.  The steps involved in hybrid seed production are as under. 
1. Maintenance of parental lines i.e. line A carrying cytoplasmic genetic male  sterility.
Line B male fertile (maintainer lines of A) and R line i.e. restorer line  used as male
parent for the purpose of producing hybrid seed male fertile, pollen  restoring line. 
2. Production of hybrid seed : This involves crossing of male sterile line A with  restorer
line (R line) to produce hybrid seeds. The maintenance of parental lines  is known as
foundation seed production and the production of hybrid seed is  known as certified
seed production. 
Maintenance of male sterile lines (Line A) 
I. The male sterile line (line A) carried male sterility due to cytoplasmic genetic  factors. It is
maintained by crossing with male fertile non-pollen restoring line (non restorer line) in an
isolated plot. The isolation distance kept is 400 meters. In a  crossing field the planting
ratio of line A and B is 4 : 2. Four to six border rows of  line B are planted all around the
seed plot. The seed harvested from line A is male  sterile and is used for hybrid seed
production as a female parent and for further  maintenance of line A. The seed harvested
from line B is pollen fertile and may be  used in further maintenance of line A.  
II. Seed rate, spacing and planting ratio :  
Seed rate : Female line (Line A) 8 kg/ha 
Male line (Line B) 4 kg/ha 
Spacing : 75 x 10 cm 
Ratio : Female line to male line ratio is 4 : 2. 
III. ROUGING : It is very important for quality seed production. Before flowering remove  all off
type plants from both seed parent and pollinator parent. ROUGING may be  strated before
off type, volunteers and pollen shedders in female rows start shedding  pollens. At
flowering ROUGING should be done every day to remove pollen shedding  plants in the
female rows. Pre-harvest ROUGING i.e. the field should be thoroughly  rogued before
harvesting and after the seed has matured to the stage when we can  identify the true plant
and seed characters easily. The ROUGING of diseased heads  should also be done
critically. 
IV. Harvesting : Harvest male rows (B lines) first and keep their ear heads separate. The 
female rows (A line) should be harvested after completion of harvesting of B lines. 
 Production of hybrid seed : 
Hybrid seed is produced by crossing male sterile line (line A) with specified
restorer  line (line R) in an isolated field. This is hybrid seed that is to be sold to farmers. 
i. Selection of seed plot : The land should be free from volunteer plants and weed  plants. There
should be no Johnson grass in the seed field or within the isolation  distance. The field
should be well drained. 
ii. Isolation distance :  
Foundation seed  Certified seed

From field of other  sorghum varieties 200 m  100 m

Johnson grass  400 m  400 m

Forage sorghum  400 m  400 m

HYBRID 300 m 200 m

iii. Spacing , planting ratio, seed rate : 

Spacing : 75 to 90 x 10 cm 
Planting ratio : Female to male rows ratio 4 : 2, and four  border rows of male parent in all
the sides of  
the field 
Seed rate : female parent 8 kg/ha 
Male parent 4 kg/ha 
iv. Synchronization flowering time in male and female parent. : Perfect synchronization  of
flowering time between male and female parent is most important.  Differential
flowering time may result in non-synchronization of the parents  which may result into
poor seed set, hence knowledge regarding flowering habit  of the parent is very useful
for planning of suitable staggering to ensure nicking  and there by maximum seed set. 
v. ROUGING : During vegetative growth stage, before flowering remove all off type  plants
from the rows of both female and male parents. Start ROUGING before off  type plants,
volunteer plants and pollen shedders in female rows start shedding  pollens. At
flowering and during flowering period ROUGING should be done every  day to remove
pollen shedding plants from the female rows. Pre-harvest ROUGING  before harvesting
and after maturity ROUGING should be done thoroughly and ear  heads infested with
the disease should be removed. 
vi. Harvesting and threshing : Harvest male rows any time after the maturity prior to  harvest
the female rows. Remove the produce of the male parent from the seed  field before
harvesting the female rows to avoid the mixture. The threshing  machine may be
thoroughly cleaned before threshing the female ear heads to  avoid mechanical mixture. 
vii. Seed yield : Average seed yield of 4 to 6 quintals per hectare.
Minimum Seed Certification Standard 
Foundation seed  Certified Seed
 Germination (%)  75  75

Genetic purity (%)  98  98

Inert matter (%)  2  2

Other crop seeds 5  10

(No./kg) 

Weed seeds (No./kg)  5  10

Diseased seeds  0.02 %  0.04 %

Moisture (%)  12  12

Seed Production In pulses crops: 

⮚ Pigeon pea: 

(1) Selection of seed plot : The plot to be used for seed production of pigeon pea shall be 
free from weeds and volunteer plants. The plot should be well drained. Prepare the land
with  deep ploughing, followed by harrowing and leveling.  
(2) Isolation distance : Pigeon pea is normally a Often cross-pollinated crop, however, 
natural cross-pollination to the extent of 65 percent occurs. So an isolation distance of
200  meter should be kept for foundation seed class and 100 meter for certified class
side of seed  plot to avoid natural crossing. 
(1) Planting time and seed rate :  
Sowing of seed crop in first week of June is recommended for obtaining
higher yields.  Seed crop should be sown in rows at spacing of Row to Row- 60
to 75 cm  Plant to plant- 25 to 30 cm  a depth of 5 cm. 
The recommended seed rate for seed crop is 12 to 15 kg /ha. 

(2) Cultural practices : 

(a) Fertilizer: The recommended doses of fertilizer is 25 kg nitrogen, 50 kg 
phosphorous per hectare. All the quantity of nitrogen and phosphorous 
should apply in drilled at time of sowing of seed. 
(b) Irrigation: one to two light irrigation prior to onset of monsoons may be necessary.if 
rain disturibution is irregular and weather remains dry for prolonged periods, one 
irrigation at flowering time and subsequent irrigation after flowering are necessary.  
(c) Inter-culturing and weeding: Periodically inter culturing and weeding should be 
carried out to keep the crop free from weeds. Chemical weedicides like 2,4-D @ 0.5
kg  a.i. per hectare and pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i. per hectare in 750 litres of water
should  also be used for effective control of weeds. 
(d) Plant protection :  
 For the control of pod fly spray endosulphan 1.25 liters per hectare or  
 monocrotophos at 750 ml per hectare in 250 liters of water. 
  For the control of pod bug or plume moth and gram catter piller, spray, 750
ml of   monocrotophos or dust 25 kg malathion 5 % dust per hectare. 
(3) ROUGING : rogue the off-type plants and diseased plants affected by wilt, leaf
spot and   stem canker, YVMV and sterility virus from seed field from time to
time as   required.
(4) Harvesting and threshing : Harvesting may be done by sickle and
threshing with   sticks. Care should be taken to avoid mechanical mixture. 

(5) Processing : Pigeon pea seeds should have 8 to 10 percent moisture content for  
storing purpose. To maintain good quality of seeds, it should be cleaned, treated  
with fungicide and should be properly bagged. The seed should be stored in a
dry,   clean and rodent proof warehouse. 
(6) Yield : The average seed yield should be between 20 to 25 qtls per hectare. 

Minimum seed certification standard 

Foundation Certified seed
seed 

Germination (%)  85  85

Genetic purity (%)  98  98

Inert matter (%)  2  2

Other crop seeds (No./kg)  10  10

Weed seeds (No./kg)  10  10

Diseased seeds (%)  0.05  0.25

Moisture (%)  9  9

⮚ Chickpea  

(1) Selection of seed plot : The plot to be used for seed production of chickea shall be free
from  weeds and volunteer plants. The plot should be well drained. Prepare the land
with deep  ploughing, followed by harrowing and leveling.  
(2) Isolation distance : chickea is normally a Self-pollinated crop, however, natural cross
pollination to the extent of 1 percent occurs. So an isolation distance of 10 meter
should  be kept for foundation seed class and 5 meter for certified class side of seed
plot to  avoid natural crossing. 
(3) Planting time and seed rate :  
Sowing of seed crop in third and fourth week of October is recommended for
obtaining  higher yields. 
 Seed crop should be sown in rows at spacing of Row to Row- 45 to 60 cm 
  Plant to plant- 10 to 15 cm  a depth of 7-10 cm. 
The recommended seed rate for seed crop is 55 to 100 kg /ha. 
(4) Cultural practices : 
(a) Fertilizer: The recommended doses of fertilizer is 15-20 kg nitrogen, 50
kg  phosphorous per hectare. All the quantity of nitrogen and
phosphorous  
should apply in drilled at time of sowing of seed. 
(b) Irrigation: one to two light irrigation prior to onset of monsoons may be 
necessary.if rain disturibution is irregular and weather remains dry for  
prolonged periods, one irrigation at flowering time and subsequent  
irrigation after flowering are necessary.  
(c) Inter-culturing and weeding: Periodically inter culturing and weeding 
should be carried out to keep the crop free from weeds. Chemical  
weedicides like 2,4-D @ 0.5 kg a.i. per hectare and pendimethalin @ 1 kg  
a.i. per hectare in 750 litres of water should also be used for effective  
control of weeds. 
(d) Plant protection :  
 For the control of pod fly spray endosulphan 1.25 liters per hectare or 
 monocrotophos at 750 ml per hectare in 250 liters of water. 
 For the control of pod bug or plume moth and gram catter piller,  
 spray, 750 ml of monocrotophos or dust 25 kg malathion 5 % dust per  
 hectare. 
(5) ROUGING : Rogue the off-type plants and diseased plants affected by
wilt and   blight, from seed field from time to time as required. 

(6) Harvesting and threshing : Harvesting may be done when the

seeds are fully   matured. At the leaves are reddish brown by sickle and
threshing with  

 sticks. Care should be taken to avoid mechanical mixture. 

(7) Processing : Chick pea seeds should have 8 to 10 percent moisture content
for   storing purpose. To maintain good quality of seeds, it should be cleaned,
treated with fungicide and should be properly bagged. The seed should be  
stored in a dry, clean and rodent proof warehouse. 
(8) Yield : The average seed yield should be between 15to 20 qtls per hectare. 

Seed Production in Major Oil seed Crops 

⮚ Castor  
Foundation seed production  
Seed production male and female parents and their maintenance is known as foundation 
seed production. 
1. Land requirement & preparation : Castor seed production can be successfully taken  up
on any type of soil provided they are fairly deep, fertile and well drained.  Medium to
deep sandy loam and heavy loam soils are ideally suited for seed  production. Since,
castor is a deep rooted crop, deep ploughing has been very useful.  One deep ploughing
followed by two to three harrowing is sufficient to bring the  field to the desired tilth. 
2. Isolation : Castor is monoecious and highly cross pollinated crop. The cross  pollination
by wind varies from 5 to 40 % depending upon the climatic condition.  The seed field
must be isolated from other variety field at least 600 m from  foundation seed class and
300 meters for certified seed class. 
3. Source of seed : Obtain nucleus/breeder/ foundation seed from authentic source 
approved by seed certification agency. 
4. Time of sowing : For kharif season first fortnight of July, for rabi mid of September  to
mid of October. 
5. Method of sowing : The crop is planted in rows either by drill or in furrows opened  by
plough or by transplanting the seedlings 
6. Spacing : 120 to 90 x 90 to 45 cm 
7. Seed rate : 15 5o 20 kg/ha. Seed rate varies according to seed size spacing and  method of
sowing. 
8. Fertilizer : 80 : 40 : 00, NPK kg/ha. Of these, 50 % nitrogen plus all the amount of  
phosphorus and potash is given as basal dose at the time sowing. Remaining 50 % 
nitrogen is given in two equal split, first at 40 to 60 days after sowing and second  after
first picking. 
9. Irrigation : The number of irrigations required varies with the rainfall received. 
However, usually 2 to 3 irrigations during the entire crop season may be sufficient to 
avoid moisture stress. Adequate moisture in soil at time of flowering is necessary 
otherwise moisture stress at this stage may lead to high proportion of male flowers 
in monoecious varieties. 
10. Weed control : The castor field must be kept weed free up to 60 days after planting.  2
to 3 hand weeding / hoeing are sufficient to keep the field clean. 

11. Plant protection :  

a) Phytophthora blight and Cercospora leaf spot are the major disesase. Spraying  of
Bordeaux mixture at 15 days interval or 2 to 3 spray of 0.25 % dithan M-45  may be
effective. 
b) 1) Semilooper : 0.35 % thiodan, 0.03 % dimecron 
2) Pod borer : 0.35 % thiodan 
12. ROUGING : Remove all off type plants before flowering. Rogue out diseased plants as 
soon as they are noticed in the field and take plant protection measures to check the 
spread of disease. For male parent two rounds of ROUGING are required, first about
10  days prior to flowering and the second at flowering. As soon as flower initiation is 
noticed in primary raceme, reduce the population to 50 % of initial plant stand by 
ROUGING of variants in respect to number and the spread of male flowers beyond 
lower two whorls. After second round of ROUGING maintain the node number up to
primary raceme. 
 For female parent there will be four field inspections viz., before flower 
initiation (35-45 DAS), full flowering in primary raceme (60-65 DAS). Besides the 
routine two rounds of ROUGING for removal of off-types based on stem colour, 
internodes type, leaf shape, nodes up to primary raceme, sex expression, branching 
etc. inspect every female plant regularly for any possible reversion to monoecism at 
secondary, tertiary and quarternary orders. These plants should be removed and 
destroyed. 
13. Harvesting and threshing : Start harvesting when all the capsules in primary spikes  and
1 to 2 secondary spikes start turning light yellow. The picking continues till 2 to  3
months, because the capsules mature unevenly due to sequential development of 
racemes. Keep picking-wise seed lot separately, sun dry them, thresh them  separately
for drawing representative seed samples. Before storage, the seed must be  dried to 8 %
moisture content. 
14. Seed yield : 8-10 qtl under rainfed condition, 15-20 qtl under irrigated condition. 

Minimum seed certification standard :

Foundation Certified seed
seed 

Isolation distance for hybrid  seed production (m) 600  300

Germination (%)  60  60

Genetic purity (%)  98  98

Inert matter (%)  2  2

Other crop seeds (No./kg)  5  10

Weed seeds (No./kg)  none  None

Objectionable weed seeds  (No./kg) none  None

Moisture (%)  8  8
⮚ SUNFLOWER 
• Sunflower is second most important oilseed crop after soybean because of its non
cholesterol and anticholesterol properties. The sunflower head is made up of 1,000  to
2,000 individual flowers joined at a common receptacle. The flowers around the 
circumference are ligulate ray flowers without stamens or pistils; the remaining  flowers
are perfect flowers. Anthesis (pollen shedding) begins at the periphery and  proceeds to
the center of the head. It is highly cross pollinated. It is protandrous  (androecium
matures before gynoecium), since many sunflower varieties -self incompatibility,
insects and bee colonies have generally increased yields. Pollens are  sticky, heavy, only
transferred by insect (Honey bees). Hybrid seed produced A, B  and R line utilizing
CGMS concept. 
 1. Isolation distance : Foundation seed – 400 m, Certified seed – 200 m
2. Sowing time : November to October 
3. Spacing : 60 x 30 cm 
4. Seed rate : A line– 4 kg/ha and R line – 1.25 kg/ha 
5. Planting ratio : Female : Male ratio should be 4 : 1, staggered planting can be  adopted for
synchronization of flowering. 
6. Fertilizer : 80 : 90 : 60 kg/ha NPK, Remaining Nitrogen – 2 splits – 30 & 55  DAS  
7. ROUGING : Pollen shedders in cms lines (A lines) should be rogued out. Other  traits
like plant type, stem, leaf, height, hairiness, leaf size etc. should be  considered for
ROUGING purpose. 
8. Pollination : This crop has heavy pollens. Artificial pollination by muslin  cloth or by
collected the pollens in mugs and spreading on female plant using  brush will be helpful
to increase the seed set and overall production. 
9. Field inspection : 1st a vegetative, 2nd and 3rd at flowering, 4th at maturity.
10.Harvesting : When capitulum turns to lemon yellow color.  
11.Yield : 7 to 8 qtls/ha 

Minimum Seed Certification Standard

Foundation Certified Seed
seed 

Isolation distance (m)  400 200

Germination (%)  70  70

Genetic purity (%)  98  98

Inert matter (%)  2  2

Other crop seeds (No./kg)  None  None

Weed seeds (No./kg)  5  10

Objectionable weed seeds  (No./kg) None  None

Moisture (%)  9  9

⮚ Seed production in cotton  

Selection of seed plot : The land to be used for seed production must be free of volunteer 
plants and weeds. The soil should be deep, well drained and should be retentive of moisture 
and fertile. Plough the land with deep ploughing and harrow two to three times followed by 
leveling to make it well pulverized. 
1. Isolation distance : Cotton is mainly a self pollinated crop but natural cross 
pollination to the extent of 1 to 10 % in G. arboretum and G. barbadense while  10
 to 50 % in  G. hirsutum has been recorded, so a minimum isolation distance of 50
meters for  foundation class and 30 meters for certified class is recommended. 
2. Planting time : 
Seed rate : American cotton : 20-25 kg/ha 
Deshi Cotton : 12-15kg/ha 
Spacing : American Cotton : 90 x 30 cm 
Deshi Cotton : 75 x 30 cm 
3. Stage wise ROUGING : ROUGING for off type and diseased plants should start at 
vegetative growth stage, subsequent ROUGING should be done at square initiation 
and flowering time. 
4. Picking : The time of picking is important for maintaining seed quality. The  picking
should start when the cotton is fully mature. Since maturing (ripening) of  balls is
continuous process several picking may be done. Seeds obtained from  initial two to
three picking give better germination but planting seeds will be best  when collected
at the peak of the harvest. The seed cotton picked from last  picking should not be
kept for seeds or dew. Balls damaged due to insect pest  may be discarded for seed
purpose. 
5. Ginning and delinting : Ginning of cotton seed should be done on the gins  approved
by certification agency. The machinery must be thoroughly cleaned  before the
ginning. Gin only those cotton seed with a moisture content of 6 to 8  percent and
the ginning rate should not exceed 4.5 to 5.5. kg of lint cotton per  hour. Removal of
seed coat hairs and short fiber that remains after ginning is  called delinting. This
may be done with the help of either machine, acid or  flame. 
6. Seed cotton yield : Average seed cotton yield varies from 6 to 10 quintals per  hectare
depending upon the yield potential of the variety. 
7. Minimum seed certification standard
Foundation seed  Certified Seed

Germination (%)  65  65

Genetic purity (%)  98  98

Inert matter (%)  2  2

Other crop seeds (No./kg)  5  10

Weed seeds (No./kg)  5  10

Diseased seeds  None  None

Moisture (%)  8-10  8-10

Minimum purity in GOT (%)  90  90

⮚ Hybrid seed production in cotton 

 The hybrid cotton seed is produced by hand emasculation. The individual bud 
emasculation of the female parent is done in the evening of the previous day and the same
is  pollinated in the morning of next day with the pollens of male parent. The emasculated
bud  is covered either with butter paper bag or a soda straw tube after emasculation and 
pollination. 

1. Selection of seed plot : The land selected for seed production must be free from  volunteer
plants and weeds. The plot should not have cotton crop in the previous year  or season. It
should be well drained, moisture retentive and well fertile. Prepare the land  with deep
ploughing followed by 2 to 3 harrowing and leveling. 
2. Isolation distance : 50 meters from other cotton crop variety. 
3. Planting ration, time, seed rate and spacing 
Female to male ration is 4 : 1. 
The flowering period in cotton is spread over a long time. So sowing of male parent 
should be done in 2 to 3 installments at an interval of eight to ten days in order to get 
sufficient pollens for pollination of female flower. 

Time : onset of monsoon or one week earlier than usual date of onset of monsoon Seed
rate : Female parent : 3.75 kg/ha., male parent : 2,5 kg/ha. 
Spacing : Female parent : 150 cm between rows, 100 cm within row. : Male parent : 150
cm between row and 50 cm within row. 

Precautions to be taken during crossing programme :  

1. Rogue out all off type plants before starting of the crossing programme. 2.
Emasculate and pollinate, all buds appearing during the first seven weeks of the 
reproductive phase duration to ensure good seed setting and better development of 
balls. 
3. Emasculate the flower bud in the evening time i.e. 2 to 6 pm only and pollinate them  in
the next morning between 9 to 13 pm. 
4. Emasculate the flower bud i.e. remove all the anthers carefully. 
5. Remove un-emasculated flower if any found open. 
6. Do not choose very young or old buds for emasculation. 
7. Cover the buds of male parent with paper bags in the previous evening for their use  in
the next day. 
8. Emasculated bud may be covered with coloured butter paper bag or soda straw tube  to
identify for pollination in the next morning. 
9. Tie a thread to the pedicel of the bud after pollination. Cover crossed buds with soda 
straw tube. 
10. Close the crossing programme after 11 th week and remove all buds and flowers 
appearing subsequently to facilitate better development of crossed balls. Nip the top 
end shoots to stop further vertical or horizontal growth. 
11. Give light irrigation as and when required during the crossing programme. 

4. Stage wise ROUGING : ROUGING for off type and diseased plants should start at
vegetative  growth stage. Subsequent ROUGING should be done at square initiation and
flowering time. 5. Picking of hybrid seeds : Pickup the ripe and completely opened balls
 along with threads  on and collect in basket for a second sorting. Collected crossed balls
should be sorted to  verify that they are actually crossed seeds. Sundry for one to two days
and store in gunny  bags till supplied to processing unit. Care should be taken to avoid
mechanical mixture  during and after picking.
6. Ginning and delinting : Ginning cotton seed should be done on the gins approved by 
certification agency. The machinery must be thoroughly cleaned before ginning. Gin  only
those seed cotton with a moisture content of 6 to 8 % and the ginning rate should  not
exceed 4.5 to 5.5. kg lint cotton per hour. Delinting may be done using machine, acid  or
flame. 
7. Seed cotton yield : Average seed cotton yield varied from 8 to 10 quintals per
hecature. Minimum seed certification standard (MSCS) 
Foundation seed  Certified seed

Germination (%)  65  65

Genetic purity (%)  98  98

Inert matter (%)  2  2

Other crop seeds 5  10

(No./kg) 

Weed seeds (No./kg)  5  10

Diseased seeds (%)  None  None

Moisture (%)  8  8

⮚ Seed Production in Vegetable Crops 

⮚ Brinjal, Chilli and Tomato 

• Nucleus, breeder and foundation seeds are produced by selfing in brinjal, chilli and 
tomato. Hybrids seed is produced by hand emasculation and hand pollination.  Anthers
form cone around bilobed stigma. In chilli, CGMS system is utilized to produce hybrid
where, as usual, A line is maintained by B line (maintainer, non restorer line), B line and
R line (restorer) by selfing and hybrid seed is produced by  crossing A line with R line. 
• During the certified seed production, isolation distance remains 200 m for  foundation
seeds and 100-200 m for certified seeds. Though these are self pollinated crops, some
amount of cross pollination occurs by insects. Inspections are made during vegetative,
flowering and maturity stages. Variety 50m foundation seed & 25 m for certified seed
production.
Planting ratio: 12:1 or 12:2
Chilli isolation distance: foundation seed production 400m
Certified seed production 200 m
 Tomato  Brinjal

Foundation  Certified  Foundation  Certified

Isolation distance (m)  200  100  200  100

Germination (%)  70  70  70  70

Genetic purity (%)  98  98  98  98

Inert matter (%)  2  2  2  2

Other crop seeds None  None  5  10

(No./kg) 

Weed seeds (No./kg)  None  None  None  None

Moisture (%)  8  8  8  8

⮚ Cucurbits (bottle gourd and ridge gourd) 

Bottle gourd and ridge gourd are monoecious crops (separate male flower and female 
flowers on same plant) and so high amount of cross pollination occurs. Female flowers can 
be visualized on plant as ovary with rudimentary anthers (pistillate) and in male flowers 
ovary is absent (staminate) but 3 anthers are present. To prevent selfing male flowers are 
plucked off at bud stage and hand pollination is done for crossing. Isolation distance is 
1000m for foundation seeds and 500m for certified seeds. Four inspections are made, 1st
during vegetative stage, 2nd and 3rd during flowering stage and 4th during maturity stage. 
Foundation Certified Seed
seed 

Isolation distance (m)  1000  500

Germination (%)  60  60

Genetic purity (%)  98  98

Other crop seeds (No./kg)  5  10

Weed seeds (No./kg)  None  None

Objectionable weed seeds  (No./kg) None  None

Moisture (%)  7  7

⮚ Onion 
 In onion seed is not economic unit, bulbs are consumed which are vegetative tissue of 
the plant.  

Method of reproduction :  

(1) Bulb to seed : It requires two season. In first seasons bulbs are obtained from seeds and
in the next season these bulbs are planted and seed are harvested at the end of the
second season. 
(2) Seed to seed (Bolting): In this method only one season is required to produce seed. 
Seeds are planted in nursery and seedlings are transplanted. In onion occasional  bolting
(appearance of flowering) occurs and if allowed to mature, these flowers will  bear
seeds taking food material from developing bulb under the soil surface. 

Onion is highly cross pollinated crop having protandrous nature and pollinated by bees, 
flies and other insects. Cms lines (cytoplamsic male sterility) available for hybrid seed 
production. Cytoplasmic male sterility is utilized to produce hybrids viz Arka lalima and 
Arka Kirtiman. Inbreds are produced by selfing or sibmating covered with net. In onion 
restorer line is not required because seed is not economic material. Restorer lines are 
required to restore the fertility in other crops like rice, bajara, sorghum, sunflower etc. 
where seed is the economic material. Onion hybrid seed production includes maintenance of
A line and crossing of this A line with any other parent. Recall that in other crops R
line (restorer lines) are utilized as male parent to restore the fertility in F1 hybrid. 
Isolation distance : 
Foundation seed  Certified seed

Bulb  5 m  5m

Seed  1000 m  500 m

Male and female ratio is 2:8 for hybrid seed production. The planting ratio depends
upon the pollen production ability of male and pollinating agents especially Apis melifera. 
Staggered planting can be done for synchronization. The seed harvested from female rows 
is used as hybrid seed. Harvest the crop when 5-10 % capsule shows black seeds. Umbel
(type of inflorescence in onion flower) is harvested keeping 10-15 cm seed stalk along with 
it. Mature heads are harvested 2-3 times after proper drying of umbel. Onion seeds are 
stored at < 8 % moisture.
 Seed processing

Seed processing is necessary in order to dry the seeds to safe moisture level, remove or reduce
the various undesirable material, weed seeds, other crop seeds, deteriorated or damaged seeds,
uniform size grading and seed treatment to upgrade the overall seed quality. In its common usage
in India, seed processing refers to all the steps necessary for preparation of harvested seed for
marketing, handling, drying, shelling, preconditioning, cleaning, size grading, treating and
packaging etc.

The following factors should be considered in planning and designing a seed processing Plant :

1. Kinds of crop seeds to be handled, kinds of contaminating crop and weed seeds

usually present in the seed lots.

2. Size of operation

3. Whether drying facilities should be required

4. Selection of suitable equipment

5. Location of plant

6. Source of power for running machinery

7. System of seed delivery to processing plant

8. Availability of labour

Analysis of operation

a) Processing sequence : After identifying the machines needed for processing, the next step is to
determine proper processing sequence. The seed separators, elevators, conveyors and storage
bins should be so arranged that seeds flow continuously from beginning to end.

b) Matching capacity : Equipment size of capacity must be carefully planned to prevent

bottlenecks. When the overall operating capacity needs to be determined, all machines must be
able to handle that capacity with some reserve capacity for problem lots. Either large models or
more than one machine installed in parallel flow must be used to maintain uninterrupted flow.

c) Conveying (Transport system): The type of conveying system is also very important factor.
The conveying system must be able to handle the capacity needed in particular spot and it must
be carefully adapted to the seed handled.

Seed drying

In order to maintain seed viability and vigour drying of seed lots i.e. lowering down the seed
moisture content to safe moisture limits is very important, otherwise viability and vigour
deteriorates fast due to mold growth, heating and increased micro-organism activity.

Methods of seed drying

The drying of seeds is done by the following methods

(1) Sun drying : The moisture content of seeds have to be reduced in the field before harvest and
later by sun drying on the threshing floor. The system involves harvesting of crops when they are
fully dried in the field, leaving the harvested produce in field for a couple of days to sun dry and
later spreading the threshed and winnowed produce in thin layers on threshing floors to sun dry.
The main advantage of sun drying is that it required no additional expenditure. The
disadvantages are delayed harvests, risks of weather damage and increased likelihood of
mechanical mixtures.
If sun drying is to be done, the following precautions should be taken :

(a) Do not spread the produce on wet, dirty and kuchha threshing floors,

(b) Only one crop variety and produce from one plot should be handled on threshing floor, in
order to maintain lot identity and to avoid mechanical admixtures.

(2) Forced air drying : In this system air (natural or heated) is forced into seeds. The air passing
through damp seeds picks up water. The evaporation cools the air and the seed. The heat
necessary for evaporating the water comes from the temperature of the air. This is the most
fundamental principle of forced air seed drying.

There are three main drying methods for drying with forced air.

1. Natural air drying : Natural air is used in this type of drying method.

2. Drying with supplemental heat : Heat is provided to raise the temperature about 10 to 20°C for
reducing relative humidity so that drying can take place.

3. Heated air drying : In this method the drying air is heated considerably, as much as 110° F.

The first two methods may require 1-3 weeks or even more to reduce the seed moisture content
to safe levels. They are generally used in western countries to dry grains/seeds which will be
stored on farm for some period. The third method i.e. heated air drying is universally favoured
for drying the seeds. The usual practice in heated air drying is to dry the seed either in a special
drying bin or in wagons. From the drying bins the seed is moved either in to processing assembly
or to storage bins.

Cleaning of seeds

Principles of cleaning seeds :

In the cleaning process, the separation of undesirable material viz., inert matter, weed
seeds, other crop seeds, light and chaffy seeds, off-size, damaged or deteriorated seed from
desirable material is done on the basis of differences in physical properties of desirable seed and
undesirable matter.

The main physical differences found in seeds are seed size, length, width, thickness,
density, shape, surface texture, colour, affinity for liquids and seed conductivity. If the
differences between desirable and undesirable material in regard to any of these properties exist,
separation of undesirable material could be done with the help of suitable machine designed for
the purpose. Seeds of different species and inert matter widely differ in regard to the physical
properties. Length, width, shape, weight and surface texture differences are quite common in
crop species and form the basis of seed cleaning operations.
Methods of cleaning seeds

Cleaning of seeds can be done in the following groups

1. Pre-conditioning and pre-cleaning : Pre-conditioning refers to such operations as shelling etc.

that prepare seed lots for basic seed cleaning, while pre-cleaning means removal of particles,
larger in size than desirable crop seed from seed lots.

2. Basic seed cleaning : Basic seed cleaning refers to actual cleaning and grading of seeds.
Unlike pre-cleaning/pre-conditioning, which may or may not be required, basic seed cleaning is
an essential process in the seed cleaning operations. Many kinds of seeds can be completely
cleaned and made into a finished product by basic cleaning. An air screen machine, commonly
referred to as an air screen cleaner is used for basic seed cleaning. It is also the basic equipment
in seed processing plant.

3. Upgrading the quality of cleaned seed : The various processing operations conducted after the
basic cleaning to further improve seed quality are regarded as upgrading operations. The choice
of upgrading operation, however, depends upon the type of contaminants and crop. The types of
upgrading operations are as under.

1. Sizing and grading (Dimensional sizing)

a. Width and thickness sizing and grading

b. Length sizing and grading

2. Gravity or weight separations

3. Air separations

4. Surface texture separation

5. Electronic separation

6. Other separations

Seed Treatments

Seed treatment is the application of protective fungicides, insecticides or a combination of both

to seeds prior to planting so as to disinfect and disinfest them from seed borne or soil borne
pathogens and even storage insects. It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar energy
exposure, immersion in conditioned water etc.

After green revolution, the treatment of seeds with protective chemicals prior to planting has
become a standard and widely accepted practices.
The ideal seed treatment chemical should be

a) Highly effective against pathogenic organisms.

b) Relatively non-toxic to plants

c) Harmless to humans and livestock, even if misused

d) Stable for relatively longer periods of time during seed storage.

e) Easy to use

f) Economically competitive

Benefits of seed treatments

1. Prevention of spread of plant diseases

2. Protects the seed against soil borne and seed borne organisms.

3. It improves germination

4. Provides protections against storage insects

5. It controls soil insects and pests.

 Types of seed treatments :

1. Seed disinfections : Seed disinfections refers to the eradication of fungal spores that have
established within the seed coat or in deep-seated tissues. For effective control, the fungicidal
treatment must actually penetrate the seed in order to kill the fungus present inside the seeds.

2. Seed disinfestations : refers to the destruction of surface borne organisms that have
contaminated the seed surface but not infected the seed surface.

3. Seed protection : To protect the seed and young seedlings from organisms in the soil which
might otherwise cause decay of the seed before germination.

Equipments for seed treatment :

The equipments used to apply chemicals in any form (slurry, a liquid form or a dust) to seed are
referred to seed treaters and can be divided into two broad categories.

1. Slurry treaters : The slurry treatment principle involves suspension of wettable powder
material in water. The treatment material applied as slurry is accurately prepared through a
simple mechanism composed of a slurry cup into a mixing chamber where they are blended. The
slurry treaters are adaptable to all type of seeds and rate of treating. The small amount of
moisture that is added to the seeds does not affect seed in storage, since the moisture is added to
the seed surface and is soon lost.

2. Direct treaters : Direct treaters are the most recent development and include the “Panogen”
and “Mist-o-matic” treaters. Of these two, the Mist-o-matic” treater is being used more widely. It
applies treatment as a mist directly to the seed.

Coloring of seed : Most of the treatments contain dyes and some companies add their own “color
brand” dye to seed treatments.

Dyes served two purposes :

1. As a warning that the seeds have been treated to prevent contamination as food or feed and

2. As a visible means of evaluating the completeness of treatment coverage. The dyes, if used for
treating formulation of dry seed are mixed with fungicide /insecticide treatment.

Seed packaging, handling and storage

After processing and treating are completed, seeds are packaged into containers of specified net
weight. Packaging or bagging is essentially the last operation in which seeds are handled in bulk
flow. The packaging consists of the following operation.

1. Filling of seed bags to an exact weight.

2. Placing leaflets in the seed bags mentioning improved cultivation practices

3. Attaching labels, certification tags on the seed bags and sealing of the bags.

4. Storage/shipment of seed bags.

Equipments used for packaging of seeds

The bagger and weigher : These are small machines which when properly mounted beneath a bin
will fill and weigh a bag accurately in a single operation. Bagger weigher and bagging scales
used in seed packaging may be manual, semi-automatic or automatic.

Bag sealing machine : After an open-mouth bag is filled, the bag top must be sealed with a bag
sealing machine. Bag sealing machines are precision, high speed machines and must be operated
and maintained properly to prevent frequent breakdowns and short operating life.

Attaching labels : At the time of placing seed into bags, a label must be placed on each bag to
maintain positive identity of the seed. When bags are closed with a bag sealing machine, a label
or tag can be seal to the bag.
Maximum lot size : Each seed lot will be assigned a seed lot no. in the following manner
specified in the Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards.

First part – Month – year code

Second part – Production location code

Third part – Processing plant code

Fourth part – Seed produce code

All the four parts of the lot number shall be written in series which a dash ‘(-)’ between first,
second, third and fourth parts to distinctly indicate the code number of each part. An example is
show below :

Lot No. – May 88-06-01-01

May-88 : Seed harvested in May-1988

06 : Seed crop raised in Gujarat

01 : Seed processed in a processing plant identified as number 01 by the Gujarat state seed
certification agency

01 : Seed produce code which will trace to the particular unit of Certification

Seed storage :

Purpose of seed storage: The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical and
physiological condition from the time they are harvested until the time they are planted.

Stages of seed storage :

The seeds are considered to be in storage from the moment they reach physiological maturity
until they germinate or until they are thrown away because they are dead or otherwise worthless.
The storage period of seeds can be divided into following six stages.

1. Storage on plants (physiological maturity to harvest)

2. Harvest, process and storing in a warehouse

3. Storages in a warehouse

4. In transit (from warehouse to retailer)

5. Retail dealers storage

6. On the user’s farm

The seed quality i.e. germination and vigour can be considerable affected during above storage
periods if the seeds are not properly handled and proper storage is not followed.

 Factors affecting seed longevity (long life span of seed) in storage Seed ageing and loss of
germination during storage cannot be stopped completely but it can be minimized by providing
good storage conditions. Important factors which affect the longevity of seeds are as under.

1. Kind / variety of the seed : The genetic makeup of the lines / varieties influence the storage
period.

2. Initial seed quality : Seed damage during transit period at various stages due to mechanical
injury may reduce the longevity.

3. Moisture content : Moisture content of seeds to be stored determines the seed viability and
germination. If the moisture content is high, the quality will deteriorate rapidly. 8-10 % moisture
content is very safe to maintain good germination and vigour for longer period.

4. Relative humidity and temperature during storage : Increase in relative humidity and
temperature adversely affect the storage life of seeds. The relative humidity should not exceed
50% and temperature should be around room temperature. A 10°F decrease in temperature nearly
doubles the storage period. Similarly 1 % decrease in moisture content doubles the storage life.
So good seed storage is achieved when the percentage of relative humidity in storage
environment and the storage temperature in degree Farenhit add up to one hundred.

General principles of seed storage

a) Seed storage conditions should be dry and cool.

b) Storage must have effective pest control

c) The seed stores must have proper sanitation

d) The seeds should be dried to a safe moisture limit required for storage system.

e) The seeds should be well cleaned, treated with proper insecticides, pesticides, fungicide and
should have high germination percent and vigour.

Acronyms

1. AOSA : Association of Official Seed Analysis

2. AOSCA : Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies.

3. CSCB : Central Seed Certification Board

4. IBPGR : International Board for Plant Genetic Resources

5. ISST : Indian Society of Seed Technology

6. NBPGR : National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources

7. NSDC : National Seed Development Council

8. NSSL : National Seed Storage Laboratory

9. NSC : National Seed Corporation

10. SSCA : State Seed Certification Agency

11. UPOV : Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants

12. ISTA : International Seed Testing Association

13. IMSCS : Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standard

14. GSSCA : Gujarat State Seed Certification Agency

15. GSSC : Gujarat State Seed Corporation

 Seed marketing:

Seed marketing is one of the most vital components of seed technology. In broad sense

it includes such activities as production, processing, storage, quality control and marketing

of seeds. In the narrow sense, seed marketing refers to the actual acquisition and selling of

packed seeds, intermediate storage, delivery of seeds and sales promotional activities. Thus

seed marketing comprises of the following aspects.

1. Demand forecast (Assessment of effective demand).

2. Marketing structure.

3. Seeds storage infrastructure.

4. Sales promotional activities.

5. Post-sales service.

6. Economics of seed production and seed pricing.

1. Demand forecast : The assessment of effective seed requirements is critical to any

planned seed programme. The demand forecast should be that the seed supply keeps

place with seed demand in terms of quantity, quality, price, place and time.

2. Marketing structure : The key to success in seed marketing is the establishment of

effective channel of distribution. The simplest and most efficient system is to

establish a central marketing cell and regional offices in end-use areas. The retail

sale should be organized either by appointing distributors/ dealers such as private

dealers, co-operatives, agro sales service centers etc. or by opening owned sales

points of seed company or seed corporation.

3. Seed storage infrastructure : Transportation of seeds from production areas to end

use areas is important and time consuming task. Availability of seeds to the

dealers/consumers in time is essential. Therefore, buffer godowns, with good storage

conditions are to be established in end use areas.

4. Sales promotional activities : These activities reflect on the overall distribution of

seeds as well as the impact on the consumer. The seed company and the dealers

should jointly share in the publicity efforts. The seed company should provide basic

materials such as photographs, technical reports, posters, charts, leaflets which the

dealer can adopt to specify uses. A sound and effective sales programme must be

based on the judicious use of three basic tools i.e. advertising, publicity and public

relations.

5. Post sale services : It includes educating the farmers, technical help as and when
desired by the farmers and quick follow up on the complaints about seed sold.

6. Economics of seed production and seed pricing : The seed production cost must be

kept as low as possible. The farmers or seed producer will not be interested in seed

production unless the prices they receive have reasonable profit.

Factors affecting seed marketing :

Seed marketing is greatly affected by the following factors :

1. Clear-cut policy :A clear cut policy regarding duties and responsibilities of the

official, semi-officials and private economic sectors is necessary for the development

of seed marketing on sound basis.

2. Availability of well identified and adapted varieties : A seed programme would not

have any impact unless superior varieties are regularly supplied for the seed

programme. Current official information on new varieties that have been

recommended for crop production helps in accelerating the programme.

3. Adequate production, storage and testing facilities : These are necessary for producing

and maintaining seed qualities and quantities in accordance with the established

standards for the development of sound marketing.

4. Official programme : State government has to take the initiative and promote the

supply arrangement of new varieties or hybrids are when first time introduced among

the small scale farmers. The important role of government is to provide market

information, to set targets and to regulate and control agencies and enter prices

dealing with seeds.

5. Demand forecast : Real assessment and targets of seed demand are very essential.

Excess quantity of seed may result in large carry over stocks and losses in storage

while short supply would deprive the seed dealers of profits they could have made.
6. Market intelligence : A market intelligence systems should be so developed to provide

reliable information regarding the needs of farmers, location of production areas and

size of market demands as well as marketing cost to keep official and private

institution up to date on production and supply patterns.

7. Transport and storage arrangement : Adequate transport arrangement for timely

supply of seeds and their proper storage in end use areas / dealers or storage buffer

godowns are also important in order to maintain seed germination and viability for a

long period.

8. Nature of product : Seeds are perishable commodity and easily get damaged if

handling is not proper at any stage of marketing so proper handling is required.

9. Quality control programme : Legally enforced effective quality control procedure

should be strictly followed to ensure uniform quality levels as per the prescribed

standard which may help in reducing the unhealthy competition with bonafide seed

companies.

10. Publicity : A high level publicity on value, availability and returns from certified seed

of the recommended varieties is important tool for increasing seed sales.

11. Financial rewards : A well-defined policy of financial rewards to those dealers who

make out standing records as salesmen is of considerable importance and goes a long

way in development of seed marketing.

Seed pricing policy

The seed pricing policy is the most effective and delicate management tool for

regulating the flow of seeds in the market. The price fixed for sale should be reasonable

enough, so that a large number of farmers could purchase certified seeds.

Seed production costs involves following expenses.

1. In raising a seed crop :

a) Cost of foundation seed

b) Cost of specialized planting (in hybrids and vegetables)

c) ROUGING costs

d) Cost of other special operations (Detasseling etc)

e) Cost of additional supervision required in raising a seed crop.

f) Seed certification fee

g) Other expenses not covered above e.g. construction of separate threshing floors, extra cleaning
of equipments etc.

2. At the time of seed harvesting, drying and processing :

a) Separate harvesting of lodged or rejected portions of field and disposing the produce as
commercial.

b) Losses incurred due to drying to 10-12 % moisture content as compared to 12-14 % for a
commercial crop

c) Sorting and rejection of undesirable ears of maize, ear heads of pearlmillet or sorghum, root or
shoot of vegetables etc

d) Separate handling in order to maintain lot identity

e) Additional transportation costs

f) Losses in seed processing

g) Loss, that is, difference in sale price of underside, shriveled and rejected seed (roughly, 10-20
% of the seed supplied) as compared to upgraded produce.

h) Seed processing and testing charges

3. Seed marketing costs :

a) Storage and transport expenses

b) Interest on capital investment

c) Distribution and sales promotion costs

Factors (components) affecting the final marketing price

1. Input costs

a) Price paid to seed producers for raw seed or fully processed seed depending upon the
marketing scheme

b) Storage and transportation costs

c) Distribution costs

d) Wholesale margin (if applicable)

e) Retail margin (Dealer’s commission)

f) Sales promotion

g) Risks costs

h) Profit (if applicable)

2. Supply and demand : Total supply available and total demand generated also influence the
seed price. If the supply is short the sale price is relatively high, if supply is abundant the price is
less and profit margin is low.

3. Prices of other farm products and time trend should also be taken in to consideration

while fixing the price.

Seed certification

Seed certification is legally sanctioned system for quality control of seed multiplication and
production. Its consists of following control measures.

1. An administrative check on the origin of propagating material for the purpose of determining
varietal purity (Genetic purity)
2. Field inspection of varietal purity, isolation to prevent cross pollination, mechanical mixtures,
crop conditions as regards to disease, pest disease and weed control.

3. Supervision of agricultural and commercial operations like harvesting, threshing, storage,

transport and processing to preserve the identity of seed lots.

4. Sample inspection : Drawing samples from the lot for laboratory testing like germination,
moisture content, weed seed content, mixtures and purity.

5. Bulk inspection in order to check homogeneity of the lot as compared to sample drawn.

6. Control plot testing : Comparative field testing of samples drawn from the source seed or final
seed production and standard sample to determine the varietal purity and seed health of the seeds
produced.

Objectives

According to Douglas (1971) the three primary objective of seed certification are :

1. The systematic increase of superior varieties.

2. Identification of new varieties and their rapid increase under appropriate names.

3. Provision of continuous supply of comparable material by careful maintenance.

Basic (Fundamental) concepts of seed certification

The rapid loss of identity and genetic purity of varieties was a major problem in early years of
20th century. Hence, in 1919 the International Crop Improvement Association (ICIA) was
formulated to solve the problem. In 1969 the ICIA changed its name to Association of Official
Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA). This association laid the beginning of modern day seed
certification system and explained the basic concepts of seed certification as under :

1. Pedigree of all certified crops must be based on lineage i.e. The Race.

2. The integrity (Honesty) of certified seed growers must be recognized

3. Field inspection must be made by qualified inspectors.

4. Field verification trials must be conducted to identify varieties/strains

5. Proper records must be kept to maintain pedigree of seed stocks.

6. Seed certification standards must be established for genetic purity and germination.

7. The principle of sealing of seeds must be approved to protect seed grower and the users.

8. Species of farm weeds must be identified and defined as a inert matter.

Seed certification agency :

Statutory regulations regarding establishment of seed certification agency have been discussed
and broad principles have been framed as under.

1. A seed certification agency should not be involved in production and marketing of seeds.

2. The agency should have autonomy.

3. The seed certification standards for various crops and procedure to be adapted by seed
certification agency should be uniform throughout the country.

4. The agency should be associated with technical institutes in order to have latest know how.

5. The agency should operate on basis of principle of no profit no loss.

6. The agency should have adequate trained staff updated by proper training.

7. The agency should have adequate facilities for timely and thorough inspection.

8. The agency should serve the interest of seed producer and seed users.

 Duties and responsibilities of seed certification officers :

1. He should arrange for suitable application, inspection and report forms.

2. He should identify the authentic source of seed for further multiplication.

3. He should ensure that certified seed should be produced form acceptable breeder or foundation
seeds.

4. He should ensure through field inspections that minimum standards for isolation, planting
ratio, ROUGING, etc are maintained as per the prescribed standards.

5. To assist the seed producer at the time of harvesting, threshing, drying and processing to
prevent any type of mixture.

6. To issue appropriate seed certification tags for seed lots which fulfills all the criteria
inspections.

7. To sample and inspect seed lots and submit such samples to the seed testing laboratory.

8. To carryout educational programme to promote the use of certified seeds.

9. To maintain adequate record so that the eligibility of specific lot can be determined.

10. To investigate violation of prescribed standards or complaints from users of certified seed
and to take appropriate action.
 Procedure for certification of seeds :

As per the provision of seeds act, 1966 and seed rules, 1968, the certification of seeds is done in
the following manner :

1. Application for seed certification : All those interested in certified seed production are
required to submit an application in prescribed performa to the concerned state seed
certification agency along with an application fee Rs. 25/-. The seed certification agency
upon receipt of the application will verif
2. y the following conditions :

I. That the variety/varieties are notified and eligible for seed certification.

II. That the source of seed is authentic and in accordance with the conditions laid down in the
minimum seed certification standards.

III. That there would be no difficulties in reaching the field for carrying out timely field
inspections.

IV. That the seed producer is able to provide requisite isolation and the seed field meets the land
requirement as per minimum seed certification standards.

V. That the seed processing facilities are available to the seed producer.

VI. That the requisite application fee has been paid. If the applicant fulfills then above conditions
than certification agency would undertake the certification.

2. Seed certification fees : The application on the basis of above verification is accepted by the
agency then the applicant has to pay certification fees as under :

Inspection fees includes field inspection, supervision during seed processing, seed treatment,
packing, seed sampling, sealing and issue of certificate.

a) Self pollinated crop Rs. 325/ ha.

Hybrid, vegetable crops Rs. 175/ha.

b) Seed testing : Rs. 600/sample

c) Re processing : Rs.250/quintal

d) Re testing : Rs. 600/sample

e) Re validation fee : Rs.20/quintal

3. Inspection of seed fields : Staff of seed certification agency make field inspection at
appropriate stages of growth to ensure that the minimum standards for isolation, preceding
(previous) crop requirement, ROUGING are maintained at all the times and will maintain the
records of inspections.

4. Rejecting the field : After completion of inspection season, the staff submits the report of field
inspection and problems to the Director of Seed Certification Agency.

The board of Directors review the cases and if found not in accordance with the minimum
certification standards then officially reject the seed field.

5. Inspection of seed processing : The representative of seed certification agency makes the visit
of processing unit as may be required to check the mechanical admixture, seed is cleaned and
graded in satisfactory manner, seed is suitably dried, seed treatment is given and seed lot is made
homogenous (uniform).

6. Seed sampling : The staff of the agency take samples of all the seed lots which are required to
carry the tags. These seed samples are then sent to seed testing laboratoryfor evaluation of
genetic purity, germination and moisture content. If seed lots fail to meet the requisite standard
then re-sampling and re-testing is done.

7. Tagging and sealing : After receiving the satisfactory report from official seed testing
laboratory, tagging and sealing of seed lots is done under the supervision of the agency staff.
Fixing of tags and seals on the seed container will complete the certification process.

8. Control plot testing : The seed certification agency arrange for a post season grow out test
(GOT) and concern the plant breeder to check the genetic purity.

9. Extension of validity period : The extension of validity period of certified seeds shall be for a
period of six months and at each subsequent validation as long as the seed confirms the
prescribed standards.

10. Revocation of certification : If the certification agency is satisfied that the certificate granted
by the agency has been obtained by mis-representation by the seed producer, the agency will
give grower a chance to submit causes and if grower does not satisfy the situation then agency
will revoke (withdraw) the certificate.

11. Appeal against certification agency : Any seed producer aggrieved by a decision of a
certification agency may appeal against the certification agency to the appellate authority
specified by the state government within 30 days from receiving the rejection letter from agency.
The appellate authority will discuss the matter critically and pass the necessary order. The
decision of the authority is final.
 Seed legislation and seed law enforcement

The basic purpose of seed legislation and its subsequent enforcement is to regulate the quality of
seed sold to farmers. So long as agriculture remains traditional and static, there is little
justification for regulating seed quality. However, with technological advancement and the
systematic application of science to agriculture, it becomes imperative to regulate the quality of
seeds through seed legislation and its subsequent enforcement to ensure that the seed buyers are
not made to run undue risks.

Types of seed legislation :-

Seed legislation can broadly be divided into two groups.

1. Sanctioning legislation :

Such legislation authorizes, establishes or otherwise legally sanction the activities like
formation / establishment of advisory bodies, seed certification agencies, seed testing
laboratories, foundation and certified seed programmes, recognition of seed certification
agencies of foreign countries, appellate authority, etc..

2. Control legislation :

Such legislation regulates the quality of seed sold in the market and includes the establishment of
suitable agencies for regulating the seed quality.

Seed legislation in India :

In India until mid-sixties (except in Jammu and Kashmire where an Act in respect of legislation
of vegetable seeds was in force), there was no legislation governing the quality of seeds sold by
farmers. The rapid development of agricultural production with the introduction of hybrid
varieties of maize, jowar (sorghum) and pearlmillet (pearlmillet), dwarf varieties of wheat and
paddy, however, necessitated the enactment of seed legislation on 29th December, 1966, the
Seeds Act was passed. It came into force throughout the country on 2nd October, 1969.

The main features of the Seeds Act, 1966 are as under :

1. Applicability : It is applicable only to notified varieties of seed and vegetatively propagating

materials used for sowing.

2. Sanctioning legislation : The Act provides for the formation of an apex advisory body viz.,
Central Seed Committee, Central Seed Certification Board, establishment of Seed Certification
Agencies and State Seed Testing Laboratories etc.
3. Regulatory legislation : The Act provides for the provisions for notification of kinds/varieties
to be brought under the purview of the Seed Act regulation regarding the sale of seed and the
establishment of suitable seed enforcement machinery.

Under the Act, the Central Govt. is empowered to make rules to carry out the purposes of the Act
and to give necessary directions to State Govt. for execution of provisions of the Act or Rules in
the state.

Statutory Bodies and Agencies established in India under the Seeds Act, 1966.

1. Central Seed Committee : The Central Seed Committee set up under the Act is the main
source of advice to the Central Govt. on the administration of the Act and any other matter
related to seeds. The committee consists of a chairman, two representatives of seed growers,
eight representatives of other interests nominated by the Central Govt. and one representative of
State Govt., Director (Seeds), GOI acts as secretary of the committee.

The main function of the committee as envisaged in the Act and Rules are :

a) To advise Central and State Govts. on all matters related to seeds.

b) To advise Govt. regarding notification of such kinds/varieties for which it thinks it has
become necessary or expedient to regulate the quality of seeds.

c) To advise Govt. of the minimum limits for germination and purity for those kinds/varieties
brought under the preview of the Seeds Act.

d) To recommend the procedure and standards for certification, grow out tests and analysis of
seeds.

e) To recommend the suitability of any seed certification agency established in any foreign
country to the Central Govt. for the purpose of this Act.

f) To recommend the rate of fees to be charged for analysis of samples by the Central and State
Seed Testing Laboratory and for certification by certification agencies.

g) To advice the Central and State Govts. regarding suitability of seed testing laboratories.

h) To send its recommendations and other proposals related to Act to the Central Govt.

i) To carry out such other functions as are supplemental, incidental or consequential of any of
functions conferred by the Act or Rules.

2. Central Seed Certification Board (CCSB) :

The Govt. of India has also constituted the Central Seed Certification Board to deal with all
problems related to Seed Certification and to co-ordinate the work of State Seed Certification
Agencies. The membership consists of (i) Chairman, (ii) 3 members representing interests as the
Govt. thinks fit, (iii) Directors of Research of Agril. Universities, (iv) Directors of Agriculture in
State nominated by the Central Govt. besides a nominated secretary.

3. State Seed Certification Agencies (SSCA) :

The act provides for the establishment of state and certification agencies by notification in the
official gazette of state government/central government in consultation with the state
government. The governing body consists of person from state government, seed producing
agency, farmers, subject specialist and seed law enforcement agencies. The governing body lays
down the broad policy while the inspections, seed certification and seed analysis is the
responsibility of the executive wing.

The specified functions for the seed certification agency under Seed Act are :

1) Certify seeds of any notified varieties.

2) Outline the procedure for submission of applications and for growing, harvesting, processing,
storage and labeling of seeds intended for certification till the seed lots finally approved for
certification meet prescribed standards for certification under the Act.

3) Maintain a list of recognized breeders of seeds.

4) Verify that the variety is eligible for certification, seed source used for planting was authentic,
the record of purchase is in accordance with the rules and the fees have been paid.

5) Take sample and inspect seed lots, produced under the procedure laid down by the
certification agency and such samples tested should confirm to the prescribed standards of
certification.

6) Inspect seed processing plants to see that there should not be any admixture of other kinds or
varieties.

7) Insure that field inspection, seed processing plant inspection, analysis of sample taken and
issue of certificates including tags, marks, labels and seals is taken expediously.

8) Undertake educational programmes to promote the use of certified seed, publishing list of
certified seed growers and source of certified seed.

9) Maintain records which may be necessary to verify that seed fields used for the production of
certified seed were in accordance with the rules.

10) Inspect fields to ensure that the minimum standards for isolation, ROUGING, use of male
sterility (wherever applicable) are maintained at all the times and that seed borne diseases are not
present in the field to a greater extent than those prescribed in the certification standard.
4. Central Seed Testing Laboratory (CSTL) :

The seed testing laboratory located at I.A.R.I, New Delhi has been notified as central seed testing
laboratory. The functions of this laboratory are as under.

I. Initiate testing programme in collaboration with state seed testing labs. To promote uniformity
in test results of all seed laboratories.

II. Collect data continuously on the quality of seeds found in the market and make this data
available to the committee.

III. Act as referee laboratory in testing seed samples for achieving uniformity in seed testing. The
state seed testing laboratories are required to send five percent samples to the central seed testing
laboratory along with their analysis results.

5. State Seed Testing Laboratory :

The Act envisages the establishment of state seed testing laboratory in each state by notification
in the official Gazette. The function of state seed testing laboratory is to carry out the seed
analysis work of the state in a prescribed manner.

6. Appellate authority

The Act envisages appointment of an appellate authority through an official notification in the
Gazette, to look in to the grievances of certified seed producers against a seed certification
agency and that of seed traders against seed law enforcement officials.

7. Recognition of seed certification agencies of foreign countries The central government on the
recommendations of the central seed committee recognizes or notifies the agency established in
any foreign country for the purpose of the Indian Seeds Act, 1966

Seed Law Enforcement

Execution of rules and regulations of Seed Act is known as Seed Law Enforcement. The
responsibility of enforcing such regulations rests with seed inspectors.

Duties of seed inspector

1. Investigate all the places used for grading, storage or sale of any seed of any notified varieties
or planting material.

2. Examine the conditions of certificates, labels, tags, etc..

3. Procure and send for analysis, the samples of any seeds found doubtful as being produced,
stocked, sold or exhibited for sale.

4. Investigate any complaint made to him in writing regarding violation of seed rules.

5. May detain the containers of imported seeds which are prohibited.

6. May admit prosecution in respect of breaches of the act and rules.

 The Seed Control Order, 1983

The Seed Control Order came into force on 30th Dece. 1983 Activities about the seed control
order,1983:-

(A) Dealers in Seed to be licensed:-

(i) Dealers to obtain licence.

(ii) Application for licence

(iii) Grant and refusal of licence

(iv) Period of validity of licence

(v) Renewal of licence

(vi) Dealers to display stock and price list

(vii) Dealers to give memorandum to purchaser

(viii) Power to distribute seeds.

(B) Seed control Order gave rules to Enforcement Authority:-

(i) Appointment of licensing authority

(ii) Appointment of inspectors

(iii) Inspection and punishment

(iv) Time limit for seed analysis

(v) Cancellation of licence

(vi) Appeal