CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS II

ECE 2215

B. Sci and B. Ed in Civil Engineering

Year 2.3
 Course Outline:
• Timber: Nature and properties of wood, seasoning and effect of
moisture, defects, testing, grading. Basic and allowable stresses,
durability and preservations, uses, fire resistance.
• Steel: Methods of manufacture, types, properties, uses, methods of
working, heat treatment, welding, defects and fatigue.
• Introduction to Polymers and Plastics: types, properties and
deteriorations.
• Masonry: Building stone, blocks and brick types; properties, uses,
deterioration, design. Mixes and properties of mortar. Quality control
tests in masonry and mortar
• Lab Work - Grading of timber. Bending, tensile and shear tests of
timber, steel, polymers and masonry walls.
 Expected Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this course the student should be able to:
a) Describe the nature and properties of wood, timber seasoning, timber
grading and defects
b) Explain timber strength properties, durability and preservation, fire
resistance.
c) Explain the methods of manufacture for structural steel, types, uses,
methods of working, defects and fatigue
d) Describe polymers and plastics and their engineering properties
e) Identify types and properties of materials used for masonry.
 Course References:
1. Somayaji, S. (2011). Civil engineering materials. Pearson Education India.
2. Mamlouk M. S., Zaniewski J. P., (2010), Materials for civil and construction
engineers, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education

Other References:
1. Kohler J., (2007), Reliability of timber structures, vdf Hochschulverlag AG
2. Salmon C. G., Johnson J. E., (1980), Steel structures: Design and behavior, 2nd
Edition, Harper & Row
3.Llewellyn D.T., Hudd R. C., (1998), Steels, Metallurgy and applications,
Butterworth Heinemann
4. Kasal B., Tannert T., (2010), In situ assessment of structural timber, Springer
 Introduction to Polymers and Plastics
Introduction
• Definitions
• Polymerization
• Classification of Polymers
• Engineering Properties of Polymers
• Uses of Polymers
• Introduction to Plastics
 Introduction to Polymers and Plastics
Introduction
• Polymer, any of a class of natural or synthetic substances composed of
very large molecules, called macromolecules, that are multiples of
simpler chemical units called monomers.
• The word polymer designates an unspecified number
of monomer units.
• Polymers are not restricted to monomers of the same
chemical composition or molecular weight and structure.
• Polymers composed of one kind of monomer are called homomers
while polymers made up of two or more different types of monomers
are known as copolymers.
 Polymerization
• Polymerization – It is any process in which relatively small molecules,
called monomers, combine chemically to produce a very large chainlike
or network molecule, called a polymer.
• Most of the polymers are made up of a long chain of linked carbon and
hydrogen atoms known as hydrocarbon backbone.
• A few examples of a hydrocarbon backbone polymer are polypropylene,
polybutylene, polystyrene.
• There are polymers which instead of carbon have other elements in its
backbone. For example, Nylon, which contains nitrogen atoms in the
repeated unit backbone.
 Types of Polymerization Processes
Addition Polymerization Process
• This is also called as chain growth polymerization. In this, small monomer units join to
form a giant polymer. In each step, the length of the chain increases. For example,
Polymerization of ethane in the presence of Peroxides

Condensation Polymerization Process

• This is also called as step growth polymerization. It involves repeated condensation
reactions between two different monomers while releasing water, methanol or carbon
monoxide molecule as by products.
• For example, Preparation of nylon -66 polyamide fibre.
Copolymerization Process
• In this process, two different monomers join to form a polymer. Synthetic rubbers are
prepared by this polymerization. For example, BUNA – S.
 Classification of Polymers
Polymers are classified based on different factors:-
• Classification based on Sources (Synthesis)
• Classification based on type of the backbone chain
• Classification based on the structure of the Monomer Chain
• Classification based on polymerization process
• Classification based on type of monomer
• Classification based on molecular forces
 Classification based on Sources
They include:-
• Natural Polymers – They are found in living things and also in nature (naturally
occurring). They are divided in to two groups:-
• Organic polymers – Are found in plants and animals – Proteins, starch, cellulose and
rubber. They have a carbon backbone
• Inorganic polymers - Mostly found natural geology. E.g. diamond and graphite that are
polymers composed of carbon atoms links.
• Synthetic Polymers – These are man-made polymers produced chemically. E.g.
Polypropylene, plastics
• Semi-synthetic polymers – These are naturally occurring polymers that are
exposed to chemical modification. E.g. Cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate.
Classification based on the Structure of the Monomer Chain
They include:-
• Linear Polymers – The structure of polymers containing long and straight
chains fall into this category. PVC, i.e. poly-vinyl chloride is largely used for
making pipes and electric cables
• Branched-chain polymers – When linear chains of a polymer form
branches, then, such polymers are categorized as branched chain polymers.
For example, Low-density polythene.
• Cross-linked Polymers –They are composed of bifunctional and
trifunctional monomers. They have a stronger covalent bond in comparison to
other linear polymers. E.g. Bakelite and melamine
 Classification based on Polymerization process
They include:-
• Addition Polymerization: Joining small monomer units to form
one big polymer. E.g. polyethane, Teflon, Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC)
• Condensation Polymerization: Involves repeated condensation
reactions between monomers that leads to certain molecules like
water, methanol etc. E.g. Nylon 66, perylene, polyesters.
• Copolymerization – involves joining two different monomers to
form a polymer. Synthetic rubbers are prepared by this
polymerization. For example, BUNA – S.
 Classification based on the type of monomer

They include:-
• Homomer: In this type, a single type of monomer unit is present.
For example, Polyethene
• Heteropolymer or co-polymer: It consists of different type of
monomer units. For example, nylon -66
 Classification based on Molecular Forces
They include:-
• Elastomers: These are rubber-like solids with weak interaction forces.
For example, Rubber.
• Fibres: These have strong, tough, high tensile strength attributes with
strong forces of interaction. For example, nylon -66.
• Thermoplastics: These have intermediate forces of attraction. For
example, polyvinyl chloride.
• Thermosetting polymers: These polymers greatly improve the
material’s mechanical properties. It provides enhanced chemical and
heat resistance. For example, phenolics, epoxies, and silicones.
 Engineering Properties of Polymers
General attributes of polymers include:-
• Highly resistant to chemical reactions
• Thermal and electrical insulators
• Lightweight and strong
• Diverse application – Used in wide range of area. E.g. Medicine,
automobiles, homes, etc.,
 Uses of Polymers
• Polypropene finds usage in a broad range of industries such as textiles, packaging,
stationery, plastics, aircraft, construction, rope, toys, etc.
• Polystyrene is one of the most common plastic, actively used in the packaging industry.
Bottles, toys, containers, trays, disposable glasses and plates, tv cabinets and lids are some
of the daily-used products made up of polystyrene. It is also used as an insulator.
• The most important use of polyvinyl chloride is the manufacture of sewage pipes. It is also
used as an insulator in the electric cables.
• Polyvinyl chloride is used in clothing and furniture and has recently become popular for the
construction of doors and windows as well. It is also used in vinyl flooring.
• Urea-formaldehyde resins are used for making adhesives, molds, laminated sheets,
unbreakable containers, etc.
• Glyptal is used for making paints, coatings, and lacquers.
• Bakelite is used for making electrical switches, kitchen products, toys, jewelry, firearms,
insulators, computer discs, etc
 Disadvantages of Polymers
What are some of the disadvantages of polymers?
 Disadvantages of Polymers
• Pollution – Produce toxic fumes when burnt and during production
• Non-recyclable –
• Not biodegradable
• Cost intensive – Polymers used for engineerin are produced at a high price
 Introduction to Plastics
• Plastics are specific types of polymer comprised of long chains of linked
monomers.
• Plastics are synthetic or semi-organic polymers made from oil or petroleum
through the use of chemicals and condensation to induce molecular bonding
• They are synthetic type of polymers (man-made).
• Note: All plastics are polymers but not all polymers are plastics.
• Plastics can be divided in to two categories:-
• Thermoset Plastics
• Thermoplastics
 Introduction to Plastics
Thermoset Plastics
• Thermoset plastics are heat-hardened into a permanent design. Once
they have been shaped, thermosets remain in a fixed form even when
exposed to heat again. Thermosets will burn rather than melt when
exposed to extreme temperatures.
• Properties: high resistance to heat, corrosion resistant and durable.
• Examples: Polyurethane, Epoxy, Phenolic and specific polyesters.

What are some of the applications of thermoset plastics?

 Introduction to Plastics
Thermoset Plastics
• Applications include:-
• Electronic components and insulators
• Heat shields
• Motor parts and covers
• Household appliances
• Lighting components
• Energy equipment
 Introduction to Plastics
Thermoplastics
• Unlike thermoset plastics, thermoplastics can be reheated and reshaped without
any change to their fundamental molecular makeup.
• Thermoplastics will melt when exposed to extreme heat, which makes them ideal
for forming and molding fabrication processes.
• They are typically used for plastic products that are not exposed to extreme heat,
such as plastic toys, toothbrushes, plastic storage containers, beverage bottles, etc.
• Properties: low resistance to heat, easy to remold and durable.
• Examples: Nylon, Polyethylene, Polystyrene, PVC, Acetals etc.
• There are two forms of thermoplastics:
• Amorphous thermoplastics
• Semi-crystalline thermoplastic
 Introduction to Plastics
Amorphous Thermoplastics
• Consists of polymer strands that are in a disorganized fashion – not arranged.
• They have low heat resistance but are tough at low temperatures.
• They are clear due to lack of structure.
• They are used to make plastic windows and lighting fixtures.
• Semi-crystalline thermoplastics
• Consist of polymer strands that are arranged in order or a combination of crystalline
structure mixed with amorphous areas.
• The amount of crystalline vs. amorphous structure determines the physical characteristics of
the plastic.
• The greater the crystalline organization, the opaquer the material becomes.
• Semi-crystalline thermoplastics exhibit greater strength, stability, heat resistance, and
chemical resistance than their fully amorphous counterparts
 Introduction to Plastics

What are the application of Thermoplastics ?

 Introduction to Plastics
Uses of Thermoplastics
• Blow molding - process uses compressed air to force molten plastic
resin into a pre-fabricated mold to create bottles, containers, cases, and
other hollow parts and components.
• injection molding
• Consumer goods – cups, toys, packaging etc.
• Automotive components
• Engineering and mechanical parts
• Medical equipment
• Storage containers
• Packaging materials
 Properties of Plastics
• STRENGTH - The plastics are sufficiently strong and can be used for load bearing
structural members. The strength of plastics can further be increased by reinforcing them
with various fibrous materials.
• WEATHER RESISTANCE - The plastics, prepared from phenolic resins, are only
good in resisting weather effects. Certain plastics are seriously affected by ultraviolet
light.
• FIRE RESISTANCE - Plastics, being organic in nature, are combustible. But the
resistance to fire temperatue depends upon the plastic structure. Cellulose acetale
plastics burn slowly. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics are non-inflammable. Phenol
formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde plastics are used as fire proofing materials.
• DURABILITY - Plastics generally possess sufficient durability, provided they offer
sufficient surface hardness. Thermoplastic varieties are found to be attacked by termites
and rodents.
• DIMENSIONAL STABILITY - Plastics easily maintain its shape and do not go under
plastic deformations.
 Properties of Plastics
• CHEMICAL RESISTANCE - Plastics offer great resistance to moisture, chemicals and
solvents. Many plastics are found to possess excellent corrosion resistance. Plastics are
used to convey chemicals.
• THERMAL RESISTANCE - The plastics have low thermal conductivity and therefore
foamed or expanded varieties of plastics are used as thermal insulators.
• GOOD WORKABILITY - All operations like drilling, sawing, punching, clamping etc
are carried out easily on plastics, just like wood.
• MOISTURE RESISTANCE - This property depends upon variety of plastics used, for
example, cellulose plastics are considerably affected by the presence of moisture,
whereas polyvinyl chloride plastics offer high resistance to moisture.
• DUCTILITY - Plastics, generally, have low ductility and hence plastic structural
members may fail without prior warning.
 Introduction to Plastics

What are the advantages of using plastics ?

 Advantages of using Plastics
• Aesthetics - Plastics are available in variety of colors, both
opaque and transparent.
• Plastics possess excellent insulating property, so used as electric
insulators.
• No finishing requirement - Plastics are clean, light and shining,
so they need not be given any finish such as painting, polishing
etc.
• They possess good optical and sound absorption qualities.
• Durability w.r.t molecular structure and use
• Workability – easy to mold and shape
• Cost effective – w.r.t maintenance
 Disadvantages of using Plastics
• Not bio-degradable
• Low durability for thermoplastics under extreme load
• Cost intensive especially for thermosets
• They carcinogenic – chemical intensive especially in production
• Pollution – they pollute the general environment
• Low Thermal resistant based on molecular structure
• Energy intensive – During production and recycling.