Self-study Course

for Trainers of
Intercultural
Mediators

Module 5

Cultural and
anthropological
issues

Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawla II w

Krakowie
© TIME project partnership, 2016

www.mediation-time.eu

Development of document:
Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawla II w Krakowie

Editing of document:
Olympic Training and Consulting Ltd, www.olympiakokek.gr

This project has been funded with support from the European
Commission. The TIME project reflects the views only of the
author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any
use which may be made of the information contained therein.

2
Table of Contents

1. Objectives of module ...........................................................................4

2. Culture - the diversity of the concept ........................................................5
2.1 Definitions .........................................................................................5
2.2 Culture as a system ..............................................................................6
2.2 Material and non-material aspects of culture .............................................. 10
3. The individual, societal and national identity ............................................. 12
4. Typologies of culture and cultural diversity process ..................................... 13
4.1 The dimensions of cultural differences – Hofstede ........................................ 13
4.2 Individualism and collectivism – Triandis ................................................... 14
4.3 The dimensions of cultural differences – Gesteland....................................... 15
4.4 Schwartz ......................................................................................... 16
4.5 Typology of cultures according to Alfons Trompenaars ................................... 18
5. Multiculturalism................................................................................ 21
5.1 Definition ........................................................................................ 21
5.2 Positive and negative appearances of multiculturalism .................................. 21
6. Cultural integration and assimilation ....................................................... 23
6.1 Integration ...................................................................................... 23
6.2 Assimilation ..................................................................................... 23
6.3 Acculturation.................................................................................... 24
6.4 Culture shock ................................................................................... 25
7. Cultural relativism and tolerance in intercultural communication ..................... 29
8. Conflict of cultures and ethnic conflict .................................................... 32
8.1 Cultural conflict ................................................................................ 32
8.2 Conflict prevention ............................................................................ 33
8.3 Ethnic conflict .................................................................................. 35
9. Anthropological sources of barriers to intercultural communication .................. 38
9.1 Ethnocentrism .................................................................................. 38
9.2 Stereotypes...................................................................................... 38
9.3 Discrimination .................................................................................. 41
9.4 Stereotypes in the media ..................................................................... 45
10. Selected reading ............................................................................... 48

3
1. Objectives of module
This module helps the trainer become aware of the impact cultural and anthropological
factors have on the host society, the migrant attitudes and behaviors, and the intercultural
mediation process. The trainer will be assisted in knowing, analyzing and reflecting on
characteristics of his own society and the origin countries of the most populous migrant
communities. This will enable the trainer to design his presentation in a cultural-sensitive
and practice-related manner.

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

 put into practice selected concepts of culture in order to analyze cultural

misunderstandings;
 better understand needs, behavior and difficulties of people who work with
immigrants;
 assess the reliability of resources related to cultural knowledge in terms of
stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination;
 identify the factors intensifying and soothing acculturation stress from the migrant
and the host society perspective;
 recognize your own stereotypes and how stereotyping is manifest in the behavior of
others

4
2. Culture - the diversity of the concept

2.1 Definitions

The most popular and known definition of culture is the one created by Edward Taylor:
“Culture, civilization is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society.”

Culture was defined earlier as the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and artifacts that are
part of any society. As this definition suggests, there are two basic components of culture:
ideas and symbols on the one hand and artifacts (material objects) on the other. The first
type, called non-material culture, includes the values, beliefs, symbols, and language that
define a society. The second type, called material culture, includes all the society’s physical
objects, such as its tools and technology, clothing, eating utensils, and means of
transportation.

„Culture is the outward expression of a unifying and consistent vision brought by a

particular community to its confrontation with such core issues as the origins of the
cosmos, the harsh unpredictability of the natural environment, the nature of society, and
humankind’s place in the order of things.” —Edward Hall

„Culture is an integrated system of learned behavior patterns that are characteristic of

the members of any given society. Culture refers to the total way of life for a particular
group of people. It includes [what] a group of people thinks, says, does and makes—its
customs, language, material artifacts and shared systems of attitudes and feelings.”
—Robert Kohls

„Culture is the shared set of assumptions, values, and beliefs of a group of people by
which they organize their common life”. — Gary Wederspahn

While culture has many definitions, most observers agree on certain fundamental
characteristics.

http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cultural-services/articles/culture.html

https://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/globalpad/openhouse/interculturalskills/global_
pad_-_what_is_culture.pdf

5
2.2 Culture as a system

In cross-cultural psychology culture is understood as a system of values, norms and behaviors

characteristic of particular groups and nations. Not everyone shares the same values and
behaves in accordance with accepted standards, but everyone recognizes it as a
characteristic of the group.

Cultural differences are the differences in the values guiding human behavior, in standards,
ways of behavior and communication recognized by a particular cultural group as right ones.

Culture as an iceberg

When talking about culture we deal with a rather limited “visible” proportion of concepts
that we are aware of (language, works of art, dress, food and beverages etc.), and a rather
large “invisible”, subconscious area of concepts that characterize our lives and ourselves as
human beings (values and attitudes, for example).

Culture has been aptly compared to an iceberg. Just as an iceberg has a visible section above
the waterline, and a larger, invisible section below the water line, so culture has some
aspects that are observable and others that can only be suspected, imagined or intuited.
Also like an iceberg, that part of culture that is visible (observable behavior) is only a small
part of a much bigger whole.

Graph 1: The iceberg concept of culture.

Source: AFS Intercultural Programs Inc.

6
The analogy of “culture as an iceberg” (Brembeck 1977, quoted in: Lazar et. al. 2007:7; and
Chase et al. 1996, quoted in: Roche 2001:20) is illustrated in:
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/pestalozzi/Source/Documentation/Pestalozzi2_EN.p
df (p.19)

Another metaphor assumes that culture is structured hierarchically in “layers of building

blocks” like a pyramid (Hofstede 1994, quoted in: Lázár et al. 2007:7). Hofstede “in his
pyramid model differentiates three levels of ‘software of the mind’: universal, cultural and
personal. He admits that trying to establish where exactly the borders lie between nature
and culture, and between culture and personality is a challenge”.

Graph 2: The pyramid concept of culture

personal
level

cultural level

universal level

http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/pestalozzi/Source/Documentation/Pestalozzi2_EN.p
df

Symbols

Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something else and that often
evoke various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal
communication, while other symbols are material objects.

7
Probably all societies have nonverbal symbols we call gestures, movements of the hand, arm,
or other parts of the body that are meant to convey certain ideas or emotions. However, the
same gesture can mean one thing in one society and something quite different in another
society.

The meaning of a gesture may differ from one society to another. This familiar
gesture means “OK” in Western Europe and the United States, but in certain
parts of Europe it signifies an obscenity.

Other objects have symbolic value for religious reasons. Three of the most
familiar religious symbols in many nations are the cross, the Star of David, and
the crescent moon, which stand for Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, respectively. Whereas
many cultures attach no religious significance to these shapes, for many people across the
world they evoke very strong feelings of religious faith. Recognizing this, hate groups have
often desecrated these symbols.

As these examples indicate, shared symbols, both nonverbal communication and tangible
objects, are an important part of any culture but also can lead to misunderstandings and
even hostility. These problems underscore the significance of symbols for social interaction
and meaning.

Language

Language is crucial to communication and thus to any society’s culture. Children learn
language from their culture just as they learn about shaking hands, gestures, and the
significance of the flag and other symbols.

Language, of course, can be spoken or written. One of the most important developments in
the evolution of society was the creation of written language. Some of the preindustrial
societies that anthropologists have studied have written language, while others do not, and
in the remaining societies the “written” language consists mainly of pictures, not words.

Graph 3: The presence of written language (percentage of societies)

Source: Data from Standard

Cross-Cultural Sample.

8
 1. ‘Hello’ in different languages
This is a fun, warm-up, cross-cultural activity. The group
tries to come up the word(s) for "hello" in as many different
languages as possible.
http://wilderdom.com/games/descriptions/HelloInDifferent
Languages.html

2. The story of my name

Where does your name come from? Share the story of where
your name comes from and what your name means. Helps to
build intercultural respect and understanding.
http://wilderdom.com/games/descriptions/NameStory.html

Norms

Cultures differ widely in their norms, or standards and expectations for behaving. Norms are
often divided into two types, formal norms and informal norms. Formal norms, also called
mores and laws, refer to the standards of behavior considered the most important in any
society.

Rituals

Different cultures also have different rituals, or established

procedures and ceremonies that often mark transitions in the
life course. As such, rituals both reflect and transmit a
Among the
culture’s norms and other elements from one generation to
Bemba of Zambia, girls
the next. Initiation and commencement ceremonies in undergo a month-long
colleges and universities are familiar examples of time- initiation ceremony called the
honored rituals. In many societies, rituals help signify one’s chisungu, in which girls learn
gender identity. For example, girls around the world undergo songs, dances, and secret
various types of initiation ceremonies to mark their transition terms that only women know.
to adulthood. Boys have their own initiation ceremonies,
some of them involving circumcision.

Values

Values are another important element of culture and In Japan a central

involve judgments of what is good or bad and value is group harmony. The Japanese
desirable or undesirable. A culture’s values shape its place great emphasis on harmonious
norms. social relationships and dislike
interpersonal conflict.

9
Sources:

Preschool in Three Cultures. Japan, China, and the United States. J.J. Tobin, D.Y.H. Wu, D.H.
Davidson, Department of Family Studies, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New
Hampshire 03824 1989, USA, Japan.
Goodman N., Introduction to sociology, 1995.
Richards A., Chisungu: A Girl's Initiation Ceremony among the Bemba of Zambia, 1982.
Lundy, G. F. (2003). The Myths of Oppositional Culture. Journal of Black Studies, 33 (4), 450-467
Hall T. E. , Poza kulturą, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2001.
Matsumoto D, L. Juang L. (red.), Psychologia międzykulturowa, Gdańskie Wydawnictwo
Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2007.
Borowiak, A., Szarota, P. (red.) (2004) Tolerancja i wielokulturowość. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo
SWPS Academica.
Szopski, M. (2005) Komunikowanie międzykulturowe. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i
Pedagogiczne.
Goodman N. - Wstęp do socjologii. Przekład Jędrzej Polak, Janusz Ruszkowski, Urszula Zielińska.
2001, Zysk i S-ka.

Recommended videos:

1. Weisse Massai. Hermine Huntgeburth, Germany, drama, 2005

2. Blond Diamond. Edward Zwick, USA, drama, 2006
3. Baraka. Ron Fricke, Constantine Nicholas, Genevieve Nicholas, USA, 1992
4. My Big Fat Greek Wedding. Joel Wick, Nia Vardalos, USA, Canada, 2002
5. L’auberge espagnole. Cedric Klapish, Spain, France, 2002
6. Preschool in Three Cultures. Japan, China and the United States. Joseph J.
Tobin, David Y. H. Wu, Dana H. Davidson, USA, Japan

2.2 Material and non-material aspects of culture

Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to
define their culture. These include homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches,
synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production,
goods and products, stores, and so forth. All of these physical aspects of a culture help to
define its members' behaviors and perceptions.

Non‐material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that people have about their culture,
including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. For
instance, the non‐material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs
about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture
responds to its religious topics, issues, and events.

10
 Social organization:
http://www.upet.ro/annals/economics/pdf/2012/part3/Prodanciuc
_2.pdf p.208-209

Culture and identity:

http://www.sociology.org.uk/sc_shop_pdf/sc_AS4AQA_culture_e.pd
f

Recommended video:

Material and non-material culture:

http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-culture-material-and-nonmaterial-
culture.html

Sources:

Giddens A. (2006) “Sociology” (5th edition): https://pl.scribd.com/doc/212750572/Anthony-Giddens-

Sociology-5th-Edition
J.H. Turner, Revolt from the Middle: Emotional Stratification and Change in Post-Industrial Societies,
pdf:http://www.3dmaileffects.com/book/PzSaBAAAQBAJ/Revolt-from-the-Middle-
Emotional-Stratification-and-Change-in-Post-Industrial-Societies

Key-words:

Material culture, nonmaterial culture, norms, symbols, taboos, language, values

Questions for reflection:

 What are the observable and invisible aspects of culture?

 How and why does the development of language illustrate the importance of
culture?

11
3. The individual, societal and national identity

The definition of cultural identity, in its most basic form, is a sense of belonging. A shared
sense of companionship that involves the same beliefs, interests and basic principles of
living. When a person identifies with their culture, they often embrace traditions that have
been passed down for years. The cultural identity that relates to a person’s heritage helps
them to identify with others who have the same traditions and basic belief system.

Cultural identity theory involves several aspects of a person’s being. Their race, nationality,
gender, location, age, gender, sexuality, history and religious beliefs are put together to
form a cultural identity. By combining each of these elements, a theory is created as to why
a person acts and behaves the way they do. By bringing all of these elements together, a
theory is formed as to a person’s true identity.

Sources:

Jones, F. L.; Smith, P., Individual and Societal Bases of National Identity. A Comparative Multi-Level
Analysis, European Sociological Review, Jun2001, Vol. 17 Issue 2, p103.
Baumann, G., Contesting Culture: Discourses of Identity in Multi-ethnic London. 1996, Cambridge
University Press.
Brubaker, R. and Cooper, F. (2000). Beyond Identity. Theory and Society, 29, 1-47;
Berking, H. (2003). ‘Ethnicity is Everywhere: On Globalization and the Transformation of Cultural
Identity. Current Sociology, 51 (3/4), 248-264.
National Identity and Attitudes towards Migrants:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001425/142588E.pdf
Tsuladze, L. How Things are Remade Georgian: Globalization and the Assertion of “National” among
Georgian Youth: http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/wp-
content/uploads/2011/02/tsuladzeipaper.pdf

Key-words:

National identity, cultural identity, individual, ethnic

Questions for reflection:

 What is the meaning of cultural identity?

 What is the role of culture in the construction of identities?

12
4. Typologies of culture and cultural diversity process
The behavior of people in a particular culture are associated with the applicable rules and
principles of them. Researchers have identified specific cultural dimensions, thus
contributing to a typology of culture. Influential typologies were proposed, among others,
by Hofstede, Triandis, Gesteland, Schwartz, and Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars.

4.1 The dimensions of cultural differences – Hofstede

Geert Hofstede, a Dutch social psychologist, became famous as a researcher of the
relationship between organizational culture and national culture. Geert Hofstede defined
culture as “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one
group or category of people from others”. In 1980 he published his book “Culture’s
Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values”. As the title suggests, this
book was entirely devoted to the study of culture at the national level, in which values
played a major role. The book’s main innovation was its use of the concept (paradigm) of
dimensions of culture: basic problems to which different national societies have over time
developed different answers.

Based on studies conducted in the late sixties and seventies of the twentieth century among
employees of IBM's employees in dozens of countries, Hofstede showed that certain patterns
of thinking, feeling and behavior that distinguishes the members of one organization from
another (organizational culture), are characteristic of members of a nation. Hofstede
recognized the following dimensions of national cultures (see Graph 4):

 Power distance
 Individualism/Collectivism
 Masculinity/Femininity
 Uncertainty Avoidance
 Long-Term Orientation

 http://www.geerthofstede.nl/research--vsm.aspx
 https://geert-hofstede.com/tl_files/The%20Hofstede%20Multi-Focus%20Model.pdf
 Geert Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors,
Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. Second Edition, Thousand Oaks CA:
Sage Publications, 2001 - https://geert-hofstede.com/books.html
 Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede and Michael Minkov, Cultures and
Organizations: Software of the Mind. Revised and Expanded 3rd Edition. McGraw-
Hill 2010.
 Video: Hofstede's Dimensions of Culture - Explained Easily
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6gJzRS0I7tA

13
 Graph 4: Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.

4.2 Individualism and collectivism – Triandis

Harry Triandis explores the constructs of collectivism and individualism. Collectivists are
closely linked individuals who view themselves primarily as parts of a whole, be it a family,
a network of co-workers, a tribe, or a nation. Such people are mainly motivated by the norms
and duties imposed by the collective entity. Individualists are motivated by their own
preferences, needs, and rights, giving priority to personal rather than to group goals.

14
Triandis challenges the view that psychology is universal, offering evidence for culture-
specific influences on thought and action. We learn that the cultural patterns represented
by individualism and collectivism lead people to view their worlds through different lenses,
attaching different meanings to life events. Triandis explains how these variations in
meaning can help us better understand why crime rates, divorce rates, levels of self-esteem,
feelings of well-being, and indeed overall behavioral patterns can be so different from one
society to another.

 http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic1230873.files/CulturalInfluences.pdf
 Individualism-Collectivism and Personality. Harry C. Triandis:
http://130.18.86.27/faculty/warkentin/SecurityPapers/Merrill/Triandis2001_JOP69
_6_Allocentrism.pdf

4.3 The dimensions of cultural differences – Gesteland

Richard Gesteland distinguishes between the following types of cultures:

 Deal-focus vs. relationship-focus

 Informal vs. formal
 Rigid-time vs. fluid-time
 Expressive vs. reserved

It should be mentioned that this distinction was developed mainly in an international

business context. However they can help in recognizing cultural features and interpreting
behavior in other contexts as well.

In deal-focus cultures little time is spent on building the atmosphere and people rapidly
move to the heart of the meeting. People in deal-focus cultures are fundamentally task-
oriented. Examples of such cultures are the Scandinavian and Germanic cultures. In
relationship-focus cultures maintaining good relations and avoiding conflicts is of greatest
importance. People try to 'save face', that is, their dignity, and they are not inclined to do
business with strangers. Examples of such cultures are Arab and Asian countries.

In informal cultures people feel embarrassed when they have to deal with big differences
in social and professional status. This type of egalitarian cultures can be found e.g. in
Australia or Scandinavia. In formal cultures ceremonial relations are an important way of
showing respect, appreciating differences in social status and professional hierarchy. Great
importance is assigned to the title a person has. Such type of culture can be found in most
Asian countries, in some European countries and the Arab world. It is easy to understand
why people can feel easily offended when they encounter a person that adopts a completely
different attitude to hierarchy than they do.

15
In rigid-time cultures punctuality and keeping the schedule is of extreme importance.
People who are not punctual are considered irresponsible, undisciplined or even lazy. On
the contrary, in fluid-time cultures people are more relaxed about time and scheduling,
focusing more on people around them.

In reserved cultures people tolerate silence, the distance between human beings equals to
the length of the arm, and there is little touch contact. Intense eye contact is avoided and
facial expressions are limited. This can be seen in countries of Southeast Asia, in the
Germanic countries and the Nordic countries. In expressive cultures people behave loudly,
often interrupt each other, and shorten the distance, often touching each other. Long eye
contact is normal and there are vivid hand gestures. Countries with very expressive cultures
are the Mediterranean and Latin American.

 Cross-cultural Business Behavior by Richard R. Gesteland PDF ebook:

http://king.wpmonthly.com/47825-free-online-download-books-richard-r.-
gesteland.html
 Video: Richard Gesteland seminar about Cross Culture –
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rQTu6sqbfXk

4.4 Schwartz

Shalom Schwartz, an Israeli sociologist, identifies seven cultural values in three pairs, usually
arranged in a circle:

 Embeddedness vs. Autonomy (affective and intellectual)

 Mastery vs. Harmony
 Hierarchy vs. Egalitarianism
Here is a brief discussion of these dimensions.

Embeddedness: This is a focus on sustaining the social order, of avoiding change and
retaining tradition. It is significant where people are living or working closely with others
and where conformance with group norms is important. Embeddedness cultures value
tradition, security, obedience.

Autonomy: The opposite of embeddedness is autonomy, where individuals have control over
their choices as opposed to having to consider others and shared rules. In practice, autonomy
is about freedom as opposed to the policed control of embeddedness culture.

Autonomy is divided into two types: affective and intellectual. Affective Autonomy is the
independent pursuit of pleasure, seeking enjoyment by any means without censure. In many
societies there are limits when affective autonomy leads to taking banned substances or
acting in ways that distresses or harms others. Intellectual Autonomy is the independent
pursuit of ideas and thought, whether it is theoretical, political or whatever. In

16
embeddedness cultures it is hard to police what people are thinking, though actions can be
taken to monitor intellectual publishing and discussions.

Mastery: In a mastery culture, individuals seek success through personal action. This may
benefit the person and/or the groups to which they belong, sometimes at the expense of
others. Mastery needs independence, courage, ambition, drive and competence.

Harmony: In a harmony culture, rather than seeking self-improvement, people are happy to
accept their place in the world. People here put greater emphasis on the group than on the
individual.

Hierarchy: In hierarchical cultures, there is a clear social order, with some people in
superior positions while others are in inferior positions. People here accept their position in
the hierarchy and are expected to be modest and have due self-control.

Egalitarianism: In the egalitarian culture, everyone is considered to be equal and everyone

is expected to show concern for everyone else.

As all culture typologies, this model can be used as a lens to try to understand different
national cultures.

Graph 5: Schwartz’s model of values.

Source: https://auniversewithin.wordpress.com/2015/01/02/are-you-a-misfit-in-your-own-country-
your-values-vs-cultural-values/

17
  A Theory of Cultural Value Orientations: Explication and Applications. Shalom H.
Schwartz:
http://lepo.it.da.ut.ee/~cect/teoreetiline%20seminar%2023.04.2013/Schwartz%202
006.pdf
 http://alangutterman.typepad.com/files/cms---schwartzs-cultural-dimensions.pdf

4.5 Typology of cultures according to Alfons Trompenaars

According to Fons Trompenaars, cultural differences will create a better understanding of

reality. For an insight into the biggest differences and how organizations are affected by
these differences, Fons Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner developed a cultural model that
distinguishes seven dimensions. These dimensions are:

1. Universalism vs. Particularism

2. Communitarianism vs. Individualism
3. Neutral vs. Emotional
4. Defuse vs. Specific Cultures
5. Achievement vs. Ascription
6. Human-Time relationship
7. Human-Nature relationship

http://www.toolshero.com/organization/trompenaars-cultural-
dimensions/#Introduction_Trompenaars_cultural_dimensions

1. Description of an Icebreaker & Get-to-know-you Activity

Active, fun group activity to explore and celebrate the rich

diversity of people's past experiences. Works well with large
groups.

http://wilderdom.com/games/descriptions/HaveYouEver.html

2. Diversity activities for young and adults

http://extension.psu.edu/4-h/members/projects-
resources/diversity/diversityactivities.pdf

18
 Cultural awareness quizzes
Test your general knowledge of culture awareness, capitals, countries, etc.
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/culture-tests.html

Country etiquettes guides

Various countries listed, including language, useful phrases, society, culture, business
and social etiquettes
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/country-profiles.html

Country insights
Learn about the cultures of almost any country. Provides free information on history,
culture, economy, media and links to more information.
http://www.intercultures.ca/cil-cai/countryinsights-apercuspays-eng.asp

How much cultural intelligence do you have?

http://gugin.com/how-much-cultural-intelligence-do-you-have/

Sources:

Hofstede, G. (1996). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hofstede, G. Cultures and Organizations: http://www.novsu.ru/file/1092483
Harry C. Triandis, Individualism & Collectivism, Westview Press, 1995.
A Theory of Individualism & Collectivism:
http://www.gelfand.umd.edu/Individualism%20and%20Collectivism.pdf
Schwartz, S. H. (2006). As transnational education programmes continue to proliferate, A Theory of
Cultural Value Orientations: Explication and Applications. Comparative Sociology, 5/ 2-3,
138-180.
Hampden-Turner, Ch., Trompenaars, F. (1997). Riding the Waves of Culture. New York: McGraw-
Hill; http://ocan.yasar.edu.tr/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Riding-the-waves_Part-1.pdf
Clotaire Raspaille, The Culture Code, Broadway Books, 2006.
Culture matters: http://files.peacecorps.gov/multimedia/pdf/library/T0087_culturematters.pdf
Hofstede G, Kultury organizacje. Zaprogramowanie umysłu, PWE, Warszawa 2000 (PL).
Richard R. Gesteland, Różnice kulturowe a zachowania w biznesie, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN;
2000.

Recommended videos:

1. Japanese Culture in regards to Hofstede and Gesteland:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GtPdmfRw1Y0
2. Richard Gesteland seminar about Cross Culture:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rQTu6sqbfXk

19
Key-words:

Typologies of culture, cultural diversity, individualism, collectivism, multiculturalism

Question for reflection::UTHOR(S)

 How can we understand how our behavior affects others?

20
5. Multiculturalism

5.1 Definition

Multiculturalism is a system of beliefs and behaviors that recognizes and respects the
presence of all diverse groups in an organization or society, acknowledges and values their
socio-cultural differences, and encourages and enables their continued contribution within
an inclusive cultural context which empowers all within the organization or society.

Multiculturalism: What does it mean?

http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-12381027

Recommended videos:
1. Multicultural education: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjqB21rnYfE
2. Multiculturalism: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UhGsy3QUSow

5.2 Positive and negative appearances of multiculturalism

Multiculturalism gives members of the cultures that are brought together a taste of what
others have to offer. As people come together, different ideas are shared and others can
learn things from cultures, things they would not have known about at all if there had not
been more than one culture in their society. Some of us may not realize it but many foods
we eat, clothes we wear or even games we play belong to another culture.

As with most things in life, there are positives and negatives to multiculturalism. Social,
ethnic and religious tensions, racism, ethnocentrism, and assimilation are among the
most prominent negatives. But they are in no case the only ones.

Spend some time in a multicultural society and you will soon be aware that multiculturalism,
along with its vibrant colors and tasty foods, brings also the barrier of language. The barrier
of language leads to low self-confidence in newcomers to a society, driving them to find
members that belong to their culture and to confine themselves to the comfort zone of their
own culture group, a tendency known as segregation. Some, for many and varied reasons,
may find it hard to integrate properly into the new society which can often cause
unemployment. The struggle to survive may see such people turning to petty crime and other
criminal activities such as drug-dealing, illegal prostitution, the selling of counterfeit or
pirated goods and a lot of other organized crime as well.

Multiculturalism and stereotypes:

http://www.slideshare.net/Rency97/multiculturalism-and-stereotypes

21
Side effects of multiculturalism:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235366854_Side_Effects_of_Multiculturalism

Mediation and multicultural reality:

http://www.operationspaix.net/data/document/6163~v~mediation_and_multicultural_rea
lity.pdf

Key-words:

Multiculturalism, multicultural education, propaganda, racism, unity

Questions for reflection::UTHOR(S)

 What do you think are the most positive aspects of multiculturalism?

22
6. Cultural integration and assimilation

6.1 Integration

Integration is a process through which migrants and refugees become acceptable to the
community. The challenge of integration is to find a balance between a) respect for the
cultural values and identity of migrants and refugees and b) creating a sense of belonging.

As part of the support and actively create a duality of culture, migrant can connect elements
of both cultures, for example, fluent in both languages, have friends from both cultures, to
celebrate the holidays celebrated in each of them, convey to children the value of each of
them, and shape them bilingualism and biculturalism. This strategy is considered to be the
best in pluralistic societies that promote multiculturalism.

Integration is defined as a process of developing a society in which all the social groups share
the socioeconomic and cultural life. The integration of the communities is facilitated by the
factors that help assimilation.

Alcott Parsons defined integration as a mode of relation of the units of the system by virtue
of which on the one hand they act collectively to avoid disrupting the system and making it
impossible to maintain the stability and on the other hand to cooperate to promote its
functioning as a unity. He believed that the kinship group, family, profession, the state and
religion are visible social structures and these perform the function of integration in various
forms. (sociologyguide.com)

6.2 Assimilation

Assimilation in anthropology and sociology, the process whereby individuals or groups of

differing ethnic heritage are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society. The process
of assimilating involves taking on the traits of the dominant culture to such a degree that
the assimilating group becomes socially indistinguishable from other members of the society.
As such, assimilation is the most extreme form of acculturation. Although assimilation may
be compelled through force or undertaken voluntarily, it is rare for a minority group to
replace its previous cultural practices completely; religion, food preferences, proxemics
(e.g., the physical distance between people in a given social situation), and aesthetics are
among the characteristics that tend to be most resistant to change. Assimilation does not
denote “racial” or biological fusion, though such fusion may occur
(http://www.britannica.com/).

Migration and Integration:

http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_40562-1522-2-30.pdf?150227063413

23
Benchmarking in Immigrant Integration:

http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/e-library/documents/policies/legal-
migration/pdf/general/benchmarking_final_en.pdf (6-9)

Difference between integration and assimilation:

http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-integration-and-vs-assimilation/

Immigrant integration:

http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/e-library/documents/policies/legal-
migration/pdf/general/benchmarking_final_en.pdf

6.3 Acculturation

What does acculturation mean? When individuals or groups of people transition from living a
lifestyle of their own culture to moving into a lifestyle of another culture, they must
acculturate or adapt to the new culture's behaviors, values, customs, and language. The
word 'acculturation' is the act of that transition.

From Paris to Cairo. Resistance of the Unacculturated:

http://ambassadors.net/archives/issue19/opinions2.htm

Unity and diversity in multicultural societies: http://ilo-

mirror.library.cornell.edu/public/english/bureau/inst/download/1parekh.pdf

Debate in Science: The Case of Acculturation:

http://www.anthroglobe.info/docs/rudminf_acculturation_061204.pdf

Cultural Assimilation or Multiculturalism:

http://www.lotsofessays.com/viewpaper/1697219.html

Recommended videos:

1. Theories of acculturation:
http://study.com/academy/lesson/acculturation-definition-theory-
examples.html
2. Acculturation processes:
http://study.com/academy/lesson/acculturation-processes-substitution-
syncretism-addition-deculturation-origination.html
3. Schumman's acculturation model:

24
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ES1DQ_j6BQM
4. Acculturation video lecture:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7PI9cqgNHHs

6.4 Culture shock

When individuals are exposed to a new and unfamiliar surrounding with a different culture
they often tend to say: “Oh, what a culture shock it was.”

Culture shock is defined as “the trauma you experience when you move into a culture
different from your home culture”. In 1960 the Finnish anthropologist Kalvero Oberg was the
first to apply the term culture shock for all people travelling abroad to new cultures, even
though the phenomena of culture-shocked individuals had been known beforehand.

Source: http://www.munichbusinessschool.de

“Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs
and symbols of social intercourse. These signs include the thousand and one ways in which
we orient ourselves in the situations of daily life” (K. Oberg). These signs and symbols
represent the above mentioned characteristics of a culture like language, religion or art and
usually give us a sense of orientation and guideline. When losing these signs individuals may
feel distressed, insecure or helpless.

25
Graph 6: Culture shock

Graph 7: Symptoms of culture shock

26
Culture shock, re-integration and re-entry culture shock: Managing cultural differences

http://www.munichbusinessschool.de/intercultural/index.php?title=Culture_shock%2C_Re-
Integration_and_Re-Entry_culture_shock_-_Managing_Cultural_Differences&redirect=no

Recommended videos and films:

1. Culture shock: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G69Ix9nM6JU

2. Dirty Pretty Things. Director: Stephen Frears, English drama, 2002 - An illegal
Nigerian immigrant discovers the unpalatable side of London life.
3. The Secret Life of Words. Director: Isabel Coixet, Spanish drama film, 2005 -
Taciturn, partially deaf Hanna (Polley) is a Yugoslavian native working in a
factory in Northern Ireland.

Sources:

Crispino, James A. (1980). The Assimilation of Ethnic Groups: The Italian Case. Center for Migration
Studies; e-book: http://artechokebooks.com/24270067-get-the-assimilation-of-ethnic-
groups-the-italian-case-by-james-a-crispino-free-pdf-epub-book.html
Grauman, Robert A. (1951). Methods of studying the cultural assimilation of immigrants. University
of London.
Kazal, R. A. (1995). "Revisiting Assimilation". American Historical Society.
Neuliep J. W., Intercultural Communication, Sage Publications 2006; M. Winkelman, Cultural Shock
and Adaptation, Arizona State University Department of Anthropology.
Adler, P. (1987). Culture shock and the cross-cultural learning experience. In L. Luce & E. Smith
(Eds.), Toward internationalism (pp. 24-35). Cambridge, MA: Newbury.
Berry, J.W. (1994). Aculturative Stress. [w:] W.J. Lonner, R.S. Malpass (red.) Psychology and
culture. Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon, 253–257.
Bochner, S. (1994). Culture Shock. [w:] W.J. Lonner, R.S. Malpass (red.) Psychology and culture.
Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon, 245–249.
Ward, C., Bochner, S., Furnham, A. (2001). The psychology of culture shock. London: Routledge.
Kownacka, E. (2006), Od szoku do adaptacji: psychologiczne konsekwencje wyjazdu za granicę. w:
D. Cieślikowska, E. Kownacka, E. Olczak, A. Paszowska-Rogacz (red.) Doradztwo zawodowe
a wyzwania międzykulturowe. Warszawa: KOWEZiU, s. 39–63.
Ząbek M., Między piekłem a rajem. Problemy adaptacji kulturowej uchodźców i migrantów w
Polsce. Warszawa 2002. Wydawnictwo Trio.
Grzymała-Moszczyńska, H., Kownacka, E. (2005). Szok kulturowy – zło konieczne? Alma Mater, 7:
http://www3.uj.edu.pl/alma/alma/71/01/18.html

Key-words:

Integration, assimilation, acculturation, acculturative stress, culture shock

27
Questions for reflection:

 Have you ever experienced culture shock?

 How do you feel when someone makes fun of your culture?

28
7. Cultural relativism and tolerance in intercultural communication

Cultural relativism is the view that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the
individual within his own social context. In other words, “right” and “wrong” are culture-
specific; what is considered moral in one society may be considered immoral in another,
and, since no universal standard of morality exists, no one has the right to judge another
society’s customs.

Cultural relativism is widely accepted in modern anthropology. Cultural relativists believe

that all cultures are worthy in their own right and are of equal value. Diversity of cultures,
even those with conflicting moral beliefs, is not to be considered in terms of right and wrong
or good and bad. Today’s anthropologist considers all cultures to be equally legitimate
expressions of human existence, to be studied from a purely neutral perspective.

Anthropology, cultural relativism, and universal rights:

http://home.sandiego.edu/~baber/gender/culturalrelativism.html

Understanding cultural relativism:

http://sociology.about.com/od/C_Index/fl/Understanding-Cultural-Relativism.htm

Cultural relativism and universal human rights:

http://anthropology.si.edu/outreach/anthnote/Winter98/anthnote.html

Cultural relativism: Interpretations of a concept:

http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1089205/cultural_relativism_interpretations_of_
a_concept/

Recommended videos:

1. Cultural relativism:
http://study.com/academy/lesson/cultural-relativism-in-sociology-
definition-argument-examples.html

2. Cultural Relativity, ethnocentrism & the rights of humans:

http://study.com/academy/lesson/cultural-relativity-ethnocentrism-the-
rights-of-humans.html

29
Tolerance

Tolerance is not a passive or silent acceptance of differences; it is inseparable from respect

for fundamental human rights. It is a constant commitment to facilitating exchanges and
dialogue, despite difficulties and a lack of understanding which can lead to inward-looking
attitudes. It is a call to question prejudice and commonly-held beliefs.

“Tolerance isn't about not having beliefs. It's about how your beliefs lead you to treat
people who disagree with you.” ― Timothy Keller

“In the practice of tolerance, one's enemy is the best teacher.” ― Dalai Lama XIV

“Tolerance implies no lack of commitment to one's own beliefs. Rather it condemns the
oppression or persecution of others.” ― John F. Kennedy

“The only way to make sure people you agree with can speak is to support the rights of
people you don't agree with.” ― Eleanor Holmes Norton

“If civilization is to survive, we must cultivate the science of human relationships - the
ability of all peoples, of all kinds, to live together, in the same world at peace.”
― Franklin D. Roosevelt

“No one is born hating another person because of the color of his skin, or his background,
or his religion. People must learn to hate, and if they can learn to hate, they can be
taught to love, for love comes more naturally to the human heart than its opposite.”
― Nelson Mandela

International Day of Tolerance:

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/events/prizes-and-
celebrations/celebrations/international-day-for-tolerance/

Teaching tolerance:
http://www.tolerance.org/sites/default/files/general/Teaching_tolerance_39.pdf

Recommended video:

What is tolerance? - Definition, types and examples

http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-tolerance-definition-types-
examples.html

30
Sources:

M.N. Kokarevich, Model of Tolerance of Intercultural Communication, 2014:

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042814067226
Fernandez, James W. 1990. "Tolerance in a Repugnant World and Other Dilemmas in the Cultural
Relativism of Melville J. Herskovits." Ethos 18:2, June 1990, pp. 140-164.
Sam Harris, Islam and the Future of Tolerance: A Dialogue, 2015.
A. Borowiak, P. Szarota (red.), Tolerancja i wielokulturowość, Wydawnictwo SWPS Academica,
Warszawa 2004.
M. Szopski, Komunikowanie międzykulturowe, Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, Warszawa
2005.

Key-words:

Tolerance, cultural relativism, human rights, intercultural communication

Question for reflection:

 Why should we tolerate other people?

31
8. Conflict of cultures and ethnic conflict

8.1 Cultural conflict

Cultural conflict is a type of conflict that occurs when different cultural values and beliefs
clash. Culture and conflict are inextricably linked. However, this does not mean that cultural
differences inevitably produce conflict. When problems surface, between or within cultures,
it is often a response to difficulties in dealing with differences. Whether it pertains to racial,
religious, political, social, or economic matters, difference is often a source of fear and
misunderstanding. The source of conflict often involves sifting through a complex, tightly
woven web of factors. These factors are embedded in specific historic, political, and social
contexts. Understanding the motivations behind any struggle requires expanding and
challenging preconceived assumptions. These are not easy tasks, especially when viewed
from outside the particular cultural context.

Cross-cultural conflict and challenging interactions may involve a person behaving in any of
the following ways towards another person on the basis of their cultural or linguistic
background:
 name calling
 use of offensive language
 degrading comments in reference to a person's ethnicity, culture, religion or
background
 ridicule based on a person's physical appearance
 teasing or put downs
 shouting/abuse/aggressive language
 excluding/isolating/ignoring

Being subjected to any of the above behaviors can make a person feel:
 angry
 upset/sad
 ashamed
 frightened
 isolated
 intimidated

32
8.2 Conflict prevention

The key to effective cross-cultural communication is knowledge. First, it is essential that

people understand the potential problems of cross-cultural communication, and make a
conscious effort to overcome these problems. Second, it is important to assume that one’s
efforts will not always be successful, and therefore the need will arise to adjust one’s
behavior appropriately.

For example, one should always assume that there is a significant possibility that cultural
differences are causing communication problems, and be willing to be patient and forgiving,
rather than hostile and aggressive, if problems develop.

Active listening can sometimes be used to check this out – by repeating what one thinks he
or she heard, one can confirm that one understands the communication accurately. If words
are used differently between languages or cultural groups, however, even active listening
can lead to misunderstandings.

Often intermediaries who are familiar with both cultures can be helpful in cross-cultural
communication situations. They can translate both the substance and the manner of what is
said. For instance, they can tone down strong statements that would be considered
appropriate in one culture but not in another, before they are given to people from a culture
that does not talk together in such a strong way. They can also adjust the timing of what is
said and done. Some cultures move quickly to the point; others talk about other things long
enough to establish rapport or a relationship with the other person. If discussion on the
primary topic begins too soon, the group that needs a "warm up" first will feel
uncomfortable. A mediator or intermediary who understands this can explain the problem,
and make appropriate procedural adjustments.

Successful conflict resolution comprises three aspects:

 Desire and necessity for the conflict to be resolved

 Understanding of possible barriers to the resolution of the conflict
 The choice of method of conflict resolution

In order to intervene effectively, intermediaries or intercultural mediators must:

 have self-awareness of their own cultural practice, including prejudice,

stereotyping and bias
 understand various cultural factors contributing to cultural differences
 be sensitive and appreciate a migrant’s migration experience
 have a good knowledge of, and skills in, communication
 be able to work with interpreters
 be willing to accept and appreciate other cultures

33
Methods of conflict resolution

Different people might accept different conflict resolution methods, so it is important to

use methods or approaches that are suitable to all parties and enlist the help of acceptable
people in resolving cross-cultural conflicts.

To resolve conflicts arising from cultural differences, you need to:

 Identify the similarities and differences between your cultural practice and
those of the person in conflict with you
 Acknowledge the differences and attempt to balance the interests of both
parties

Culture and conflict: http://www.powerofculture.nl/en/theme/conflict

Managing conflicts across cultures: challenges to practitioners

http://www.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol2_2/leeds.htm

Cultural diversity, conflict and pluralism. World culture report, 2000, UNESCO:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001210/121058e.pdf

Walasek H., Bosnia and the Destruction of Cultural Heritage, pdf:

http://www.academia.edu/3157454/Bosnia_and_the_Destruction_of_Cultural_Heritage

Communication Between Cultures, 8th Edition. Larry A. Samovar, Richard E. Porter,

Edwin. R. McDaniel & Carolyn S. Roy. Publisher: Monica Eckman:
http://www.cengagebrain.com.au/content/9781133980889.pdf

Sources:

Eller J. D., From Culture to Ethnicity to Conflict. An Anthropological Perspective on Ethnic Conflict,
pdf: http://veolorase.ru/maqexy.pdf
Haroun er Rashid, Conflict of Cultures: Lessons from Bosnia, The University Press Limited (UPL) ,
1998;
Fellman M., Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri During the American Civil War. Oxford
University Press, 1990, p. 15., pdf: http://www.ippostrouth.com/download-pdf-inside-war-
the-guerrilla-conflict-in-missouri-during-t-nfe/
LeBaron, Michelle and Bruce Grundison, Conflict and Culture: Research in Five Communities in
British Columbia, Canada. Victoria, British Columbia: University of Victoria Institute for
Dispute Resolution, 1993, e-book: http://download-textbook.com/2698161-ebook-conflict-
and-culture-research-in-five-communities-in-vancouver-british-columbia-by-michelle-
lebaron-download-pdf-mobi-free.html
Lebaron M., Bridging Cultural Conflicts: A New Approach for a Changing World. Jossey-Basss, San
Francisco, 2003, e-book: http://phevinei.ru/xenyd.pdf
Mayer B., The Dynamics of Conflict Resolution: A Practitioner’s Guide. Jossey-Bass Inc, San
Francisco, 2000, pdf:

34
 http://orgwise.ca/sites/osi.ocasi.org.stage/files/resources/The%20Dynamics%20of%20Confli
ct%20Resolution.pdf

Recommended videos:

1. What is culture conflict? - Definition, theory and example:

http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-culture-conflict-definition-theory-
example.html
2. Son of Babylon. Mohamed Al Daradji, drama film, 2009. A willful young boy
follows his just as obstinate grandmother in a journey across Iraq, determined
to discover the fate of her missing son, Ahmed's father, who never returned
from war. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dLDFlrVev6k

8.3 Ethnic conflict

Ethnic conflict is a form of conflict in which the objectives of at least one party are defined
in ethnic terms, and the conflict, its antecedents, and possible solutions are perceived along
ethnic lines. The conflict is usually not about ethnic differences themselves but over
political, economic, social, cultural, or territorial matters. Ethnic conflict is one of the major
threats to international peace and security.

Examples of ethnic conflicts since the 1990s that were mostly caused
by secessionist movements leading to the breakup of multi-ethnic states along ethnic lines
are: the Yugoslav Wars, the First Chechen War, the Nagorno-Karabakh War, the Rwandan
Civil War, the War in Darfur, and the Internal conflict in Myanmar, among others.

Source: http://www.transconflict.com/

35
Iran's Biggest Worry: Growing Ethnic Conflict. Time, article:
http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1931402,00.html

Murky Area of Ethnicity and World Order, article:

http://theviewspaper.net/murky-area-of-ethnicity-and-world-order/

Ethnic conflict, presentation: http://www.slideshare.net/andreamalji/ethnic-conflict-

correct

Causes of Ethnic Conflict: Examining the Role of Religious Diversity and Contagion Effects,
Mai Nguyen: http://www.creighton.edu/fileadmin/user/CCAS/docs/Mai_Nguyen.pdf

On the Theory of Ethnic Conflict: http://personal.lse.ac.uk/casellif/papers/ethnic.pdf

Sources:

Leaning Jennifer, Bartels Susan, and Hani Mowafi, Women, Migration and Conflict Breaking a Deadly
Cycle, 2009, p. 174, e-book: http://www.teamtaurus.co.uk/wp/women-migration-and-
conflict-breaking-a-deadly-cycle/
MacKinnon A. Catharine, “Rape, Genocide, and Women’s Human Rights”, Mass Rape: The War
Against Women in Bosnia – Herzegovina, ed. Alexandria Stiglmayer, University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln and London, 1993, p. 190;
Horowitz, Donald L., Structure and Strategy in Ethnic Conflict , 1998, pdf:
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DEC/Resources/84797-1251813753820/6415739-
1251813951236/horowitz.pdf
Varshney, Ashutosh (2002). Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life : Hindus and Muslims in India. New Haven:
Yale University Press, pdf: http://ashutoshvarshney.net/wp-
content/files_mf/varshneyethnicityandethnicconflict.pdf
Kaufman, Stuart J. (2001). Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic politics of ethnic war. Ithaca: Cornell
University Press. p. 17, e-book: http://go.beststoremoz.com/view?filename=Modern-
Hatreds%3A-The-Symbolic-Politics-Of-Ethnic-War-%28cornell-Studies-In-Security-
Affairs%29.%5BKILLERS%5D.zip&q=Modern+Hatreds%3A+The+Symbolic+Politics+of+Ethnic+Wa
r+%28Cornell+Studies+in+Security+Affairs%29&group=titst3&source=pdf-grbooks5
Olzak, Susan, Dynamics of Ethnic Competition and Conflict. Stanford: Stanford University Press,
1992, e-book: http://ebook-aktuell.com/22001329-pdf-book-the-dynamics-of-ethnic-
competition-and-conflict-by-susan-olzak-download-book-pdf-epub.html

36
 Recommended videos:

1. Ethnic Conflict between Hutus and Tutsis:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IHBzkR6L94s

2. Bosnian War: the Death of Yugoslavia | History Documentary:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pt5n2381Fzc&nohtml5=False

3. Sudan's 22 year war: the longest conflict in Africa:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nKzpUCv5Olo&nohtml5=False

Key-words:

Culture conflict, ethnic conflict, ethnic war

Question for reflection:

 What are the causes of ethnic conflicts?

37
9. Anthropological sources of barriers to intercultural
communication

9.1 Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is a key concept in anthropology and refers to the tendency to look at the
world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture. It often includes the belief that
one’s own culture is better than the other cultures. Within this ideology, individuals will
judge other groups in relation to their own particular ethnic group or culture, especially
with concern to language, behavior, customs, and religion.
Ethnocentrism may be overt or subtle, however it has usually negative connotations. It is a
major reason for divisions amongst members of different ethnicities, races, and religious
groups in society. Ethnocentrism is expressed through multiple forms of chauvinism and
prejudice, including nationalism, tribalism, racism, and even sexism and disability
discrimination. Ethnocentrism occurs everywhere and everyday at both the local and
political levels. It is opposed to cultural relativism described in section 7.

Sources
Ethnocentrism, E. Baylor, http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-
9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0045.xml

“Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism.” Boundless Sociology. Boundless, 12 Jul. 2016. Retrieved 17
Oct. 2016 from https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-
textbook/culture-3/culture-and-society-29/ethnocentrism-and-cultural-relativism-186-4770/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocentrism

http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-ethnocentrism.html#2OT7MWhj4KIDJHhd.99

9.2 Stereotypes
The most general definition of stereotype is: “A generalized belief about groups of people,
especially their psychological traits and personality.” (Matsumoto D., Juang L: Culture
and Psychology, 5th Edition, 2013)
Once formulated stereotypes are hard to change due to new information. Stereotypes can
be both positive and negative. Stereotype is, for example, the belief that “Poles are stealing
cars”; “The Japanese are very gifted mathematically”; “Muslims are terrorists.” If we add
the emotional component, we get prejudice - for example: “I do not want to have as a
neighbor a Pole, I am afraid that in the area cars will disappear”; “I wish my child to go to
class with a baby Japanese, because they are hard-working children”; “we do not want the
Muslims, they are dangerous.” If it comes to this particular behavior, you can talk about
discrimination.
Stereotypes start in our mind automatically. We are not able to completely get rid of them.
It must be remembered that the stereotypes give an incomplete and largely erroneous

38
picture of reality. Therefore, whenever we realize that we begin to think in stereotypes, we
should try to question them. Otherwise we can be easily fooled by our own prejudice.

Prejudice is a tendency to formulate hasty judgments about others based on their group
membership. In other words, people perceive others only through the prism of stereotypes.

If, therefore, we are prejudiced towards some group of people, we may feel negative
emotions during contact with them, e.g. fear, resulting in a reluctance to communicate with
them. Negative emotions may lead to negative actions, for example to avoid contact. In this
case we are talking about discrimination.

A stereotype is a normal and inevitable consequence of our daily cognitive functioning (van
der Berghe, 1981), but prejudice and discrimination are NOT.

Prejudices are often linked to discrimination, but not always! According to Merton (1968):
People free from prejudice can discriminate others or not, and people prone to
discrimination may but don’t have to be biased. A possible change of stereotypes depends
on how new information (incompatible with stereotypes) is presented (Weber and Crocker).

Why is it hard to change stereotypes?

The origin of stereotypes

Stereotypes are formed by various factors at different levels.
At the overall socio-political and socio-cultural level:

▪ These are factors that have their origin, for example, in the historical
development of political relations between one’s own country and another
country or countries, where “the others” come from (national stereotypes).

At institutional level:

▪ In institutions and areas of general socialization, such as the family/social

milieu/peer group/work/school/media/personal experiences, opinions and
convictions concerning the “image of the others” are passed on.

At an individual level:

▪ Factors such as age, gender, general knowledge of the world, special knowledge
and experience, intellectual capacities, interest and motivation, may play a role
in our individual view of “the others”. It is obvious that even in a given socio-
culture the “view of the others” may vary considerably according to these
individual factors.

39
Stereotyping and impression formation: How categorical thinking shapes person
perception: http://kimberlyquinn.net/QuinnEtAl_SAGEHandbook_2003.pdf

Recognition of own stereotypes

In order for us to be able to move beyond our own biases and be able to apply critical thinking
skills to our evaluations of individuals, we must first be able to recognize and address our
own stereotypes. If we can recognize our own stereotypes, we can then identify the
questions we must ask that inform us about the true individual.

Susan T. Fiske and Michael S. North. Measures of Stereotyping and Prejudice: Barometers of
Bias, in pdf:
http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/1605966/24201752/1389641568813/North_Measures
.pdf?token=Lu71xAD0WIDflesEMjrPiFLnr6A%3D

Recommended films: Stereotypes and prejudices

1. Nikogarsnja zemlja. Danis Tanović, 2001

2. Blauäugig. Bertram Verhaag, 1996
3. Color Purple. Steven Spilberg, Menno Meyjes, USA 1985
4. Crush. Paul Haggis, Paul Haggis, Robert Moresco, USA, Germany, 2004

Sources
Kofta, M., Jasińska-Kania, A. (red.) (2001) Stereotypy i uprzedzenia. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo
Naukowe Scholar.
Bokszański Z., Stereotypy a kultura; Fundacja na Rzecz Nauki Polskiej, Wrocław 1997.
Dovidio, J. F., Brigham, J. C., Johnson, B. T i Gaertner, S. L. (1999). Stereotypizacja, uprzedzenia i
dyskryminacja: spojrzenie z innej perspektywy. [w:] Macrae, C. N., Stangor, Ch. i
Hewstone, M. (red.), Stereotypy i uprzedzenia (s. 225-260). Gdańsk: GWP – do przeczytania
strony: 225-234.
Mackie, D. M., Hamilton, D. L., Susskind, J. i Rosselli, F. (1999). Społeczno-psychologiczne podstawy
powstawania stereotypów. [w:] Macrae, C. N., Stangor, Ch. i Hewstone, M. (red.),
Stereotypy i uprzedzenia (s. 39-65). Gdańsk: GWP.
Stangor, Ch. i Schaller, M. (1999). Stereotypy jako reprezentacje indywidualne i zbiorowe. [w:]
Macrae, C. N., Stangor, Ch. i Hewstone, M. (red.), Stereotypy i uprzedzenia (s. 13-36).
Gdańsk: GWP.

40
9.3 Discrimination

Discrimination refers to unequal treatment, unjustified by any legitimate reasons. Each

discriminatory act is a violation of the principle of equality as well as fundamental rights
and freedoms of a person.

Often racial and ethnic prejudice lead to discrimination against the subordinate racial and
ethnic groups in a given society. Discrimination in this context refers to the arbitrary denial
of rights, privileges, and opportunities to members of these groups. The use of the word
arbitrary emphasizes that these groups are being treated unequally not because of their lack
of merit but because of their race and ethnicity.

Exclusion and rejection are key ingredients in discrimination. They occur when people do
not appreciate diversity or differences. They occur when people are prejudiced or have
formed their own opinion about others because of their social, political, religious, sexuality,
interests, culture, traditions, and so on.

Types and categories of discrimination

Direct discrimination arises if a person has been, is or would be treated less favorably than
other persons in a comparable situation on grounds of a prohibited motive (racial or ethnic
origin, religion, sex, disability, age or sexual orientation). For example, in a job
announcement the employer clearly states that non-indigenous people will not be employed.
In practice, such an explicit form of discrimination rarely occurs. The implicit forms of
unequal treatment arise more often.

Indirect discrimination arises if an apparently neutral provision, criterion or practice puts

a person or a group of persons at a particular disadvantage compared with other persons
unless that provision, criterion or practice is objectively justified by a legitimate aim and
the means of achieving that aim are appropriate and necessary.

41
Positive discrimination occurs when the state applies temporary solutions, introduces a
practice or implements a specific legal means in order to equalize opportunities of persons
belonging to particular minority groups, e.g. foreigners, in order to diminish factual
instances of unequal treatment they receive. Such form of discrimination is legitimate, yet
it may be applied but in a particular time and context because it may turn into discrimination
of persons from majority groups that used to be privileged before.

Discrimination based on race: Racism can be defined as a conscious or unconscious belief

in the superiority of one race over other another. This definition presupposes the existence
of different biologic ‘races’, a supposition now dispelled by recent research, especially the
human genome project. However, although ‘race’ is clearly a social construct, racism is
nonetheless prevalent throughout the world. Although few people believe any longer in a
‘superior race’ with an inherent right to exercise power over those considered ‘inferior’,
many people continue to practice cultural racism or ethnocentrism, believing that some
cultures, usually their own, are superior or that other cultures, traditions, customs and
histories are incompatible with theirs.

Discrimination based on xenophobia: In response to growing globalization and diversity of

society, some people respond with xenophobia, a fear or aversion to foreigners or foreign
countries. In most cases the concept of ‘foreign’ is based on socially constructed images
and ideas that reduces the world to ‘us’, the normal, ‘good ones like me’, and ‘them’, the
others who are different: a threat, a disruption, representing a degradation of values and
proper behavior.

Discrimination based on ethnicity and culture: As with cultural racism, which holds that
certain cultures are superior to others, discrimination based on ethnicity and culture regards
some cultures, usually minorities, as inherently inferior or undesirable. Historically,
European Jews and Roma have suffered most from this form of discrimination.

Discrimination based on religion: Freedom of religion is officially respected in Europe, yet

discrimination based on religion is nevertheless prevalent, often inextricably linked with
racism and xenophobia.

Types of discrimination graph: http://visual.ly/types-discrimination

Examples of discrimination
 Refusal to employ a person because of his/ her foreign nationality, though of the same
or higher qualifications in comparison to other candidates
 Refusal to rent a flat to a person because of his/ her foreign nationality
 Humiliating, degrading treatment of a person of a different color by abusing, scorning,
accosting or infringing on his/ her physical inviolability
 Refusal to let a person of a different ethnic origin in a club, restaurant or a shop

42
Exceptions from the rule of equal treatment
There are exceptions from the rule of equal treatment in cases concerning employment. If
there are specific criteria for a post to be met by a candidate, i.e. to be of a particular race,
speak a particular language, belong to a particular religious group, then differential
treatment is not seen as discrimination. For instance, for a particular role an Asian actor
with a very good command of Vietnamese is needed or in a restaurant serving food typical
of a particular region or culture a waiter with a particular appearance, emphasizing the
place’s authenticity is looked for.

Speaking of discrimination it is important to note that:

 People who practice racial or ethnic discrimination are usually also prejudiced,
but not always. Some people practice discrimination without being prejudiced,
and some may not practice discrimination even though they are prejudiced.
 Individual discrimination is common and can involve various kinds of racial
slights. Much individual discrimination occurs in the workplace.
 Institutional discrimination often stems from prejudice, but institutions can also
practice racial and ethnic discrimination when they engage in practices that seem
to be racially neutral but in fact have a discriminatory effect.

Discrimination is often based on ignorance, prejudices and negative stereotypes. Because

many people fear what seems strange or unknown, they react with suspicion or even violence
to anyone whose appearance, culture or behavior is unfamiliar.

Most minor instances of discrimination result from natural human instincts to feel more
comfortable around other people with similar traits. Discrimination can also result from
ingrained beliefs in society that people with certain traits are inferior in some ways.

Discrimination sometimes occurs when a group in power wants to protect its turf. Those in
political power in some countries have used discrimination and segregation to hold their
power positions. Discrimination against women sometimes stems from the desire of men in
an organization to maintain the status quo. In some cases, people discriminate against others
based on the perception that their lifestyles or behaviors are immoral.

Quotations

„Discrimination due to age is one of the great tragedies of modern life. The desire to
work and be useful is what makes life worth living, and to be told your efforts are not
needed because you are the wrong age is a crime”.
- Johnny Ball

"I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where
they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character."
- Martin Luther King

43
 "Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world."

- Nelson Mandela

 Intolerance, Prejudice and Discrimination – report: http://library.fes.de/pdf-

files/do/07908-20110311.pdf
 „Discrimination in the EU. Perception and experiences of discrimination in the areas
of housing, healthcare, education, and when buying products or using services”,
Analytical Report 2008: http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash/fl_232_en.pdf
 „Handbook on European non-discrimination law”, podręcznik Agencji Praw
Podstawowych Unii Europejskiej:
http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2011/handbook-european-non-discrimination-
law

Recommended videos:

1. What is Discrimination? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_POFVY0O4Vc

2. Nelson Mandela – Mini Biography
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UqoYmx_L-Xs
3. Martin Luther King, Jr. - Mini Bio
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ank52Zi_S0
4. Jane Elliott (renowned anti-discrimination educator):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-pv8mCHbOrs
5. Stereotypes, Prejudice & Discrimination:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewE2K8A7Ddw
6. Anti-Discrimination Advert:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7wr3ujTt89A
7. Anti-Racial discrimination: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
WIZNrFR2oE
8. Disability Discrimination: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sN8EbBpxy10
9. Discrimination:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A7VbzzfMAuc&feature=related

Sources:

Bokszański Z., Stereotypy a kultura; Fundacja na Rzecz Nauki Polskiej, Wrocław 1997.
Dovidio, J. F., Brigham, J. C., Johnson, B. T i Gaertner, S. L. (1999). Stereotypizacja, uprzedzenia i
dyskryminacja: spojrzenie z innej perspektywy. [w:] Macrae, C. N., Stangor, Ch. i Hewstone,
M. (red.), Stereotypy i uprzedzenia (s. 225-260). Gdańsk: GWP – do przeczytania strony: 225-
234.

44
Mackie, D. M., Hamilton, D. L., Susskind, J. i Rosselli, F. (1999). Społeczno-psychologiczne podstawy
powstawania stereotypów. [w:] Macrae, C. N., Stangor, Ch. i Hewstone, M. (red.), Stereotypy
i uprzedzenia (s. 39-65). Gdańsk: GWP.
Stangor, Ch. i Schaller, M. (1999). Stereotypy jako reprezentacje indywidualne i zbiorowe. [w:]
Macrae, C. N., Stangor, Ch. i Hewstone, M. (red.), Stereotypy i uprzedzenia (s. 13-36).
Gdańsk: GWP.
Kofta, M. (red.) Myślenie stereotypowe i uprzedzenia. Mechanizmy poznawcze i afektywne.
Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii PAN.

9.4 Stereotypes in the media

Mass media became on of the main sources of popular culture in modern capitalist society.
Media, however, not only entertains and offers news to people, but also transfers the
stereotypes, beliefs and values of the society to reproduce the existing order of social life.

Media stereotype are inevitable, such as movies, advertising, news and entertainment, they
all need to gain as much attraction or attention from audience as possible. And by using
those stereotype in contents, it will be easier and quicker for the audience to understand
and absorb this information. We do stereotype as a way of making sense of our surroundings,
it allows us to understand a complex thing with a minimum of effort.

The media uses stereotypes as a shorthand method of defining characters in ways that are
easy for people to identify and categorize. What these stereotypes all have in common is
that they reduce to a one-sided, superficial and exaggerated depiction the real variety,
depth and complexity of a people. The media today is more sensitive to issues of culture
and gender than it once was, but the creation and perpetuation of common misconceptions
about groups of people continues. Oversimplified and inaccurate portrayals have profoundly
affected how we perceive one another, how we relate to one another and how we value
ourselves.

 The Impact of Media Stereotypes on Opinions and Attitudes towards Latinos:

http://www.latinodecisions.com/blog/wp-
content/uploads/2012/09/RevisedNHMC.Aug2012.pdf
 Paul Martin Lester, Susan Dente Ross, Images that Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in
the Media, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, e-book:
http://qaidecuwy.ru/totasudywy.pdf
 Stereotypes in media, presentation:
http://www.slideshare.net/feelgoodinc2024/stereotypes-in-media-45357129
 Stereotypes in the Media – then and now, prezi presentation:
https://prezi.com/mwhacmlosn-a/stereotypes-in-the-media-then-and-now/
 Common Stereotypes of Minorities in Film and Television, article:
http://racerelations.about.com/od/hollywood/tp/Common-Stereotypes-Of-
Minorities-In-Film-And-Television.htm

45
 Source: www.pinterest.com

Key-words:

Stereotypes, prejudices, ethnocentrism, discrimination, media

Questions for reflection:

 What are the most popular stereotypes in your country? How do you try to react?
 If you have ever experienced individual discrimination, either as the person
committing it or as the person affected by it, briefly describe what happened.
How do you now feel when you reflect on this incident?

46
 Do you think institutional discrimination occurs because people are purposely
acting in a racially discriminatory manner? Why or why not?
 Which stereotypes can lead to discrimination?
 Where do stereotypes come from?
 What are the dangers of stereotyping?
 How are different racial and ethnic groups represented in entertainment,
advertising, and news media?
 How do people learn to make stereotypes? How might they unlearn them?
 How can the media (newspapers, television, movies) help to reduce stereotyping?
 Do you think certain groups are more subject to stereotyping than others? If so, why?
 What do you think an individual can do to help reduce bias and stereotyping?

47
10. Selected reading
English

Books

1. The SAGE Handbook of Social Anthropology. Richard Fardon, Oliva Harris, Trevor H J
Marchand, Cris Shore, Veronica Strang, Richard Wilson, Mark Nuttall (Eds.). 2012 SAGE
Publishing.
2. Kraal, K. (2009). Equal Opportunities and Ethnic Inequality in European Labour
Markets: Discrimination, Gender and Policies of Diversity (IMISCOE Reports).
Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
3. Cornides, J. (2012). Three Case Studies on 'Anti-Discrimination'. European Journal of
International Law, 23(2), 517-542.

Links

1. Culture and Identity. Polity.

http://www.polity.co.uk/browne/downloads/BROWNE%20CHAPTER%202%20v2.pdf
2. Culture and Conflict, Michelle LeBaron
http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/culture-conflict

Dutch

Books

1. Devllieger P. Inleiding tot de sociale en culturele antropologie. Leuven, Acco.

2. Van Leeuwen, B. (2003). Erkenning, identiteit en verschil: Multiculturalisme en leven
met culturele diversiteit. Leuven: Acco.
3. Lessius. Cimic. (2011). Handboek interculturele competentie. Brussel: Politeia.
4. Shadid, W. (2002). Culturele diversiteit en interculturele communicatie. H. van Veghel
(red.), Waarden onder de meetlat: Het Europese waardenonderzoek in discussie. Budel:
Damon bv.
5. Gaublomme, B. (1997). Een Multiculturele Samenleving?: Integratie, Assimilatie of
Culturele Castratie?
6. Loobuyck, P. (2002). Multicultureel burgerschap. Voorbij integratie, assimilatie,
segregatie en marginalisatie. Mores : Pedagogisch Tijdschrift Voor Morele
Problemen, In: Mores : pedagogisch tijdschrift voor morele problemen, (2002)234 ; p.
291-305.
7. Twintig vooroordelen over migranten en een weerlegging. (n.d.). Brussel: Ministerie
van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap.
8. Van Tilborg, C. & Goethals, M. (1997). Wat je zegt ben je zelf! Spelen met thema's:
Een cursus waar vanuit een duidelijke interculturele invalshoek gespeeld wordt
rondom vooroordelen, discriminatie, pesten. Leuven: KUL. Permanente vorming.

48
French

Books

1. Cazenabe, C. (2003). La formation interculturelle: un projet existentiel de

réciprocité. Editions L'Harmattan.
2. Ten Have, H. & Jean, M. S. (2009). UNESCO: La déclaration universelle sur la
bioéthique et les droits de l'homme : Histoire, principes et application. Paris:
Unesco.
3. Gensollen, M. (2012). Défense de la diversité culturelle: Variété ou dialogue?
Reseaux, 175(5), pp. 175-203.
4. Saladin, P. (2006). Diversité et égalité des chances. Les fondements d’une action
efficace dans le microcosme des institutions de santé.

German

Books

1. Selbst-/Reflexion in der Kultur- & Sozialanthropologie (2013, Linska)

2. Interkulturelle Kommunikation: Interaktion, Fremdwahrnehmung, Kulturtransfer
(2012, Lüsebrink)
3. Interkulturelle Kommunikation: Methoden, Modelle, Beispiele (2006, Kumbier)
4. Interkulturelle Kommunikation (2014, Heringer)
5. Interkulturalität und kulturelle Diversität (2013, Moosmüller, Möller-Kiero)
6. Anthropologie kultureller Vielfalt: Interkulturelle Bildung in Zeiten der Globalisierung
(Global Studies) (2006, Wulf)
7. Interkulturelles Handeln zwischen Polizei und Fremden (Münchener Beiträge zur
interkulturellen Kommunikation) (2013, Sterzenbach)
8. Interkulturelles Lernen in Praxis und Theorie (Schriften des Instituts für angewandte
Kommunikationsforschung) (1994, Otten)

Links

1. Bundesministerium des Innern, Migration und Integration:

http://www.bmi.bund.de/DE/Themen/Migration-Integration/migration-
integration_node.htm l
2. Pädagogischer Leitfaden zur Bekämpfung von Diskriminierung und Intoleranz gegenüber
Muslimen
http://www.osce.org/de/odihr/91299?download=true
3. Bekämpfung von Mehrfachdiskriminierung. Praktiken, Politikstrategien und
Rechtsvorschriften
https://www.uni-hamburg.de/beschaeftigtenportal/services/gleichstellung-und-
familie/agg-beschwerdestelle/bekaempfung-mehrfachdiskriminierung.pdf
4. Bekämpfung der Diskriminierung. Ein Schulungshandbuch.
http://www.pro-diversity.de/downloads/train_de.pdf

49
Greek

Books

1. Eriksen, Thomas Hylland. Μικροί τόποι, μεγάλα ζητήματα: Μια εισαγωγή στην
κοινωνική και πολιτισμική ανθρωπολογία. [e-book] Μετάφραση Αθανάσιος Κατσικερός
· επιμέλεια Ιωάννης Μάνος. Αθήνα: Κριτική, 2015.
2. Cuche, Denys. Η έννοια της κουλτούρας στις κοινωνικές επιστήμες. Μετάφραση Φώτης
Σιατίτσας · επιμέλεια Μαίρη Λεοντσίνη, 1η έκδ. Αθήνα: Τυπωθήτω, 2001.
3. Jenkins, Richard. Κοινωνική ταυτότητα. Μετάφραση Χρήστος Λυριντζής. 1η έκδ.,
Αθήνα: Σαββάλας, 2007.
4. Smith, Peter B. & Michael Harris Bond. Διαπολιτισμική κοινωνική ψυχολογία.
Μετάφραση Βιργινία Κάγκου · επιμέλεια Αντωνία Παπαστυλιανού. Αθήνα: Gutenberg -
Γιώργος & Κώστας Δαρδανός, 2011.
5. Τριανταφύλλου, Σώτη. Πλουραλισμός, πολυπολιτισμικότητα, ενσωμάτωση,
αφομοίωση: Σημειώσεις για τη σύγχρονη ανοιχτή κοινωνία. 1η έκδ., Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις
Πατάκη, 2015.

Links

1. http://anthropology.gr
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r33BjvN7Aog
3. http://repository.edulll.gr/edulll/retrieve/3227/933.pdf

Italian

Books

1. Evans-Pritchard, Edward E. (1972). Introduzione all'antropologia sociale. Laterza

publisher
2. Giaccardi Chiara (2005). La comunicazione interculturale. Il Mulino.
3. Ulderico Bernardi (2004). Dalla teoria dell’assimilazione al pluralismo culturale.
Franco Angeli.
4. Jürgen Habermas, Charles Taylor (2002). Multiculturalismo. La Feltrinelli.
5. Ulderico Bernardi (2004). Culture e integrazione. Uniti dalla diversità. Franco Angeli.

Links

1. Percorsi didattici contro la discriminazione. Attività introduttive e giochi di ruolo.

http://www.amnesty.it/flex/files/9/d/a/D.d768527996e63cfd4c59/Amnesty_Discrimi
nazione_Intro.pdf

Polish

Books

1. Hall T. E. , Poza kulturą, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2001

2. Matsumoto D, L. Juang L. (red.), Psychologia międzykulturowa, Gdańskie
Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2007
3. Borowiak, A., Szarota, P. (red.) (2004) Tolerancja i wielokulturowość. Warszawa:
Wydawnictwo SWPS Academica
4. Szopski, M. (2005) Komunikowanie międzykulturowe. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne
i Pedagogiczne

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 5. Goodman N. - Wstęp do socjologii. Przekład Jędrzej Polak, Janusz Ruszkowski, Urszula
Zielińska. 200, Zysk i S-ka
6. Hofstede G, Kultury organizacje. Zaprogramowanie umysłu, PWE, Warszawa 2000 (PL)
7. Richard R. Gesteland, Różnice kulturowe a zachowania w biznesie, Wydawnictwo
Naukowe PWN; 2000

Links

1. http://globalna.ceo.org.pl/sites/globalna.ceo.org.pl/files/m3_migracje_na_swiecie_
0.pdf
2. https://phavi.umcs.pl/at/attachments/2014/0215/130628-17-analiza-migracji-
wewnetrznych-i-miedzynarodowych-na-obszarze-unii-europejskiej-razem-czy-
osobno.pdf
3. https://www.kul.pl/files/602/public/Migravalue/Migr1_pl.pdf

Portuguese

Books

1. Rabaça, Clara, & Cunha, Pedro (2007). Algumas perspetivas sobre imigração: da
imigração económica à integração social. Revista Antropologicas, 10, pp. 299-322.
2. Pais, José Machado (coordenação), 1999. Traços e riscos de vida. Uma abordagem
qualitativa a modos de vida juvenis. Porto: Ambar.pp.146-169
3. Fernandes, Elisabete Pires (2006). Mediação: seu impacto nos jovens mediadores
interculturais: um estudo de caso. Universidade Aberta (Tese de Mestrado)
4. Marinho, Manuela & Amaro, Maria Inês (2000). Estudo de caso 2 – o mediador
intercultural: um agente de interação. Revista Intervenção Social, 22, pp. 49-78
5. Maciel, Cármen (2007). Produção e mediação cultural – um estudo de caso sobre o papel
das associações ligadas aos PALOP em Lisboa. Actas do II Encontro Internacional de
Migrantes Subsarianos na Europa. CESNOVA, Universidade Nova de Lisboa.

Links

1. Cardoso, Maria Manuela Lopes (2008). António Vieira. Pioneiro e Paradigma de

Interculturalidade:
http://www.oi.acidi.gov.pt/docs/Coleccao_Portugal_Intercultural/2_AVieira_Intercul
turalidade.pdf#page=10&zoom=100,-115,98
2. Backström, Bárbara & Castro-Pereira, Sofia (2012). A questão migratória e as
estratégias de convivência entre culturas diferentes em Portugal. RESMI, vol.20, n.38,
pp. 83-100
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1980-85852012000100006&script=sci_arttext
3. Caria, Telmo Humberto (2000). A mediação intercultural no debate sobre a relação
entre ciência e ação social. Revista Educação, Sociedade e Culturas, nº 14, pp. 89-103:
http://www.fpce.up.pt/ciie/revistaesc/ESC14/14-5-telmo.pdf
4. Grassi, Marzia, & Melo, Daniel (2007). Portugal na Europa e a Questão Migratória:
Associativismo, Identidade e Políticas Públicas de Integração. Working Paper, 4,
Lisboa, ICS, Universidade de Lisboa.
http://www.ics.ul.pt/publicacoes/workingpapers/wp2007/wp2007_4.pdf

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