A Guide to Understanding Partial

Discharge Sensor Applications

Dustin Ashliegh

Consultant - Electrical Engineering, Partial Discharge

8 articles
November 7, 2015

This post will familiarize you with many important concepts in partial discharge testing. It
will also help prepare you for PD testing in the field.

Online PD testing is performed in a live substation on energized power apparatus which

remains in service. It is non-invasive and can be performed safely. It is reliable method of
testing insulation in MV and HV substation apparatus. PD tests are highly sensitive to small
insulation defects. It is considered to be more probing in detecting initial insulation problems
than conventional offline tests such and insulation resistance and tan delta. The offline PD
methods described in IEC 60270 are the foundation of online testing, yet online testing is
performed without service interruptions or de-energization.

When considering the efficiency of testing you must look at the time and cost of testing
compared to the value of the information you collect.

As with all Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) technologies, early detection is important.
Usually by the time you can notice something by smell or by temperature, it’s too late. PD
testing gives us the only shot we have at finding all types of insulation defects early without
needing to take an outage for traditional testing.

In a substation, there are many types of apparatus and many types of dielectrics. The
insulating material in any HV asset is constantly exposed to voltage stresses.

There are 5 types of “partial discharges” which are known to occur throughout various
dielectrics.

• Floating Electrode – This type of PD occurs when there is an ungrounded conductor

within the electric field between conductor and ground (or between phases). Floating
electrodes are the most common type of PD found in the field. For example a loose
shield, loose connection, or foreign metal object. They typically have a very strong
UHF emission and a weak ultrasonic emission. TEV and HFCT signals will also be
very strong. Usually this type of PD is less urgent and does not pose an immediate
threat to the power system (fuse clips or arcing contacts etc). Nonetheless, the
problem should be mitigated to minimize the risk. Depending on the situation, it could
be very dangerous and threatening (misplaced wrench, broken metal work,
deteriorating mechanical component, close proximity to SF6 seals etc). It will depend
on the specific location of the defect.
• Void Discharge – Some refer to this as “internal PD”. It occurs in solid dielectrics.
Typically it is a manufacturing defect. Tiny micro-voids can go undetected during
factory tests and commissioning tests. The small voids get stretched out by AC
voltage stresses over long time periods. Water may get inside and give rise to the
growth of a water tree. When the water dries out it becomes an electrical tree. When
an electrical tree exists, there is a heightened risk of failure. The voids can be
detected by ultrasonic contact method, HFCT, or UHF. There is typically not much
of a TEV signal generated, nor airborne ultrasonic emission.
• Surface Tracking – Usually caused by dirty, contaminated, or aged insulator surfaces.
Easy to detect with UHF, Airborne ultrasonic, TEV or HFCT. The ultrasonic dish will
locate the precise location of the surface tracking. There will usually also be some
visible indication such as white powder, green verdigris, or burn marks.
• Corona Discharge- High Voltage stress and dirty or damaged insulators can cause a
discharge to air - ionizing the air. It’s very similar to and can become surface tracking.
Most corona activity will only produce a UHF signal on the negative half-cycle of the
AC sine wave. The UHF sensor will not respond to most benign corona. If overhead
PD or corona is detected with UHF. The direction and magnitude of the UHF sensor
will lead you to the general location of the corona. An airborne ultrasonic dish with
laser pointer will determine the exact location and verify if the corona is on the
insulator or on the conductor. Corona cameras can also see corona by looking into the
UV region of the spectrum – because corona PD produces an emission in the ultra-
violet spectrum.
• PD Detector (UHF/ Ultrasonic) vs. Corona Camera (UV)

Corona will emit UHF signals and Ultrasonic signals. You can detect corona with
UHF sensor. The UHF signal is a radio frequency signal. UHF’s bandwidth is
300MHz to 3GHz. It can travel a long way through air. UHF works well for corona
testing on overhead lines and insulators. If you do detect a corona PD signal on an
insulator, the UHF sensor alone may not tell you which insulator, Multiple UHF
sensors with and an oscilloscope can provide 3D Location (proper equipment and
training is needed). Most handheld PD devices can give a general location. Then
simply use the ultrasonic dish and check the insulator and find the exact source. The
ultrasonic signal will go about 20 meters if there is corona. Sometimes the ultrasonic
signals are very weak, but still strong enough to see if it’s on the insulator or on the
conductor. Corona typically does not cause major problems on conductors. Once the
corona field is on or very near the the insulator is begins to de-sheen, corrode and
degrade the insulation. Over time leading to more serious insulation failures.

In general, the PD test kit has many more applications and uses than a corona
camera. PD Detectors can solve many other insulation problems including corona.
 Typically a corona camera is really good for determining the wash cycles for the
insulator. - decide when they are dirty and when to wash. The PD UHF or the
Ultrasonic dish can also achieve the same goal. Because of the variable gain setting
of corona camera. It may be more reliable and cost effective to use ultrasonic to
detect an ultrasonic emission (Corona) before taking an outage to wash/replace the
insulators. PD detectors run about a quarter of the cost of Corona Cameras.

For long runs of a transmission line, you are probably better to use UV camera on a
drone or on a helicopter. Otherwise it’s going to be a lot of footwork to walk the
whole line. Although, I have had some enjoyable projects with PD equipment and a
quad.

• Particle Discharge- Conductive particles can contaminate fluid dielectric such as oil
or SF6 gas. Particle PD is most common in SF6 gas compartments. The UHF signal
from particle PD is strong but may have some limited resonance with the AC
frequency additionally UHF is reflected by the metal housing the gas or oil thus
making internally mounted UHF sensors preferable if there is no organic materials
for the signals to pass though to an external sensor. The ultrasonic contact probe
should then be used to verify. There is an ultrasonic signature related to particle PD.
The particles tend to bounce because of the changing electric field strength and
direction. This will cause an irregularity in the timing of the ultrasonic pulses. The
analysis is done in an ultrasonic pulse timing mode.

Electromagnetic PD Sensor Technologies: UHF, HFCT & TEV

UHF Ultra High Frequency ( 300MHz - 1500MHz) (Radio Frequency/microwave/UHF

TEV Transient Earth Voltage (3MHz -100MHz)

HFCT High Frequency Current Transformer (0.5MHz - 50MHz)

You can see from the perspective in this chart that the HFCT sensor bandwidth spans into the
MF (medium frequency) band of the EM spectrum. The TEV sensor spans the HF and VHF
ranges. TEV and HFCT band signals can spread out easily because many metal objects are
antennas for long wave radio frequencies. Because of this, it is likely to get a TEV or HFCT
signal from dozens of meters away from the PD activity. The TEV signal can be detected on
most any metal object in the substation. TEV and HFCT sensors are a good indicator that PD
is in the area. But also it is easy for power equipment to pick up high amounts of noise in
these bandwidths. There are techniques which can separate PD signals from noise signals. It
can be done by comparing phase synchronization of the pulse timing. Or the noise can be
filtered according to the frequency of the pulses- because we know PD pulses have very short
durations around 10ns. The UHF emission will transmit through the air in a straight line.
Therefore the directional UHF sensor can lead to the real source of the PD emission. UHF
signals can pass through almost any material except for metals. UHF signals can travel
through tiny seams and gaps in metal enclosures. It is possible to detect UHF, TEV, and
HFCT signals in places where the ultrasonic signals cannot be detected.

Furthermore, if there is a thermal issue associated with the PD and significant heat is
produced, the emission will also span into the infrared range. As the intensity of discharge
increases, the emission can go higher into the visible range. We have all probably seen an
electrical arc before and maybe even felt the heat. In the case of corona discharges, the
emission goes into the UV range. (the ionization of air and the subsequent de-ionization of
the air produces the Ultra-Violet emission) Corona discharges however do not generate
much heat (not much emissions in the infrared range of the EM spectrum).

• TEV Transient Earth Voltage (3MHz -100MHz) In medium Voltage power

equipment, PD will produce emissions in the radio frequency range which are
sustained and can be detected at the surfaces of enclosures such as metal-clad
switchgear, man holes, vaults. This low energy signal is similar to the primary UHF
pulses, but they spread out more quickly. For this reason it is very difficult to locate
origin of a TEV signal. The TEV sensor is a capacitive coupler which is typically
built into a PD detection unit. The TEV sensor is reliable for indicating most types
of PD in metal-clad switchgear. But it also responds to noise from lighting systems
and EM "disturbances". Void type PD will typically not generate much TEV range
signal. Also PD inside of fluid dielectrics such as transformer oil will not produce a
detectable TEV emission. It’s important to use UHF, HFCT and ultrasonic sensor
data in synthesis with TEV in order to see the whole picture and draw an accurate
conclusion about the asset’s insulation health.

• UHF Ultra High Frequency (300MHz - 1500MHz) (RF/radio/microwave range) -

Every time a PD event occurs, electromagnetic waves are emitted. This emission may
also be called RFI or EMI. (Radio Frequency Interference or Electro-Magnetic
Interference) The PD emission is a broadband electromagnetic emission which can
range from the upper radio frequency range up into the microwave range. Research
and experience has concluded the UHF range from 300MHz – 1500MHz is the most
ideal bandwidth to probe for PD defects in MV and HV power systems.
All types of partial discharges will produce electromagnetic emissions in the UHF
range. In most cases, the UHF emission is detectable with the UHF sensor. The UHF
pulses are going to be emitted from the site of the PD defect and will spread in all
directions through air and through most materials. However the signal cannot travel
through metals. Metal enclosures will shield the UHF emission. The signal can escape
through tiny cracks, gaskets, and seals and then spread out into the air. This pulse will
occur each time the sine wave reaches a positive or negative peak amplitude. Thus the
 UHF pulses will occur with intervals equal to ½ AC cycle time. (for 60Hz : 1/60 =
16.66ms 16.66/2 = 8.33ms , for 50Hz one cycle is 20ms and 20ms/2= 10ms) So to
prove that a UHF could be from a PD activity, we can show that there is a 180 degree
separation (8.33ms or 10ms) between the UHF pulses. This is the function of (time
resolved or “phase resolved” measurements). These phase-resolved measurements
are made in real-time and serve as the basis for quick PD detection in the field.

In some cases such as inside of a power transformer the UHF emission may be completely
shielded by sealed metal enclosures. Internal UHF sensors are available in a permanent
version or a valve type. Fortunately, the UHF signal will also induce a high frequency current
pulse onto the grounds of the apparatus. The high frequency current pulse will be detectable
with a special High Frequency CT (HFCT).

• HFCT High Frequency Current Transformer (0.5MHz - 50MHz) When PD occurs,

a UHF electromagnetic signal is produced from the site of the defect. Once that signal
hits the ground shield or case ground, it will travel dozens of meters along the ground
path in the form of high frequency current pulses in the range from 500kHz to
50MHz, Usually centered near 10MHz. High Frequency Current Transformers are a
reliable method to measure these high frequency PD pulses. They are especially
useful for quickly testing for internal PD in a large area such as an entire power
transformer or an entire cable, or even an entire substation. The HFCT sensors
typically are a split core and so it’s simply clamped around any grounding
lead. HFCT sensors have a distinct advantage of being able to detect PD signals on
cables from long distances up to 1km away (this limit depends on the type of ground
shield). This means multiple PD signals and noise signals can also be detected from
many points on the ground grid where a grounding lead is exposed. In cable PD
testing, the localization of PD via the HFCT sensor is achieved by determining the
time difference between the arrival of the initial PD pulse, and the reflected pulse
which has bounded off of the opposite end of the cable from where you are
testing. The speed of the pulses on the ground shield is similar to the speed of light.
 Exact signal speeds are known for various cable types. Knowing the speed, the cable
length, and the time difference of arrival between the initial pulse and the reflected
pulse enables the calculation of the distance to the PD. Online Cable PD testing
instruments have functions to identify these pulses and perform the distance
calculation.

• Ultrasonic Partial Discharge Signals - (AE) Ultrasonic Emissions: Each time a PD

event occurs, an ultrasonic emission is produced at the site of the defect. The
ultrasonic emission may range from audible up to ultrasonic 300kHz.
• Airborne Ultrasonic Parabolic Dish Concentrator, Internal, and Ultrasonic Extension
Wand, 16kHz-80kHz, center frequency 40kHz. Each time a PD event occurs, an
ultrasonic emission is produced at the site of the defect. The emissions are typically in
the ultrasonic range from 16kHz - 300kHz and may also extend lower into the audible
range. If the defect is close to the surface, then the ultrasonic signal will spread out
and become airborne. The airborne ultrasonic signal may be detected by one or more
of the 3 types of airborne ultrasonic sensors which are commonly used. One type
is built into the main handheld PD test unit. Parabolic dish concentrators are used to
extend the distance range of the ultrasonic microphone. Also the extension wand type
can be used to listen in hard to reach seams of switchgear cabinets or other
enclosures. When airborne ultrasonic PD signals are detected on visible insulator
surfaces, the parabolic dish enables very quick and precise pinpointing of the PD
location. When airborne ultrasonic signals are detected within enclosures, it is not
immediately possible to determine the exact location of the PD without acoustic
electric time of flight technology and multiple sensors. Three ultrasonic contact
sensors can be used to triangulate the signal origin. Airborne ultrasonic is best for
detecting corona PD and surface tracking PD. Floating electrode PD will also produce
a weak airborne ultrasonic signal.
• Ultrasonic Contact Probe 20kHz - 300kHz The ultrasonic contact probe is ideal for
detecting and localizing partial discharges in fluid dielectrics such as oil and SF6 gas
compartments. This is sometimes called “in-tank” testing. Each time a PD event
occurs, an ultrasonic emission is produced at the site of the defect. If the defect is
inside of sealed equipment such as a transformer or SF6 compartment, then the signal
will (usually) not become airborne.
Fluid and solid dielectrics such as oil, SF6, and resins, will permit ultrasonic PD
signals up to around 300kHz. However, air can only permit ultrasonic signals up to
around 100kHz. To use the ultrasonic/ultrasonic contact probe, we must apply a
silicon high-vacuum gel to the contact probe to bridge the air gap between the exterior
of the tank and the contact sensor. This gel will conduct the PD signal from the
exterior of the tank onto the ceramic head of the ultrasonic contact sensor. Precise PD
localization can be achieved by using 3 or more ultrasonic contact sensors to
triangulate the exact source. This is especially useful when a transformer is producing
acetylene and the engineers need to know exactly where the problem is before a
maintenance outage to drain oil and go inside. Another important application of
ultrasonic localization is in SF6 gas insulated equipment.
What problems can be solved with PD
testing?
Status is offline

11–14 minutes

Is PD testing more sensitive than tan delta? What problems can be solved with PMDT
testing? UHF transmission of early warning signals - Do you know how to receive the
information your equipment is sending you?

PMDT wants to support the power community. Please tell us about specific issues or events
which have caused disruptive failures on your network. PMDT will show you exactly how to
perform an inservice test to be sure it never happens again.

PD Tests are Insulation Integrity Tests on Live Equipment

PMDT provides the solution to many power reliability issues. PMDT can usher you into the
new era of power testing. Here in the heart of Silicon Valley, Power Monitoring and
Diagnostic Technology Ltd. (PMDT) manufactures and supports the world's most advanced
"in-service" insulation test equipment. It is also known as "PD testing", "EMI" testing, or
Online Partial Discharge testing "OLPD".

There is a lot of misunderstanding in the power industry about PD testing. Many engineers
are unaware of the extensive capabilities of OLPD. Some individuals think it's just
"acoustics", but it's actually a combination of acoustic, electric, and electromagnetic
measurements. Offline and online PD have key differences, yet some companies use offline
PD test methods or coupling capacitors to test PD online. This requires de-energization and
installation of expensive equipment. Furthermore, most power engineers are not
informed about the non-invasive OLPD methods such as UHF, HFCT, and ultrasonics. You
can read more about it below.

Only PMDT has mastered the science of UHF sensor technology and its application to
substation equipment. With this technology, PMDT's online PD test methods can be more
sensitive than tan delta and DGA in many cases. In fact if you apply in-service PD along with
your DGA and IR testing, you can verify the integrity of the insulators and the conductors.
Then you can measure mechanical parameters such as "first trip" timing of your breakers.
Finally you must verify instrument transformers and protection systems according to NERC
guidelines (if applicable). After passing all of these tests, then you have covered nearly every
situation which could jeopardize equipment reliability - and it can all be performed while
equipment stays in service! This does not necessarily mean you should stop doing offline
testing, but it does mean you can focus your outages and offline testing on urgent issues.
Furthermore, the new arc-flash safety standards limit the allowed access for infrared
inspections. With in-service PD testing, you will not need to open any cabinets or turn any
wrenches. Its completely non-invasive, quick, and thorough. Please also read the article
below. Its full of good information for power testing professionals.

The following examples are problems that you can solve with In-Service PD Testing -
utilizing PMDT equipment and services. We have many cases like these in which PD testing
has provided information required to warrant an intervention and avert failures and disaster.

1. DGA indicates arcing/discharge in transformer oil.

If you see acetylene and it continues to increase from one sample to the next, then call
PMDT. We can locate it with precision before you take it out of service. There may be short
window of time before you need to de-energize. If you can get a PD test on it while its
gassing, then you can find the exact place where the issue is occurring and make targeted
repairs the first time you go inside. PMDT methodology incorporates UHF, HFCT and 3D
acoustic triangulation to precisely locate discharge issues indicated by DGA. Its not magic.
It's science. * Multichannel PD Diagnostics is required for this function.
2. Cable Termination or Accessory Failure

Many cable failures involve the accessories. They are usually caused by internal voids or
contaminants in the splices and terminations, installer error, incorrect dimensions, or cuts in
the insulation. UHF signals will emanate long before the defect causes the imminent failure.
Find the bad terminations now - instead of after they blow. Terminations and splices can be
completely tested internally from several feet away- even if the termination is inside of a
cabinet. You don't need to open the cabinet. The UHF signals can be detected from outside of
the enclosure. PMDT's Handheld PDetector can test without any service interruption. It's a
good idea to do a check for UHF emissions immediately after the the cable is commissioned
or re-energized. Surface PD can also cause cable terminations to fail. This is caused by
humidity or contamination from the environment. Ultrasonic and UHF signals are detected in
these cases. This is an especially common failure mode for unshielded cables.

3. Water intrusion in a cable may form a water tree.

A water tree is difficult to detect with a PD test or with a tan delta test. If that water tree
evolves into an electrical tree, then PD signals would immediately be detectable with online
PD tests or offline VLF tan delta/PD. The window of time is short before the electrical tree
will cause the cable to fail. So if you are concerned about water damage causing a cable
failure, then you should run the in-service PD test at least once per quarter. For complete
peace of mind, the continuous online monitor system, PDMonitorC, can provide alarms and
notifications for critical cable and accessory defects. The monitor will immediately detect the
onset of an electrical tree which will rapidly cause the cable failure. For spot testing, the
handheld PDetector can detect this issue if the induced noise level on the cable is very low.
However, if the noise level is high or if you need to find the precise location of the defect
along the length of the cable, you will need to use the PDiagnosticC instrument to separate
the noise pulses from the PD pulses. PMDT's unique online cable diagnostic instrument also
has a TDR like function to determine the location of the defect along the cable's length.
Unlike TDR, the PDiagnosticC does not inject a pulse, but rather, it measures the induced
pulses from the PD activity. This enables the location of the defect to be performed on an
energized cable- before it fails.

4. Loose/Arcing Contacts

This common problem may be detected by an infrared test. It will depend on the current
(load), and the location of the problem. Fortunately the UHF signal will be much easier to
detect from outside the cabinet. UHF signals from loose or arcing contacts are very
prominent and easy to detect from 10 feet away with a simple handheld wireless UHF sensor.
PMDT with UHF & HFCT can find loose contacts in breakers, bus, tap changers, or inside of
a transformer. This can be performed with PMDT Handheld PDetector

5. Internal Bushing Failures

When the capacitive layers in a bushing become degraded, a UHF signal will emanate from
nanosecond discharges in-between small portions of the bushing where the electrical field
strength exceeds the breakdown strength of that portion of insulation. Many people believe
that tan delta is the only way to test bushing integrity. But in fact, the UHF sensor can detect
the degradation before the tan delta test will detect it. Most power engineers are not familiar
how to use the UHF technology to solve this problem. PMDT can prove the technology to
you and teach you how to perform the test. Or PMDT can provide expert testing services
onsite. Level 1 bushing tests and station-wide surveys can be performed with the PMDT
Handheld PDetector . In most cases, the handheld PDetector will give us enough information
to solve the problem. In other cases, a level II test is needed to triangulate the PD source.

6. Surface Tracking over the surface of insulation materials

Contaminants like salt in the air, chemical damage, moisture, and dust will provide a
conductive path for the voltage stress to produce PD. This causes failures inside of
switchgear cabinets as well as overhead outdoor equipment. Short (nano-second) bursts of
current will jump across small portions the insulation. The ultrasonic and UHF energy will be
detectable from dozens of feet away. Later it will may become audible and possibly produce
a thermal indication. In low lighting, surface PD may also become visible. Eventually the
current will become continuous and cause a short circuit/ flashover/ failure. This problem is
easy to detect prior to failure with the ultrasonic dish, UHF sensor, HFCT, or TEV. Typically
you can't see it with an IR camera until its too late.

7. PT Failures are an issue that can be prevented.

It's not usually a good idea or simply unsafe to take an oil sample on a PT while it's live.
Internal defects and loose parts (typically caused during shipping)will cause the instrument
transformers to fail. UHF and HFCT sensors can see deep inside and discover the defects
before the equipment fails. The convenience of performing this kind of test online is a major
advantage when a DGA test is not possible online.

8. Breaker Mis-operation and Insulation Degradation

If a breaker's opening speed is too slow, a fault current can destroy your substation very
quickly. Breaker timing tests on the bench are often not as valid as they could be because the
breaker has usually been exercised when removed from service prior to the actual timing test.
In these cases, the dried up lubrication is loosened before the test and the breaker will pass
the timing test because the issue has been masked by the exercise of the mechanism during
the "first trip" out for testing. If you use a "first trip" test, you can measure the timing on the
first time the breaker is operated after a long period of non-operation. This way you can see
the opening speed the breaker would have in a real fault event. Breakers which fail the "first
trip" test can be exercised more frequently or re-lubricated and maintained. PMDT can
provide this kind of test service and also the test equipment required for this type of testing.
Unlike PD testing, the first trip test obviously requires some de-energization since breakers
must be operated. It's a much shorter outage than for a conventional timing test. Another
problem pictured below is insulation degradation in circuit breakers that is not found with
conventional offline test methods. In the case below a GE MagneBlast breaker passed the
traditional insulation resistance testing and overpotential tests but PD testing detected a
serious surface tracking result. Upon visual inspection of the interior of the breaker, the
defect was easily located. (case and photo provided by Western Electrical Services) PD
testing should be a standard Pre-Outage evaluation so that detected defects can be located and
repaired even when conventional tests do not indicate a problem.
9. The list goes on

There are dozens of situations which online PD testing can detect a problem before it
becomes a costly failure. Additionally when IR testing is performed, it's very handy to have a
PD tester to get more information about thermal defects. Also PD can see many issues that IR
cannot detect as most insulation defects do not produce much heat because they are driven by
voltage and not current. The fact that flashovers still occur is evidence there is room for
improvement by incorporating OLPD technology.